Discrete Mathematics

with Proof
Second Edition

Eric Gossett
Bethel University

WILEY
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
To The Student

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1 Introduction
1.1 What Is Discrete Mathematics?
1.1.1 A Break from the Past
1.2 The Stable Marriage Problem
1.2.1 Seeking a Solution
1.2.2 The Deferred Acceptance Algorithm
1.2.3 Some Concluding Comments
1.3 Other Examples
1.3.1 A Simple Counting and Probability Example
1.3.2 Sierpinski Curves
1.3.3 The Bridges f Knigsberg
1.3.4 Kirkman's Schoolgirls
1.3.5 Finite-State Machines
1.3.6 The Set of Rational Numbers Is Countably Infinite
1.4 Exercises
1.5 Chapter Review
1.5.1 Summary
1.5.2 Notation

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2 Sets, Logic, and Boolean Algebras

2.1 Sets
2.1.1 Definitions and Notation
2.1.2 Exercises
2.1.3 Proofs about Sets
2.1.4 Exercises
2.2 Logic in Daily Life
2.2.1 General Guidelines for Analyzing Claims
2.2.2 Informal Fallacies
2.2.3 Everyday Logic versus Symbolic Logic
2.2.4 Exercises
2.3 Prepositional Logic
2.3.1 Truth Tables
2.3.2 The Operators NOT, AND, OR, and XOR
2.3.3 Negations of AND, OR, and NOT
2.3.4 Exercises
2.3.5 Implication and the Biconditional
2.3.6 Operator Precedence
2.3.7 Logical Equivalence
2.3.8 Derived Implications
2.3.9 Exercises

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2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7
2.8

Logical Equivalence and Rules of Inference

2.4.1 Important Logical Equivalences and Rules of Inference
2.4.2 Proving that a Statement is a Tautology
2.4.3 Exercises
Boolean Algebras
2.5.1 Sets and Propositions as Boolean Algebras
2.5.2 Proving Additional Boolean Algebra Properties
2.5.3 Exercises
Predicate Logic
2.6.1 Quantifiers
2.6.2 Exercises
Quick Check Solutions
Chapter Review
2.8.1 Summary
2.8.2 Notation
2.8.3 Fundamental Properties
2.8.4 Additional Review Material

Proof
3.1 Introduction to Mathematical Proof
3.1.1 Mathematics and Proof: The Big Picture
3.1.2 Mathematical Objects Related to Proofs
3.1.3 Exercises
3.2 Elementary Number Theory: Fuel for Practice
3.2.1 The Integers and Other Number Systems
3.2.2 Divisibility
3.2.3 Primes
3.2.4 The Well-Ordering Principle
3.2.5 Congraence, Factorials, Floor and Ceiling Functions
3.2.6 Exercises
3.3 Proof Strategies
3.3.1 Trivial Proof
3.3.2 Direct Proof
3.3.3 Indirect Proof: Proving the Contrapositive
3.3.4 Proof by Contradiction
3.3.5 Proof by Cases
3.3.6 Implications with Existential Quantifiers
3.3.7 Implications with Universal Quantifiers
3.3.8 Proofs Involving the Biconditional and
Logical Equivalence
3.3.9 Some Important Examples
3.3.10 Exercises
3.4 Applications of Elementary Number Theory
3.4.1 The Euclidean Algorithm: Calculating gcd(a, b)
3.4.2 Hashing
3.4.3 Pseudorandom Numbers
3.4.4 Linear Congruence and the Chinese Remainder Theorem
3.4.5 Fermat's Little Theorem and Fermat's Last Theorem
3.4.6 Encryption
3.4.7 Exercises

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3.5

Mathematical Induction
3.5.1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction
3.5.2 Complete Induction
3.5.3 Interesting Mathematical Induction Problems
3.5.4 The Well-Ordering Principle, Mathematical Induction, and Complete Induction
3.5.5 Multidimensional Induction
3.5.6 Exercises
3.6 Creating Proofs: Hints and Suggestions
3.6.1 A Few Very General Suggestions
3.6.2 Some Specific Tactics
3.6.3 Exercises
3.7 Quick Check Solutions
3.8 Chapter Review
3.8.1 Summary
3.8.2 Notation
3.8.3 Additional Review Material

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Algorithms
4.1 Expressing Algorithms
4.1.1 Flow of Control
4.1.2 Flow of Information
4.1.3 Exercises
4.2 Measuring Algorithm Efficiency
4.2.1 Big-0 and Its Cousins
4.2.2 Practical Big-0 Tools
4.2.3 Exercises
4.2.4 Big-0 in Action: Searching a List
4.2.5 Exercises
4.3 Pattern Matching
4.3.1 The Obvious Algorithm
4.3.2 KMP: Knuth-Morris-Pratt
4.3.3 BM: Boyer-Moore
4.3.4 Exercises
4.4 The Halting Problem
4.4.1 Setting the Stage
4.4.2 The Halting Problem
4.5 Quick Check Solutions
4.6 Chapter Review
4.6.1 Summary
4.6.2 Notation
4.6.3 Big-0 Shortcuts
4.6.4 Additional Review Material

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Counting
5.1 Permutations and Combinations
5.1.1 Two Basic Counting Principles
5.1.2 Permutations
5.1.3 Permutations with Repetition
5.1.4 Combinations
5.1.5 Combinations with Repetition
5.1.6 Exercises .
5.1.7 More Complex Counting Problems
5.1.8 Exercises

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5.2

Contents

Combinatorial Proofs
5.2.1 Introduction to Combinatorial Proofs
5.2.2 Counting Tulips: Three Combinatorial Proofs
5.2.3 Exercises
5.3 Pigeon-Hole Principle; Inclusion-Exclusion
5.3.1 The Pigeon-Hole Principle
5.3.2 Inclusion-Exclusion
5.3.3 Exercises
5.4 Quick Check Solutions
5.5 Chapter Review
5.5.1 Summary
5.5.2 Notation
5.5.3 Some Counting Formulas
5.5.4 Additional Review Material
6 Finite Probability Theory
6.1 The Language of Probabilities
6.1.1 Sample Spaces, Outcomes, and Events
6.1.2 Probabilities of Events
6.1.3 Exercises
6.2 Conditional Probabilities and Independent Events
6.2.1 Definitions
6.2.2 Computing Probabilities
6.2.3 Exercises
6.3 Counting and Probability
6.3.1 Exercises
6.4 Expected Value
6.4.1 Exercises
6.5 The Binomial Distribution
6.5.1 Exercises
6.6 Bayes's Theorem
6.6.1 Exercises
6.7 Quick Check Solutions
6.8 Chapter Review
6.8.1 Summary
6.8.2 Notation
6.8.3 Additional Review Material
7 Recursion
7.1 Recursive Algorithms
7.1.1 General Guidelines for Creating Recursive Algorithms
7.1.2 A Detailed Example
7.1.3 When Should Recursion Be Avoided?
7.1.4 Persian Rugs
7.1.5 Drawing Sierpinski Curves
7.1.6 Adaptive Quadrature
7.1.7 Exercises
7.2 Recurrence Relations
7.2.1 Solving Recurrence Relations
7.2.2 Linear Homogeneous Recurrence Relations with Constant Coefficients
7.2.3 Repeated Roots
7.2.4 The Sordid Truth
7.2.5 Exercises
7.3 Big-0 and Recursive Algorithms: The Master Theorem
7.3.1 Exercises

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7.4

Generating Functions
7.4.1 Exercises
7.5 The Josephus Problem
7.5.1 Exercises
7.6 Quick Check Solutions
7.7 Chapter Review
7.7.1 Summary
7.7.2 Notation
7.7.3 Generating Function Table
7.7.4 Additional Review Material
Combinatorics
8.1 Partitions, Occupancy Problems, Stirling Numbers
8.1.1 Partitions of a Positive Integer
8.1.2 Occupancy Problems
8.1.3 Stirling Numbers
8.1.4 Exercises
8.2 Latin Squares, Finite Projective Planes
8.2.1 Latin Squares
8.2.2 Finite Projective Planes
8.2.3 Finite Projective Planes and Latin Squares
8.2.4 Exercises
8.3 Balanced Incomplete Block Designs
8.3.1 Constructing Balanced Incomplete Block Designs
8.3.2 Exercises
8.4 The Knapsack Problem
8.4.1 Exercises
8.5 Error-Correcting Codes
8.5.1 The 7-Bit Hamming Code
8.5.2 A Formal Look at Coding Theory
8.5.3 Combinatorial Aspects of Coding Theory
8.5.4 Exercises
8.6 Distinct Representatives, Ramsey Numbers
8.6.1 Systems of Distinct Representatives
8.6.2 Ramsey Numbers
8.6.3 Exercises
8.7 Quick Check Solutions
8.8 Chapter Review
8.8.1 Summary
8.8.2 Notation
8.8.3 The Fano Plane
8.8.4 Occupancy Problems
8.8.5 Additional Review Material
Formal Models in Computer Science
9.1 Information
9.1.1 A General Model of Communication
9.1.2 A Mathematical Definition of Information
9.1.3 A Summary of Other Ideas in Shannon's Paper
9.1.4 Exercises
9.2 Finite-State Machines
9.2.1 Finite Automata
9.2.2 Finite-State Machines with Output
9.2.3 Exercises

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Contents
9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7
9.8

Formal Languages
9.3.1 Regular Grammars
9.3.2 Exercises
Regular Expressions
9.4.1 Introduction to Regular Expressions
9.4.2 Perl Extensions
9.4.3 Exercises
The Three Faces of Regular
9.5.1 Optional: Completing the Proof of Kleene's Theorem
9.5.2 Exercises
A Glimpse at More Advanced Topics
9.6.1 Context-Free Languages and Grammars
9.6.2 Turing Machines
9.6.3 Exercises
Quick Check Solutions
Chapter Review
9.8.1 Summary
9.8.2 Notation
9.8.3 Additional Review Material

10 Graphs
10.1 Terminology
10.1.1 New Graphs from Old
10.1.2 Special Graph Families
10.1.3 Exercises
10.2 Connectivity and Adjacency
10.2.1 Connectivity
10.2.2 The Adjacency Matrix
10.2.3 Exercises
10.3 Euler and Hamilton
10.3.1 Euler Circuits and Euler Trails
10.3.2 Hamilton Cycles and Hamilton Paths
10.3.3 Exercises
10.4 Representation and Isomorphism
10.4.1 Representation
10.4.2 Isomorphism
10.4.3 Exercises
10.5 The Big Theorems: Planarity, Euler, Polyhedra, Chromatic Number
10.5.1 Planarity
10.5.2 The Regular Polyhedra
10.5.3 Chromatic Number
10.5.4 Exercises
10.6 Directed Graphs and Weighted Graphs
10.6.1 Directed Graphs
10.6.2 Weighted Graphs and Shortest Paths
10.6.3 Exercises
10.7 Quick Check Solutions
10.8 Chapter Review
10.8.1 Summary
10.8.2 Notation
10.8.3 Additional Review Material

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XI

11 Trees
11.1 Terminology, Counting
11.1.1 Exercises
11.2 Traversal, Searching, and Sorting
11.2.1 Traversing Binary Trees
11.2.2 Binary Search Trees
11.2.3 Sorting
11.2.4 Exercises
11.3 More Applications of Trees
11.3.1 Parse Trees
11.3.2 Huffman Compression
11.3.3 XML
11.3.4 Exercises
11.4 Spanning Trees
11.4.1 Spanning Trees in Unweighted Graphs
11.4.2 Minimal Spanning Trees in Weighted Graphs
11.4.3 Exercises
11.5 Quick Check Solutions
11.6 Chapter Review
11.6.1 Summary
11.6.2 Notation
11.6.3 Additional Review Material

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12 Functions, Relations, Databases, and Circuits

12.1 Functions and Relations
12.1.1 Functions
12.1.2 Relations
12.1.3 Exercises
12.2 Equivalence Relations, Partially Ordered Sets
12.2.1 Properties that Characterize Relations
12.2.2 Equivalence Relations and Partitions
12.2.3 Exercises
12.3 W-ary Relations and Relational Databases
12.3.1 W-ary Relations
12.3.2 Relational Databases
12.3.3 Functional Dependence; Models and Instances
12.3.4 Keys; Operations on Relations
12.3.5 Normal Forms
12.3.6 Exercises
12.4 Boolean Functions and Boolean Expressions
12.4.1 Boolean Functions
12.4.2 Binary Functions and Disjunctive Normal Form
12.4.3 Binary Expressions and Disjunctive Normal Form
12.4.4 Exercises
12.5 Combinatorial Circuits
12.5.1 Minimizing Binary Expressions
12.5.2 Combinatorial Circuits and Binary Expressions
12.5.3 Functional Completeness
12.5.4 Exercises
12.6 Quick Check Solutions
12.7 Chapter Review
12.7.1 Summary
12.7.2 Notation
12.7.3 Additional Review Material

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Contents

A Number Systems
A.l The Natural Numbers
A.2 The Integers
A.3 The Rational Numbers
A.4 The Real Numbers
A.5 The Complex Numbers
A.6 Other Number Systems
A.7 Representation of Numbers

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Summation Notation

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Logic Puzzles and Analyzing Claims

C.l Logic Puzzles
C.l.l Logic Puzzles about AND, OR, and NOT
1.2 Logic Puzzles about Implication, Biconditional, and Equivalence
C.1.3 Exercises
C.2 Analyzing Claims
C.2.1 Analyzing Claims that Contain Implications
C.2.2 Analyzing Claims that Contain Quantifiers
C.2.3 Exercises
C.3 Quick Check Solutions

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D The Golden Ratio

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E Matrices

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F The Greek Alphabet

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G Writing Mathematics

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H Solutions to Selected Exercises

H.l Introduction
H.2 Sets, Logic, and Boolean Algebras
H.3 Proof
H.4 Algorithms
H.5 Counting
H.6 Finite Probability Theory
H.7 Recursion
H.8 Combinatorics
H.9 Formal Models in Computer Science
H.10 Graphs
H.l 1 Trees
H.12 Functions, Relations, Databases, and Circuits
H.13 Appendices

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Bibliography

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Index

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