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The beginnings of pharmacy are ancient. When the first person expressed juice from
a succulent leaf to apply to a wound, this art was being practiced. In the Greek
legend, Asclepius, the god of the healing art, delegated to Hygieia the duty of
compounding his remedies. She was his apothecary or pharmacist. The physicianpriests of Egypt were divided into two classes: those who visited the sick and those
who remained in the temple and prepared remedies for the patients. In ancient
Greece and Rome and during the Middle Ages in Europe, the art of healing
recognized
pharmacy,
the science and art concerned with the preparation
and standardization of drugs. Its scope includes the cultivation of plants that
are used as drugs, the synthesis of chemical compounds of medicinal value,
and the analysis of medicinal agents. Pharmacists are responsible for the
preparation of the dosage forms of drugs, such as tablets, capsules, and
sterile solutions for injection. They compound physicians, dentists, and
veterinarians prescriptions for drugs. The science that embraces knowledge
of drugs with special reference to the mechanism of their action in the
treatment of disease is pharmacology.
The pharmacy profession can be traced back at least as far as the Sumerian
population, living in modern day Iraq. From around 4000 BC, they used
medicinal plants such as liquorice, mustard, myrrh, and opium. There were
separate people who worked to prepare medicines, as a separate role from
diagnosis and treatment which was carried out by medics. These precursors
to pharmacists also combined their role with that of a priest. The Sumerians
wrote the earliest surviving prescriptions from at least 2700 B.C. so nearly
5000 years ago.
The Ancient Egyptians had specific preparers of medicine, known as
Pastophor. Pharmacy was viewed as a high status branch of medicine, and
again, like the Sumerians, these pharmacists were also priests who worked
and practised in the temples.
From surviving papyrus scrolls, notably the Ebers Papyrus which dates from
1500 BC, we know that the Egyptians made and used infusions, ointments,
lozenges, suppositories, lotions, enemas, and pills. The Ebers Papyrus
includes 875 prescriptions and 700 drugs.
Meanwhile, in China in about the same era (2000 BC), a man called Shen
Nung wrote the first Pen Tsao or native herbal, which contained descriptions
of 365 plant-based drugs.
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Stalls and shops selling medicinal goods existed around 1900 B.C. in the
town of Sippara on the Euphrates river. However, the earliest recorded shop
dealing with sales of medicines in London was opened in 1345
Kelompok 2
The history of pharmacy in Britain
http://www.rpharms.com/about-pharmacy/history-of-pharmacy.asp
chemicals. Apothecaries were also examining and treating patients, but they
did not charge for these services only for the medicines supplied.
Following a ruling in the Rose Case (1701-1703/4), apothecaries became
legally ratified members of the medical profession, able to prescribe as well
as dispense medicines.
As apothecaries moved into a more advisory role, pharmacists (or chemists
and druggists) could develop their own area of preparation and supply of
medicines. However, this put them in competition with the apothecaries who
were also still involved in the same area. The apothecaries attempted to
control the chemists and druggists' activities in 1748 with a proposed new
law to control the supply of medicines. This didn't progress.
In the early 1800s, an Association was formed to put together a proposal to
Parliament to set up a body that examined and regulated apothecaries,
surgeon-apothecaries, midwives and dispensing chemists. The chemists and
druggists took action, arguing that they were best placed to set their own
standards, as they were more experienced in making up prescriptions and
making medicines than the apothecaries, so they should not be put under
their control. The chemists and druggists won their argument, and when the
Apothecaries Act of 1815 was finally created, the apothecaries did not have
control over making medicines.
Some key dates in pharmacy history
182 The alkaloid quinine was first extracted from the bark of cinchona trees by two French
0
chemists, Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Biename Caventou.
187
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188
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First edition of The Extra Pharmacopoeia published, edited by William Martindale and
Dr Wynn Westcott.
189
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191
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191
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191
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Salvarsan, the first 'magic bullet' drug, effective against syphilis was
discovered by Paul Ehrlich and Dr Sahachiro Hata.
Medicine stamp duty was doubled as a wartime fundraiser.
The Venereal Disease Act prohibited the advertising of medicines for VD and
selling
mixtures containing scheduled substances. It introduced the concept of
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192
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193
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193
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194
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194
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The Dangerous Drugs Act regulated the import and sale of potential 'drugs of
addiction',
including the derivatives of opium, cocaine and cannabis so widely used in
proprietary remedies.
Penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming.
The Food and Drugs Act prohibited the adulteration and mislabeling of drugs.
The Cancer Act restricted the advertisement of products claiming to treat cancer.
Under the Finance (No. 2) Act purchase tax was imposed on a range of goods
including most drugs and medicines.
The Pharmacy and Medicines Act repealed the old medicine stamp duty. It
forbade the general advertisement of products claiming to treat a number of
specific illnesses including Bright's disease, cataract epilepsy and TB, or to be
effective in procuring an abortion. For the first time manufacturers were
required to list the active ingredients of products on their packaging.
194
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The National Health Service made prescription medicine available to all. Until
the introduction, in the 1950s, and subsequent hefty increasing of prescription
charges, proprietary medicines were no longer seen as a cheap alternative to
seeing the doctor.
196
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Ibuprofen was first synthesised by a team at the Boots Pure Drug Company in
December.
196
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Institute of Pharmacy was built at 23rd Street and Constitution Avenue and
dedicated in 1934. An annex was constructed later, being dedicated in 1960.
Today, the annex has been demolished and has made way for a new addition
to the original Pope building, completed in 2009.
As it has done for more than 150 years, APhA continues today to lead the
profession of pharmacy. Medication therapy management, a component of
the Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit launched in 2006, provides the
means for pharmacists to complete the transformation of their profession
from one focused on the drug product to a clinical service focused on the
patient. As APhA Executive Vice President and CEO John A. Gans, PharmD,
puts it, pharmacists have gone from making medicines to making
medicines work. Through the programs, publications, and services provided
through APhA, pharmacists across America and around the world are in the
forefront of making this change happen each day, one patient at a time.
Introduction
The Medieval Faience Pharmacy Objects
Conclusions
Some say that the Dacians used medicinal herbs and had medical
knowledge, facts that are mentioned by some of the Ancient Greek and
Roman writers. It is rightly supposed that the first ustensils for the preparing
of the medicines had been manufactured out of wood and burnt clay, but
they did not resist to the aggressive factors of the nature and to the
incapacity of the people in preserving those ustensils. It seems that all of
them, the Ancient receptacles and medicines, as well as those from the
territory of present-day Romania are of Mediterranean origin. All along the
Black Sea coast and in Dobrudja numerous vestiges, up to the Roman
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the form of hard eye washes (dry), with the printed seal of the person who
executed the preparation (for exemple, Publius Corcolonius). We could also
add amulets, votive plates and data on a sort of nurseries in the Roman
castes, as well as instruments: bistouries, forcepses, needles made of
various metals and others, that were used for therapeutical purposes by our
ancestors.
Kelompok 4
Some such vessels are to be found in the profile collection of The Pele
Museum of Sinaia. A porcelain vessel, having (as others as well) as effigy a
saint with an aureola, is to be found in the collection of The Pharmacy Faculty
of Bucharest. At the present moment the situation of the 18 vessels from The
National Museum is not exactly known because the objects have been put to
shelter because of the events of the 22nd-25th of December 1989. One (or
more of these vessels) are to be found in The History and Archaeology
Museum of Bucharest. All or almost all of the vessels from The Art National
Museum have been photographed and exhibited on the occasion of several
pharmacy manifestations and constituted the object of a calendar of The
Medicines Factory from Bucharest, before the revolution.
The Saint Healers
Pictures of the Saint healers representing Cosma and
Damian, as artistic proofs in the orthodox an catholic
Romanian churches, can be found in many places. The
oldest picture of them all is in the church situated in
Densu (Hunedoara County), but also in Roman,
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Bucharest etc. They are important because, on the one hand many of them
are medieval,and on the other hand because one of these two saints holds a
small portable medical pouch that seems to be made of wood and in the
other one he holds a spoon or a little spoon used to administer the medicine,
usually pills or bolus. Of course, there are many saint healers which have
been painted in the churches but they do not have ustensiles. The orthodox
Romanian church painting also shows Ancient physicians such as Esculap
and Hygiea.
The Oldest Collections of History of the Pharmacy
In Romania, the laboratory pharmacy appeared later than in the West and
progressed slower. The first mentioning in official documents is dated in the
year 1494, in Sibiu, chemist's shops appearing afterwards in Bistria, Braov,
Fgra etc. In the Danubian Romanian Principalities the chemist's shops
appear during the second half of the 18th century, although the trade with
medicinal drugs (camphor, pepper, etc.) is dated three centuries earlier. The
objects belonging to the Romanian Middle Age preserved and are still
preserved in some places, by virtue of habit, but due to lack of acquaintance
with the matter, the objects are getting fewer and fewer every year. We
could take as exemple the situation of two objects used for other purposes,
but which have been identified and handed over to the museums: a charge
of one pound was keeping open, for over 100 years, the door of the
dispensary of the Military Hospital from Cluj.
Now the object is at The National Military Museum of
Bucharest. The master of the State Chemist's Shop
(ex-chemist's shop no. 84), Duca Avenue, had on her
desk a brass piece, polished after so much
manipulation, as it was used to press the prescriptions
so that they would not be blown by the draught. It had
the form of the pyramid trunk. The chemist had
brought it from another chemist's shop but she was
not curious to look at it attentively; if she had done so, she would have seen
the metrology cheques legislated a century before. It had an old
pharmaceutical weight. So, during the time, pieces 100-150 years old had
been and actually continue to be found; they are unindentified and used with
other purposes. The oldest collections of history of the pharmacy that have
been organized after World War I, belong to the professors from Cluj, namely
Professor Doctor Jules Guiart and Valeriu Bologa and, apart, to Iuliu Orient,
physician-chemist, whose collection seems to be a little bit older.
A small and old collection of history of the pharmacy can be found at The
History Museum of Sighioara. Numerous pharmacy pieces are used as hand
balances, weight boxes, pestle mortars, etc.; such objects are frequently
found in many museums in the country, but they are little studied. An old
collection is at The Medicine and Pharmacy Museum in Roman, Neam
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Kelompok 6
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It was created for didactic purposes but it went beyond this objective
as it enowed itself with numerous objects from the Counties of
Hunedoara ( Director Andrei Labud) and Suceava (Director Paul
Potorac) at the request of Doctor Lecturer Frirotu Z. around the '70's
or so. This is a rich collection exhibited in two rooms and a small
repository (the third room). Normally, this colection should contain
aparata and ustensiles that are used in the teaching process. However,
the criterium has not been paid attention to and that is why it has a
pharmacy musuem character. It is state property, Professor Doctor Ana
Carata being the conservatoire. She also teaches the History of the
Pharmacy at the Faculty of Pharmacy. The present-day conservatoires
aprove the transfer of objects and constitute the second base for the
national museum.
5. The Museum of the History of Medicine and Pharmacy, Craiova
Has mixed aims: both didactic and exhibitional. The Director is
Professor Doctor Scheanu Mihail, professor in the History of the
Pharmacy at the Faculty of Pharmacy in Craiova. The pharmacy part is
sheltered in the basement and does not benefit by the best conditions.
It is state property. Here is the adress where the offices are: Unirii
Street, no.104; it has a yard and an area for growing medicinal herbs.
The source of the objects is known - but not entirely - due to the two
founders, the chemists Gh. Cismrescu and N. Zahacinschi, both of
them deceased.
6. The Museum Collection Belonging to the Medicines Repository
of Banat ARCATIM, Timioara
It is a small collection, exhibited in a room. We do not know the exact
situation, but there exists the possibility of disanssembling as the old
chemist founder and conservatoire, Popovici Valeriu, has now retired. It
has not been open for the public and the objects have not been
scientifically identified. "Arcatim" is now a trade organization and in
the future it might need the space where the collection is kept.
7. The Museum Pharmacy Collection of the Ex-Pharmacy Office,
Galai
Is now a trade Society named "Hepites" s.r.l. It has a collection of old
pharmacy vessel and objects. We do not know the present-day
situation of the inventory and the value of the pieces. It seems that it is
exhibited for the public since 1981, but the information is incertain.
8. The Museum Collection of the History of the Pharmacy
Belonging to the History Museum in Brila
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15.
Museum-Chemist's Shops
20.
Presently, they are state property, but soon will be passed into private
property. It is less probable that they will remain unitary, because the
new commodities requirements demand that the spaces must be
cleared. Probably they will desintegrate, but it would represent a great
loss for the national heritage.
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Conclusions
These data impose the founding of a national museum of History of the
Pharmacy. Here are the most important elements in this respect:
The political situation of transition toward privatization takes out from
the state property and thus, from the pharmacy heritage, all the above
mentioned collections. The national museum could absorb the
collections that would remain without a storage place and without
guard - conservation.
The museum could function in a building that was raised with the
financial contribution of the chemists, should it be retroceded; the
building is situated in Pitar Mo Street and belongs to the Chemist's
Shops Supply Office (OAF). Minovici villa could also be solicited; it had
been conceded to the state. The place would be satisfying . It is
situated in a central area and served as shelter for museum materials.
Hadzovi S.
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Abstract
21
ISLAMIC MEDICINE
During that period, Islamic medicine went through impressive developments,
which later influenced medical education and practice in Europe (1 , 2) .
Intense efforts for translation and analysis of the works of Hippocrates, Rufus
of Ephesus, Dioscorides, and Galen took place (1 , 2) . Arab scholars
synthesized and further elaborated the knowledge they had gathered from
ancient manuscripts, adding their own experience. Numerous Arab pioneers
are mentioned in medical history.
Among the most famous are: Yuhanna ibn Massuwayh who performed
dissections and described allergy (4 , 7) ; Abu Bakr Muhummad ibn
Zakariyya ar-Razi (Rhazes) who differentiated smallpox from measles,
described the laryngeal branch of the recurrent nerve, introduced mercurial
ointments and hot moist compresses in surgery, investigated psychosomatic
reactions, and wrote the famous Al-Hawi, a medical encyclopedia of 30
volumes (4 , 7) ;
Az-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), known as the father of surgery, who performed
tracheotomy and lithotomy, introduced the use of cotton and catgut, and
described extra-uterine pregnancy, cancer of the breast, and the sex-linked
inheritance of hemophilia (4 , 7) ;
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who differentiated meningitis from other neurologic
diseases, described anthrax and tuberculosis, introduced urethral drug
instillation, stressed the importance of hygiene, and dietetics, and the
holistic approach to the patient [his work al-Qanun fil Tibb (The Canon of
Medicine), represented the absolute authority in medicine for 500 years (4 ,
7) ]; Ibn-Zuhr (Avenzoar) who described pericarditis, mediastinitis, and
paralysis of the pharynx, and who pointed out the importance of drugs for
body and soul (4 , 7) ; and Ibn-Nafis who studied and described pulmonary
circulation (4 , 7) .
Progress was apparent in all medical fields, including anatomy, surgery,
anaesthesia, cardiology, ophthalmology, orthopaedics, bacteriology, urology,
obstetrics, neurology, psychiatry (including psychotherapy), hygiene,
dietetics, and dentistry (1 , 4 , 7) .
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Figure 1. Pottery cup depicting a leopard. Fatimid period, Egypt (11th century
C.E.). Diameter: 20.4 cm. From the Islamic collection of the Benakis Museum,
Athens, Greece (printed with permission).
the biomedical research indexed in the PubMed database and 0.1% of the
articles published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals. Only 30 articles
from those published in the top 50 clinical medicine journals during the
period 19942004 originated exclusively from Arab countries, whereas in 254
others there was also participation of authors from non-Arab countries [in
146, authors from the USA; and in 112, authors from Western Europe (there
were co-authors from the USA, Western Europe, and Arab countries in some
papers)].
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Table 1. Raw and adjusted indicators for biomedical research productivity of
Arab countries
Most Arab countries located in the African continent produced less research,
in absolute or adjusted numbers, than the majority of non-African Arab
countries. Although researchers from Egypt and Morocco published a
relatively large number of papers and received a good number of citations
compared to researchers from other Arab countries, they ranked lower when
the data for research productivity were adjusted for population and GDP.
Data regarding the number of articles indexed in PubMed, in which the first
authors address was in an Arab country, for the years 19942003 are
presented in Table 2 . As shown, there was a continuous increase in the
number of articles originating from Arab countries. In 1994 these articles
represented 0.4% of the total articles indexed in PubMed, whereas this figure
was 0.6% for 2003.
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Table 2. Number of articles indexed in PubMed for each Arab country during
the years 19942003
ON TO THE FUTURE
Biomedical research is important not only because of its direct significance
for the health and well being of humans, but also because of the great
economic advantages it affords. We are persuaded that the scientific
community as well as the public and private funding organizations of Arab
countries share the responsibility of increasing the funding for biomedical
research and for improving the research infrastructure of each Arab country.
Also, increased collaboration between Arab countries and their neighbours
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Ioannis A. Bliziotis, M.D. and Evi Papastamataki, R.N. for their help
with data collection and analysis and Elpis Mantadakis, M.D. for reviewing
the manuscript. M.E.F designed the study, supervised data collection and
analysis, and wrote the bibliometric part of the paper. E.A.Z. and G.S. wrote
the part of the paper regarding the Islamic Golden Age. M.E.F. is guarantor.
FOOTNOTES
The opinions expressed in editorials, essays, letters to the editor, and other
articles comprising the Up Front section are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the opinions of FASEB or its constituent societies. The
FASEB Journal welcomes all points of view and many voices. We look forward
to hearing these in the form of op-ed pieces and/or letters from its readers
addressed to journals@faseb.org
REFERENCES
1. Syed, I. B. () Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times. Athar, S.
eds. Islamic Medicine www.islam-usa.com/im4.html. Accessed January
12, 2006.
2. . National Library of Medicine (1998) Medieval Islamic Medicine. Islamic
Culture and the Medical Arts
www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_02.html. Accessed
January 12, 2006.
3. . Oswego City School District Regents Exam Prep Center () Golden Age
of Islam
www.regentsprep.org/Regents/global/themes/goldenages/islam.cfm.
Accessed January 12, 2006.
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