EDlarranhaga

Relativistic Classical Electrodynamics
Alexis Larraaga
June 18, 2013
Contents
I
The Relativistic Description of Classical Particles
1 Special Relativity
1.1 The Minkowskian Space . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Covariant and Contravariant Components
1.4 Light Cones and Causality Relations . . .
1.5 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3 Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Relativistic Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1 Addition of Velocities . . . . . . .
1.6.2 4-Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3 Doppler Eect and Aberration . .
1.7 The Principle of Relativity . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Scalar, Vector and Tensor Fields . . . . .
1.8.1 Scalar Fields . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.2 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8.3 Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Some Useful Relations . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.1 Dierential Relations . . . . . . . .
1.9.2 Integral Relations . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11
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2 Relativistic Dynamics
2.1 The 4-Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Particles of Zero Rest Mass . . .
2.2 The Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Explicit Forms of the 4-Force . . . . . .
2.3.1 Constant Newtonian Force . . .
2.3.2 4-Force Linear in the Velocity . .
2.3.3 The Lorentz Force . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 4-Force Quadratic in the Velocity
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23
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CONTENTS
2.4
2.5
II
Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relativistic Electromagnetic Field Theory
3 Maxwell Equations
3.1 The problem and the solution . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Magnetic Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Maxwells Equations in Matter . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Monochromatic Plane Waves . . . . . .
3.3.1.1 Polarization of Plane Waves .
3.3.2 Propagation in Linear Media . . . . . .
3.3.2.1 Reflection and Transmission at
3.3.2.2 Reflection and Transmission at
3.4 The Electromagnetic Field Equations . . . . . .
3.5 Electromagnetic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Covariant Form of Maxwell-Lorentz Equations
3.7 Gauge Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1 Lorentz Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.2 The Coulomb or Transverse Gauge . . .
3.8 Lorentz Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Normal Incidence .
Oblique Incidence
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4 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulation

4.1 Equation of Motion in Lagrangian Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.1 Non-Relativistic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.2 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Charged Particle in Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Hamiltonian Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Charged Particle in Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Other Forms of Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.1 Hamiltonian Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.2 Hamiltonian as Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.3 Two Dierent Hamiltonians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Classical Spin. Electric and Magnetic Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Motion of the Particle in the Presence of Moments . . . . . . .
4.4.2 The Spin Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2.1 Spin Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Equation of Motion for the Spin in the Presence of Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 General Description of the Classical Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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71
CONTENTS
4.5.1 Spacetime Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5.2 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
73
75
5 Lagrangian Description of the Fields

5.1 Symmetries and Conservation Laws. Noethers Theorem . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Noether Current and Conserved Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 The Lagrangian for the Real Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Conserved Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1.1 Infinitesimal Translation. Energy-Momentum Tensor
5.2.1.2 Infinitesimal Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . .
5.3 The Lagrangian for the Complex Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Conserved Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1.1 Infinitesimal Translation. Energy-Momentum Tensor
5.3.1.2 Infinitesimal Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1.3 Internal Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 The Lagrangian for the Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Alternative Lagrangians for the Free Electromagnetic Field . .
5.5 Poincar Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 Infinitesimal Translation. The Energy-Momentum tensor . . .
5.5.1.1 Conserved Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 Infinitesimal Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Internal Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Canonical Form of the Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.1 Hamiltonian for the Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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III
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4.6
Interaction of Particles and Fields
6 Interacting Fields
6.1 Interaction Field - External Current . . . . . . .
6.1.1 The Electromagnetic Field with Sources .
6.2 Interaction Field - Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 A Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic
6.3 Interaction between Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Field .
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101
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110
7 Solution of the Equations of Motion

7.1 Greens Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Non-static Field . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.0.1 The Residue Theorem
7.3.1 Retarded Greens Functions . .
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111
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115
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in Bref
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CONTENTS
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119
120
122
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125
126
127
8 Radiation
8.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Coulomb Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 The Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.0.1 Coulomb Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.0.2 Electromagnetic Field of a Uniformly Moving Charged
Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 The Radiation Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Poynting Vector of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1 Small Velocities Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.2 General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Larmor Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2.1 Particle in Linear Motion (Bremsstrahlung) . . . . . .
8.4 General Properties of the Radiation Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 Electromagnetic Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1.1 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Plane Wave Decomposition of the General Solution . . . . . . .
8.4.3 Energy-Momentum Tensor for the Radiation Field . . . . . . .
8.5 Radiation Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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133
9 Special Topics
9.1 Time-Independent Multipolar Expansion . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2 General Time-Independent Multipolar Expansion
9.2 Time-Dependent Multipolar Expansion . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1.1 Electric Dipole Radiation . . . . . . . .
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164
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.3.2 Advanced Greens Functions

7.3.3 Other Greens Functions . . .
Solving the Inhomogeneous Equation
7.4.1 Scattering . . . . . . . . . .
Gauge Condition . . . . . . . . . . .
Jefimenkos Equations . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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134
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152
153
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156
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158
160
Introduction
Part I
The Relativistic Description of

Classical Particles
Chapter 1
Special Relativity
1.1
The Minkowskian Space
In order to describe the special theory of relativity, we introduce a 4-dimensional

space
M := x = x0 , x1 , x2 , x3
(1.1)
whose elements x are called 4-vectors. The scalar product (Minkowskian product)
between two 4-vectors x and y is defined by
xy := x0 y 0
x1 y 1
x2 y 2
x3 y 3 .
(1.2)
Denoting the components of the 4-vector x by x ( = 0, 1, 2, 3) and similarly for

y, the Minkowskian product can be written as
xy = x y
(1.3)
where
1
B 0
=B
@ 0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0 C
C
0 A
1
(1.4)
is known as the Minkowskian metric tensor. Two vectors x and y are called orthogonal
if xy = 0.
The scalar product induces a real norm (but not positive definite) as
x2 := xx = x0
x1
x2
11
x3
= x x .
(1.5)
12
1.2
CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Lorentz Transformations
A Lorentz Transformation is defined as a linear transformation

L:M
(1.6)
! M
x = Lx
(1.7)
that leaves invariant the Minkowskian product, i.e.

x0 y 0 = (Lx) (Ly) = xy
(1.8)
The more general transformation of this kind is known as the inhomogeneus

Lorentz transformation, and it can be represented by
x0 = x + a .
(1.9)
This transformation reprents the Poincar group and therefore it has 10 parameters: a (1 time traslation + 3 space traslation) and (3 space rotations + 3
Lorentz boost). The Poincar group is the fundamental symmetry of physics because
it represents the undamental properties of spacetime, i.e. homogeneity and isotropy
of 3-dimensional space and time.
As a special case, the Lorentz homogeneus transformations between a reference
frames and a frame 0 that moves with velocity ~v along the axis x1 with respecto
to , can be represented by the 4x4 symmetric matrix (Lorentz boost)
0
where
B
= B
@
0
0
=
and
0
0
1
0 0
0
0 0 C
C = @x
A
1 0
@x
0 1
(v) = p
1
1
(1.10)
(1.11)
= vc . It is straightforward to note that this is a proper orthogonal matrix, i.e.

det = +1.
(1.12)
From the definition of a Lorentz transformation, it is clear that the norm of a

4-vector is an invariant, i.e.
x02 = x0 x0 = xx = x2 .
(1.13)
1.3. COVARIANT AND CONTRAVARIANT COMPONENTS
1.3
13
Covariant and Contravariant Components
The inverse of the Minkowskian metric tensor is defined by the relation

(1.14)
where is the Kroneckers delta function. It is said that are the covariant
components of the metric while are its contravariant componets.
Using the inverse of the metric, the scalar product between vectors x and y can
be written as
xy = x y = x y
(1.15)
where x are the contravariant components of vector x while x are its covariant
components that can be obtained by
x = x .
(1.16)
From this relation we conclude that

x = x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 .
1.4
(1.17)
Light Cones and Causality Relations
Since the norm of a 4-vector is invariant under Lorentz transformations and it is not
positive defined, we divide the vectors according to their norm into three groups:
1. If x2 > 0, x is a time-like vector
2. If x2 = 0, x is a light-like or null vector
3. If x2 < 0, x is a space-like vector.
A time-like vector x with x0 > 0 is called future directed, while if x0 < 0 it is said
past directed.
All the light-like vectors begining at some point p of spacetime form the surface
of a 3-dimensional cone called the light cone. This gives the surface on which light
rays move away from or into point p, of course with speed c. All time-like vectors are
inside the light cone while all space-like ones are outside.
Consider two events (or points) in spacetime labeled by the coordinates x1 =
x01 , x11 , x21 , x31 and x2 = x02 , x12 , x22 , x32 . The spacetime interval or spacetime lenght
between these two events is
s2 = (x2
x1 ) = x02
x01
x12
x11
x22
x21
x32
x31
(1.18)
If the two points are infinitesimaly close, we define the infinitesima line element
(or infinitesimal spacetime interval)
ds2 = dx0
dx1
dx2
dx3
(1.19)
14
Because of the definitions, the line element ds2 is an invariant under Lorentz
transformations. If the two events x1 and x2 occur at the same spatial locaton, i.e.
xi1 = xi2 for i = 1, 2, 3, the line element is just a time interval, called the proper time
interval,
ds2 = c2 d 2 ,
(1.20)
and it is also an invariant under Lorentz transformations.

Given two any points, the slope of the line connecting them indicates the velocity
of the signals between the points. This fact, establishes that space-like points ( any
point outside the light cone), can not be reached from other by signals with velocities
equal or less than the speed of ligth c. Therefore, the light cone establishes the
causality relations between points in spacetime.
1.5
Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
Depending on the properties of transformation when we make a coordinates change

x ! x0 , the fundamental mathematical objects are classified as scalars, vectors or
tensors.
1.5.1
Scalars
A Lorentz Scalar (tensor of rank zero) is a quantity that is invariant under Lorentz
transformations. Some examples of this kind of quantities are the spacetime interval
ds2 , the norm of any 4-vector, the minkowskian product of any two 4-vectors, the
proper time interval, the proper mass of a particle, etc.
1.5.2
Vectors
A 4-vector (tensor of rank one), or simply vector, V is a quantity that transform as

0
V = LV
(1.21)
under a Lorentz transformation L. The contravariant components of the vector,

denoted by V , transform as
0
@x
V .
@x
(1.22)
As we already know, the 4-vector can also be represented in covariant components,

denoted by V , that are related with the contavariant ones by means of the metric
tensor,
V = V .
These components transforms as
(1.23)
1.6. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS
15
@x
V .
(1.24)
@x0
Some examples of vectors are the 4-velocity U , the 4-acceleration A and the
4-force f .
0
V =
1.5.3
Tensors
A second order tensor T is a set of 16 components that transform as

T 0 = L T L
(1.25)
where L is the hermitian conjugate of the Lorentz transformation L. For real transformations the hermitian conjugate reduces to the transpose, LT . The contravariant
components of a second order tensor are denoted by T and satisfy
0
@x @x
T .
(1.26)
@x @x
As in the case of vectors, one can define the covariant components of the tensor,
denoted by T and related with the contravariant components by
T
T = T .
However, for tensors one can define also the mixed components T
T
= T = T .
(1.27)
by the relation
(1.28)
The notion of tensor can be generalized to the concept of r-order tensor as an

object with 4r components which, in contravariant form T 1 2 ...r , transform as
0
@x 1 @x 2 @x r 1 2 ...r
...
T
.
(1.29)
@x1 @x2 @xr
Some examples of tensors are the metric , the electromagnetic field F and
the energy-momentum tensor T . In general relativity, one of the most important is
the 4-order Riemann tensor R .
T
1.6
1 2 ...r
Relativistic Kinematics
Consider an inertial frame in which a particle moves. Given the 3-vector position
of the particle, its physical (Newtonian) velocity is the 3-vector
d~r
.
(1.30)
dt
In special relativity, we generalize the concept of velocity by means of the velocity
4-vector
~u = (ux , uy , uz ) =
16
dx
(1.31)
d
where x ( ) is the position 4-vector of the particle and is its proper time. The
components of the 4-velocity can be written
U :=
U = U 0, U 1U 2, U 3 =
(u) (c, ~u)
(1.32)
where u = |~u| is the norm of the physical velocity and

(u) =
dt
1
=q
d
1
u2
c2
(1.33)
Since the norm of any 4-vector is an invariant, it can be calculated in any reference
system. In particular, if we calculate the components
of the 4-velocity in the reference
frame moving with the particle, we have U = c, ~0 and its norm is
U 2 = U U = c2 .
(1.34)
This relation shows that every 4-velocity is a time-like vector.
1.6.1
Addition of Velocities
Now consider another system of reference 0 that moves with constant velocity with
respecto to and both systems have parallel axes. The components of the 4-velocity
of the particle in frame 0 are related with the components of the 4-velocity in by
a Lorentz transformation, U 0 = LU , or in components
0
@x
U .
(1.35)
@x
In the special case in which reference frame 0 moves with velocity ~v along the
axis x1 with respecto to , this relation gives the well known addition of velocities
rule
8
ux v
>
>ux0 = (1 vu2x )
>
>
qc
>
2
<
uy 1 vc2
uy0 = 1 vux
(1.36)
( q c2 )
>
>
>
v2
>
u
1
>
:uz0 = z vuxc2
( 1 c2 )
U 0 =
1.6.2
4-Acceleration
The acceleration 4-vector is defined by

A = A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 :=
dU
.
d
(1.37)
1.6. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS
17
Its components can be expressed as
d (u) d (u)
A = (u)
,
~u + (u) ~a
dt
dt
(1.38)
where
d~u
(1.39)
dt
is the physical acceleration 3-vector. In order to calculate the norm of the 4-acceleration,
we consider a reference system that moves with the particle (~u = 0), where the components reduce to A = (0, ~a) and the norm is cleraly
~a =
A2 =
(1.40)
|~a| .
This relation shows that the 4-acceleration is always a spacelike vector. Evenmore,
it is easy to probe that the 4-velocity and the 4-acceleration are orthogonal vectors,
i.e.
U A = U A = 0.
1.6.3
(1.41)
Doppler Eect and Aberration
Consider an electromagnetic plane wave function described by the function

(x) = Aei(!t
~
k~
r)
(1.42)
where represents an electric or magnetic field or the electromagnetic potential,

! is the frequency, ~k is the propagation vector and the sign gives the direction of
propagation. The quantity
' = !t
~k ~r
(1.43)
is known as the phase of the wave and must be a relativistic invariant (i.e. invariant
under Lorentz transformations). We define the wave 4-vector as
!
k :=
, ~k
(1.44)
c
and with the help of x = (ct, ~r), the phase can be written as the scalar product
' = kx
(1.45)
which is obiously invariant. From its definition it is easy to see that k is a light-like
vector (in vaccum),
!2
~k = 0.
(1.46)
c2
The wave 4-vector in another system of reference 0 is obtained by a Lorentz
transformation, k 0 = Lk, or in components
k2 =
18

0
@x
k .
(1.47)
@x
Considering again the special case in which reference frame 0 moves with velocity
~v along the axis x1 with respecto to and we define as the angle between ~k and the
x1 directions and 0 as the angle between ~k 0 and the x1 direction, the transformation
relation gives the equations
k 0 =
!0
cos 0
1
! p
cos
2
1
cos
.
1
cos
(1.48)
(1.49)
The first equation gives the change in frequency (Doppler eect), while the second
gives the change in direction of the wave as observed from a moving coordinate frame
(aberration).
1.7
The Principle of Relativity
The Lorentz transformations permit dierent observers to compare their coordinates.

As stated by Einstein, the principle of relativity says that physical laws must be
independent of the coordinate frame in which they are written. This is equivalent
to say that it is not possible to distinguish a particular inertial reference frame from
physical experiments. In mathematical terms, the priciple of relativity states that
physical laws must be invariant under (inhomogeneus) Lorentz transformations.
Under this principle, we can say that fundamental equations of physics must be
written in terms of scalars, vectors or tensors in such a way that the form of the
equations is the same for all observers. Then, we say that the equations are covariant.
However, it is important to note that a particular equation may not be manifestly
covariant because it has been reduced to a particular frame. Therefore, relativistic
invariance does not neccessarily imply covariance.
1.8
Scalar, Vector and Tensor Fields
Particle properties are described by scalars, vectors or tensors with a unique value(s)
as noted above. However, Fields are defined to be objects that are continuous functions of spacetime or momenta of the particles. Therefore we classify these according
to their properties of transformation.
1.8.1
Scalar Fields
A scalar field (x) has the same numerical value at each physical point P for all
observers. If two observers and 0 denote the point P by x and x0 respectively, the
value of the scalar field for both of them satisfy
1.9. SOME USEFUL RELATIONS
1.8.2
19
(x0 ) =
(1.50)
(x) .
Vector Fields
The four values of a vector field A (x) at some physical point P viewed by two
dierent observers are related by a Lorentz transformation,
0
A (x0 ) = A (x) .
(1.51)
Similarly, the covariant components of the vector field satisfy

0
A (x0 ) =
(1.52)
A (x) .
It is interesting to note that the derivatives of a scalar field, denoted by

@
:=
@x
(1.53)
transform like a vector field,

0
(x0 ) =
(x0 )
@x @ (x)
=
=
0
@x
@x0 @x
Similarly, it is easy to probe that
1.8.3
(x0 ) =
(x) .
(1.54)
(x).
Tensor Fields
In this case, the physical quantity at each spacetime point has an array of components. The transformation law for the contravariant components of an r order tensor
F 1 2 ...r (x) is
F
1 2 ...r
(x0 ) = 11 22 ...rr F 1 2 ...r (x) .
(1.55)
Here is interesting to note that the derivative of a vector field is a tensor field of
rank two
0
A, (x0 ) =
as can be verfied in the same manner as for
1.9
1.9.1
A
, (x)
(1.56)
, .
Some Useful Relations

Dierential Relations
In last section we introduced the partial derivatives of fields. The 4-dimensional

gradient of a scalar field is denoted by
@ = @ =
@
=
@x
, .
(1.57)
20
The 4-dimensional divergence of a vector field is

@A
= A, .
(1.58)
@x
The gradient vector of a scalar field is orthogonal to the 3-dimensional surface
where is constant,
@ A = @ A =
@ dx = d = 0,
(1.59)
where dx lies on the surface.

The equation of continuity for a 4-vector field j is written in covariant notation
as
~ ~j = 0.
@ j = @0 j 0 + r
(1.60)
The covariant generalization of the curl of a vector field is the antisymmetric tensor
F (x) = @ A (x)
@ A (x) =
(1.61)
which is often written as

(1.62)
F (x) = @[ A] .
The DAlambertian is the operator defined as
@ @
r2 .
(1.63)
@x0 @x0
From its definition as a norm, it is clear that this is an invariant dierential operator.
The wave equation for the scalar is written simply as
= @ 2 = @ @ =
(1.64)
= 0.
The curl of a gradient is always zero,

@
= @ @
@ @ = 0.
(1.65)
The divergence of the curl is not always zero,

@ F = @ (@ A
1.9.2
@ A ) = @ @ A
A .
(1.66)
Integral Relations
The vanishing of the closed line integral
A dx = 0
implies A = @ . This can be proben by noting that
(1.67)
1.10. PROBLEMS
21
, dx
(1.68)
d = 0.
The 4-dimensional volume element is denoted

d4 x = dx0 dx1 dx2 dx3 .
(1.69)
Consider a 4-dimensional volume with 3-dimensional boundary @ described

by three parameters u1 , u2 , u3 . The surface element on @ can be represented by the
4-vector
d
:= dx1 dx2 dx3 , dx0 dx2 dx3 , dx0 dx1 dx3 , dx0 dx1 dx2 .
(1.70)
Note that in the particular case in which the boundary @ is the ordinary 3-dimensional
space with dx0 = 0 (or x0 = constant), the surface element d is proportional to the
direction n = (1, 0, 0, 0).
The Gauss theorem can be written, using the parameters u1 , u2 , u3 , as
@ A d 4 x =
A0
A1
A2
A3
@x0
@u!
@x0
@u02
@x
@u3
@x1
@u!
@x1
@u12
@x
@u3
@x2
@u!
@x2
@u22
@x
@u3
@x3
@u!
@x3
@u32
@x
@u3
du1 du2 du3 =
A d
(1.71)
where
d
and similarly for d
1.10
1,
@ x1 x2 x3
du1 du2 du3 = dx1 dx2 dx3
@ (u1 u2 u3 )
and d
(1.72)
3.
Problems
1. Write out the matrix that describes

a.) a Galilean transformation
b.) a Lorentz transformation along the y axis
c.) a Lorentz transformation with velocity ~v along the x axis followed by a
Lorentz transformation with velocity ~u along the y axis. Does it matter in what
order the transformations are carried out?
2. Consider two particles moving with velocities v~1 and v~2 with respecto to an
inertial observer . Find the magnitude of the relative velocity of one of the
particles with respect to the other.
22

3. Consider a particle in hyperbolic motion described by the cartesian coordinates
q
2
x (t) =
b2 + (ct)
(1.73)
y (t)
(1.74)
z (t)
(1.75)
where b is a constant.
a.) Find the physical velocity of the particle
b.) Find the 4-velocity and the 4-acceleration of the particle
4. The Levi-Civita symbol "
is completely antisymmetric with "0123 = +1.
a. Show that this symbol has the same components in any reference system.
b. Find the covariant components " .
c. Find the product " " .
5. Show that the symmetry (or antisymmetry) property of a tensor is preserved
under arbitrary transformations of coordinates.
6. Consider an antisymmetric tensor F = F .
a. Find the components of the dual tensor F defined by
F =
1
"
2
F .
(1.76)
b. Show that the covariant components of the dual tensor are

F =
c. Show that
1
"
2
(F ) =
F.
(1.77)
(1.78)
7. From geometrical optics we know that the incidence angle of a light ray in a
rest flat mirror is equal to the reflection angle.
a. Consider a flat mirror moving with velocity ~v normal to its plane and a light
ray with frequency !i moving with an incidence angle i . Find the frequency
and the reflection angle of the reflected light ray.
b. Repeat the analysis when the mirror is moving along its plane.
Chapter 2
Relativistic Dynamics
2.1
The 4-Momentum
In order to introduce the relativistic momentum we need the concept of proper mass
of a particle m0 . It corresponds to the inertial mass of the particle measured in the
particles rest reference frame and it is a relativistic invariant. The 4-momentum is
defined as
(2.1)
P = m0 U
where U is the 4-velocity of the particle. Note that this definition implies that the
norm of the momentum 4-vector is
P 2 = m20 c2
(2.2)
which is obiously invariant and shows that the 4-momentum is a timelike vector. From
equation (1.32), the components of the 4-momentum are
P = m0 (u) (c, ~u) .
(2.3)
Hence, defining the relativistic mass of the particle as
with
m0
m = m0 (u) = p
1
(2.4)
= uc , we can write the components of the 4-momentum as

P = m (c, ~u) = (mc, p~)
(2.5)
where the physical momentum is p~ = m~u. In the limit of small velocities u c we

can expand

1 u 2
u 4
(u) = 1 +
+O
(2.6)
2 c
c
23
24
CHAPTER 2. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS
and therefore
p~ = m0

1 u 2
u 4
(u) ~u = m0 ~u 1 +
+O
2 c
c
m0 ~u
(2.7)
which corresponds to the Newtonian momentum. On the other hand, the first component of the 4-momentum can be expanded as

1 u 2
u 4
1 m0 u2
0
P = mc = m0 c 1 +
+O
m0 c +
.
(2.8)
2 c
c
2 c
Thus, noting that
1
(2.9)
P 0 c = mc2 = m0 c2 + m0 u2
2
and identifing the second term in the right hand side as the kinetic energy, we define
E0 = m0 c2
(2.10)
as the proper (or rest) energy of the particle and

E = mc2
(2.11)
as its relativistic energy. Therefore, the components of the 4-momentum can be

written
P =
, p~
(2.12)
c
and its norm as
P 2 = m20 c2 =
or
E2
c2
|~
p|
2
E 2 = m20 c4 + |~
p| c 2 .
2.1.1
(2.13)
(2.14)
Particles of Zero Rest Mass
As is well known, in Newtonian mechanics there are no particles with zero rest mass.
However, the description of special relativity makes sense when m0 = 0. When
taking zero rest mass, the 4-momentum becomes a null vector, P 2 = 0 (as well as the
4-velocity), and thus the velocity of the particle must be equal to c. The relativistic
energy of the massless particle is
E = |~
p| c.
(2.15)
The most important realization of a zero rest mass particle is the photon and as
we have seen in a previous
chapter, a plane electromagnetic wave is characterized by

the null 4-vector k = !c , ~k , which satisfies
2.2. THE EQUATION OF MOTION
25
!2
~k = 0.
(2.16)
c2
As is known, many experiments involving blackbody radiation, photoelectric eect,
x-rays, etc. show that the energy of a plane wave is proportional to its frequency !
and that its momentum is proportional to the propagation vector ~k. In both cases,
the proportionality constant has the same dimensionas and numerical value, and is
h
called the Plancks constant, ~ = 2
,
k2 =
(2.17)
~!
~~k.
p~ =
(2.18)
This shows clearly that the 4-momentum associated with the plane wave is simply
(2.19)
P = ~k.
2.2
The Equation of Motion
The relativistic equation of motion of a particle with proper mass m0 is given by

dP
= m0 A
(2.20)
d
where is the particles proper time, A is the 4-acceleration and f is the force 4-vector.
In components we have
f=
f =
dP
dt dP
=
=
d
d dt
(u)
dP
dt
(2.21)
which can be writen

f =
(u)
1 dE d~
p
,
c dt dt
(2.22)
The spatial component are identified with the physical force,

d~
p
F~ =
,
dt
(2.23)
and therefore
f =
(u)
1 dE ~
,F
c dt
(2.24)
From the equation of motion it is straightforward that the 4-force is always orthogonal to the 4-velocity,
f U = m0 U A = 0.
(2.25)
26

In components this relation is
f U = f U =
(u)
dE
dt
F~ ~u = 0
(2.26)
which gives the well known relation

dE
= F~ ~u
dt
(2.27)
dE = F~ d~r = dW.
(2.28)
or in terms of the classical work
2.3
Explicit Forms of the 4-Force
From equations (2.24) and (2.27) we conclude that the 4-force components are
f = f 0 , f~ =
(u)
1~
F ~u, F~
c
(2.29)
This gives the condition

f0 =
1~
f ~u
c
(2.30)
that does not determine the 4-force uniquely but tell us that some (or all) components
of f are velocity dependent. Now we will consider some simple examples of relativistic
forces.
2.3.1
Constant Newtonian Force
Consider a constant Newtonian force, F~ = constant. This gives the 4-force components
f~ =
f0
F~
(u) F~ = p
1
~
1 F ~u
p
.
2
c 1
(2.31)
(2.32)
It is obvious that all components are increasing function of the velocity. Note the
even if we consider f~ as a constant, the component f 0 would be velocity-dependent
(and vice-versa).
2.3. EXPLICIT FORMS OF THE 4-FORCE
2.3.2
27
4-Force Linear in the Velocity
The simplest form of the 4-force is a linear combination of the components of the
4-velocity. This can be written in the form
f = F (x) U
(2.33)
where is a constant and F (x) is a second rank tensor field. The condition of
orthogonality f U = 0 gives the condition
f U = F (x) U U = 0
(2.34)
which clearly states that the tensor field F is antisymmetric, i.e.

F (x) =
2.3.3
(2.35)
F (x) .
The Lorentz Force
A particular case of a linear force is the Electromagnetic interaction. Choosing = qc

with q the electric charge and defining the antisymmetric tensor in terms of the electric
~ = (E1 , E2 , E3 ) and the magnetic field B
~ = (B1 , B2 , B3 ) as
field E
0
1
0
E1
E2
E3
B E1
0
B3 B2 C
C,
F = B
(2.36)
@ E2 B 3
0
B1 A
E3
B2 B1
0
the 4-force is given by
q
F U .
c
The electromagnetic tensor can be expressed also in contravariant indices as
0
1
0
E1
E2
E3
B E1
0
B3 B2 C
C
F = B
@ E2 B 3
0
B1 A
E3
B2 B1
0
f =
(2.37)
(2.38)
or in mixed indices
0
B E1
B
=@
E2
E3
E1
0
B3
B2
E2
B3
0
B1
which let us write the 4-force as
q
F U.
c
The equation of motion (2.20) gives in this case
f =
1
E3
B2 C
C,
B1 A
0
(2.39)
(2.40)
28
d
d
dx
m0
d
q
F U.
c
(2.41)
q 0
F U
c
(2.42)
The = 0 component of this equation is

d
d
dt d
d dt
(u)
m0
dx0
d
dt dx0
d dt
m0
q 0
F iU i
c
d
q
(m0 (u) c) = F 0 i ui (u)
dt
c
(2.43)
(2.44)
d
mc2 = qEi ui
dt
(2.45)
d
~ ~u
mc2 = q E
dt
(2.46)
(2.47)
which can be written as

mc2 = q
~ d~r.
E
This equation shows that only the electric field contributes to the total energy. On
the other hand, the spatial components of the equation of motion give
d
d~r
q ~ 0
~
m0
=
EU + (u) ~u B
(2.48)
d
d
c
dt d
d dt
m0
dt d~r
d dt
q ~
~
Ec (u) + (u) ~u B
c
(2.49)
d
~ + q ~u B,
~
(m~u) = q E
(2.50)
dt
c
which is the equation of motion with the Lorentz force in the right hand side.
Finally it is important to remember that F is a tensor and therefore under a
Lorentz transformation it satisfies
F
= F .
(2.51)
This equation give us the transformation laws for the electric and magnetic fields. For
example, the first component of the electric field satisfies
0
E1 =
0 1 F .
(2.52)
2.4. ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2.3.4
29
4-Force Quadratic in the Velocity
Consider now a 4-force quadratic in velocities,

f = H (x) U U
(2.53)
where H (x) is a tensor field of order three. In order to satisfy the condition
f U = 0, or in components
f U = H (x) U U U = 0,
(2.54)
this tensor must be anisymmetric in any two indices and therefore it has only 24
independent components. However, we can take as a particular case a tensor antisymmetric in all its indices, i.e.
H =
H = H
=H
H .
(2.55)
Hence, it can be written in a compact form as

H =
(2.56)
where
is the completly antisymmetric symbol with
the dual of H .

2.4
0123
= +1 and H is called
Angular Momentum
In classical mechanics we can write the equations of motion in terms of the angular
momentum, defined as ~l = ~r p~. Here we have to use the generalization of the cross
product defining the second order antisymmetric tensor l in terms of the 4-position
and the 4-momentum as
l = x P
x P .
(2.57)
It is related with the components of the 3-dimensional angular momentum ~l =

(lx , ly , lz ) through the spatial components
l12 =
l
13
l23 =
l21
31
l32
(2.58)
lz
(2.59)
ly
(2.60)
lx .
The rest of the components are

l
0j
=x P
x P = ctmu
x mc = mct u
xj
t
(2.61)
These components do not have a simple physical meaning. However, note that l0j
vanishes for linear motion xj = uj t . Therefore, we can write
30
l0j
(2.62)
mc
to interpret l0j as the deviation from the linear motion of the particle.
From the angular momentum l we can construct dierent scalars. In particular
we define
xj = uj t
l l = l0j l0j + li0 li0 + lij lij + lji lji
(2.63)
l l = 2l0j l0j + 2lij lij
(2.64)
or
with i < j. This gives

l l =
2 l0j
h
2
+ 2 ~l = 2 x2 P 2
(xP )
(2.65)
The relativistic torque is defined in a similar fashion using the 4-force,

N = x f
x f .
(2.66)
Thus, the equations of motion can be written as

N =
2.5
dl
.
d
(2.67)
Problems
1. Probe equation (2.48).

3. Using equation (2.51), find the electric and magnetic fields for a charge Q that
moves with constant velocity ~u along the positive x axis.
4. Find the components of the dual tensor F of the electromagnetic field tensor
(2.36) to show that it is obtained by replacing E by +B and B by E. Write
them in matricial form.
5. From the definition of the electromagnetic field tensor (2.36), define two Lorentz
invariants. (Hint: consider also the dual tensor F ).
~ and the magnetic field B
~ are neither
6. In an inertial frame the electric field E
parallel nor perpendicular ar a particular spacetime point (supposse that the
angle between the two vectors is ). Show that in a dierent inertial system 0 ,
moving relative to with a velocity ~v given by
~ B
~
~v
E
=
2
2,
v2
1 + c2
~ + E
~
B
(2.68)
2.5. PROBLEMS
31
~ 0 and B
~ 0 are parallel at that point. Is there a frame in which the
the fields E
two vectors are perpendicular?.
7. A charge q is released from rest at the origin in the presence of a uniform electric
~ = E0 z and a uniform magnetic field B
~ = B0 x
field E
. Determine the trajectory
~ = 0, finding the path
of the particle by transforming to a system in which E
in that system and then transforming back to the original system. Assume
E0 < B0 . (Hint: a Lorentz boost in an adequate direction is enough!).
32
Part II
Relativistic Electromagnetic
Field Theory
33
Chapter 3
Maxwell Equations
Faraday and Maxwell propose the description of the interaction between charged
particles by using the intermediary electromagnetic field. We will assume, as a starting
point, that this field is produced by the charged particles and that its physical reality
can be probed by measuring the acceleration that it produces on charged particles.
~
It is well known that charged particles at rest are acted on by a force F~E = q E
~ is the electric field. This
where q is an attribute of the particle called charge, and E
equation gives the interpretation of the electric field as the electric force per unit
charge1 .
If the charged particle is moving with velocity ~v , it feels a total force given by
~ + ~v B
~
F~ = q E
(3.1)
~ is the magnetic field. This equation known as the Lorentz Force may be
where B
taken as the defintion of the electric and magnetic fields.
From the conservation of energy, it is known that the electric field is conservative,
i.e.
~ E
~ =0
r
(3.2)
~ = r
~ with an scalar function called the electrostatic or scalar
or equivalently, E
potential. We also know that the magnetic field does not do any work (because the
magnetic force is a cross product between velocity and field).
Empirically, charges in free space and at rest produce an electric field given by
~ =
E
1
4"0
3
~rd x,
r3
(3.3)
where "0 is called the permitivity of free space. From this relation and applying Gauss
law we obtain the dierential relation
1 This is similar to the interpretation of the gravitational field ~
g as the gravitational force per unit
mass.
35
36
CHAPTER 3. MAXWELL EQUATIONS

~ E
~ = .
r
"0
(3.4)
Similarly, stationary currents produce a magnetic field given by

~ = 0
B
4
~
j ~r 3
d x,
r3
(3.5)
where 0 is called the permeability of free space and ~j is the current density. This
equation leads to the dierential relation
~ B
~ = 0~j.
r
(3.6)
~ B
~ = 0.
r
(3.7)
Finally, in agreement with observation, the magnetic field lines are always closed.
This fact can be written in dierential form as
~ and B
~ are dierent faces
However, our study of special relativity shows that E
of the same thing, the electromagnetic field F . Therefore, it is not surprising to
find some relations between these fields. In fact, in 1831 Michael Faraday reported
a series of experiments in which a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
Faraday concluded that his results can be summarized by considering a closed curve
C and the enclosed surface S in the integral equation
~ d~l = @
~ a
E
B.d~
(3.8)
@t S
C
that, applying Stokes theorem, gives the dierential relation
~ E
~ =
r
~
@B
.
@t
(3.9)
Note that this equation reduces to the relation (3.2) when the magnetic field is
static.
Considering now the current crossing a closed surface S, we introduce the current
density ~j by the relation
~j d~a.
I=
(3.10)
S
Applying Gauss theorem we obtain
~ ~j dV
~j d~a =
r
S
(3.11)
where V is the volume enclosed by S. Because of the empirical conservation of the

charge, whatever flows out through the surface must come at the expense of the
remaining inside,
3.1. THE PROBLEM AND THE SOLUTION

37
~ ~j dV =
r
d
@
dV =
dV.
(3.12)
dt
V
V
V @t
Note that the minus sign reflects the fact that an outward flow decreases the charge
left in V. Since this relation applies to any volume, we obtain the continuity equation
@ ~ ~
+ r j = 0.
@t
3.1
(3.13)
The problem and the solution
So far, we have encountered the equations that represent the state of electromagnetic
theory when Maxwell began his work,
~ E
~
r
"0
(3.14)
~ B
~
r
(3.15)
~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
~
@B
@t
0~j.
(3.16)
(3.17)
Maxwell notice a fatal inconsistency in these equations that has to do with the
rule that the divergence of a curl is always zero. Applying the divergence to equation
(3.16) works fine,
~ r
~ E
~ =
r
~
~ @B = @ r
~ B
~ =0
r
(3.18)
@t
@t
which is zero by equation (5.10). However, when applying the divergence to equation
(3.17) we get
~ r
~ B
~ = 0 r
~ ~j 6= 0
r
(3.19)
and it is obvious that the right hand side is not neccesarily zero. In order to solve
this problem, Maxwell consider the continuity equation (3.13) to obtain
!
~
@
@ ~ ~
@E
~
~
~
rj =
=
"0 r E = r "0
.
(3.20)
@t
@t
@t
Therefore, the Amperes law must be corrected to be
~
~ B
~ = 0~j + 0 "0 @ E .
r
(3.21)
@t
The new term is hard to detect in ordinary electromagnetic experiments, where
it must compete for recognition with ~j, and thats why Faraday and others never
discovered it in the laboratory. It can be stated by saying that a changing electric
field induces a magnetic field.
38
3.1.1
Magnetic Monopoles
In vacuum, Maxwells equations have a nice symmetry,

~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
(3.22)
(3.23)
~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
~
@B
@t
~
@E
0 "0
.
@t
(3.24)
(3.25)
However, this symmetry is spoiled by the electric charge term in Gausss law and
the current term in Amperes law. In order to preserve the symmetry, some people has
studied the possible existence of magnetic charge. Under this supposition, Maxwells
equations become
~ E
~
r
e
"0
(3.26)
~ B
~
r
0 m
(3.27)
~ E
~
r
0~jm
~ B
~
r
~
@E
0~je + 0 "0
,
@t
~
@B
@t
(3.28)
(3.29)
where m represents the density of magnetic charge and ~jm would be the current of
magnetic charge. In this situation, both charges, electric and magnetic, would be
conserved
@m ~ ~
+ r jm
@t
@e ~ ~
+ r je
@t
(3.30)
0.
(3.31)
However, there is no proof of the existence of magnetic charges (see [7] for a
bibliography on the subject). Experimental facts show that m and J~m are zero
everywhere. For example, magnetic multipole expansions have no monopole term
and magnetic dipoles (magnets) consist of current loops and not by separated north
and south poles.
3.2
Maxwells Equations in Matter
When working with materials that present electric and/or magnetic polarization,
Maxwells equations must be rewritten. For example, in the static case, inside polar-
3.2. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS IN MATTER
39
ized matter there will be an accumulation of bound charge. The electric polarization
P~ is related to the bound charge through
~ P~ .
r
(3.32)
~ M
~.
~jb = r
(3.33)
~
~jp = @ P .
@t
(3.34)
b =
~ is related to the bund curSimilarly, a magnetic polarization or magnetization M

rent by
When considering the non-static case there is one more thing to take into account.
Any change in the electric polarization P~ involves a flow of bound charge, which gives
rise to a polarization current density that can be written as
It is important to note that ~jp has nothing to do with ~jb because the first one is
the result of linear motion of bound charge while the second one is associated with the
magnetization and therefore it involves the spin and the orbital motion of electrons.
Note that equation () gives rise to a continuity equation,
~
~ ~jp = r
~ @P
r
@t
~ P~
@ r
~ ~jp =
r
@t
(3.35)
(3.36)
@b
.
(3.37)
@t
With these results in mind we will rewrite Maxwells equations. The first step is
to write the total charge density as
~ ~jp =
r
= f + b = f
~ P~
r
(3.38)
(3.39)
where f represents the free charge. Therefore, Gausss law gives
or
h
~ E
~ = 1 f
r
"0
~ P~
r
~ D
~ = f
r
(3.40)
~ = "0 E
~ + P~ .
D
(3.41)
where we defined the electric displacement as
Likewise, the total current density can be written
40
~j = ~jf + ~jb + ~jp

~
~ M
~ + @P
~j = ~jf + r
@t
and thus, Amperes law becomes
!
~
@ P~
@E
~
~
~
~
~
r B = 0 j f + r M +
+ 0 "0
@t
@t
(3.42)
(3.43)
(3.44)
or
~
~ H
~ = ~jf + @ D
r
@t
(3.45)
where we defined the vector2

~ = 1B
~
H
0
~.
M
(3.46)
In conclusion, inside matter, Maxwells equations can be written as
3.3
~ D
~
r
~ B
~
r
(3.47)
(3.48)
~ E
~
r
~ H
~
r
~
@D
= ~jf +
.
@t
~
@B
@t
(3.49)
(3.50)
Electromagnetic Waves
In regions of space where there are no sources, Maxwells equations are

~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
(3.51)
(3.52)
~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
~
@B
@t
~
@E
0 "0
.
@t
(3.53)
(3.54)
2 Some authors call H

~ the magnetic field and change the name of B
~ to flux induction or magnetic
~ and therefore we will call it always the
induction. However, for us the fundamental quantity is B
~
magnetic filed while quantity Hwill
be called simply H.
3.3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
41
Taking the curl of the third equation gives
~ r
~ E
~ =
r
~
~ @B
r
@t
and considering the vector identity
~ r
~ E
~ =r
~ r
~ E
~
r
~
r2 E,
(3.55)
(3.56)
we have
~ r
~ E
~
r
@ ~
~ .
rB
(3.57)
@t
Using the first and fourth of the Maxwells equations we obtain the wave equation
for the electric field,
~ =
r2 E
~
@2E
.
(3.58)
2
@t
Similarly, from Maxwells equations is straightforward to obtain th wave equation
for the magnetic field,
~ = 0 "0
r2 E
~
@2B
.
(3.59)
2
@t
In both equations it is clear that the propagation speed of the waves is given by
the paramters "0 and 0 by the relation
~ = 0 "0
r2 B
c= p
3.3.1
1
.
"0 0
(3.60)
Monochromatic Plane Waves
Sinusoidal waves with one frequency ! are called monochromatic. A general solution
of the wave equations for the electric and magnetic fields are the plane waves
~ (t, ~r)
E
~ (t, ~r)
B
=
=
~ 0 ei(~k~r
E
~ ei(~k~r
B
0
!t)
(3.61)
!t)
(3.62)
~ 0 and B
~ 0 are two constant vectors. Replacing into the wave equations we
where E
obtain the condition
~k
!2
.
c2
(3.63)
~ and B
~ fields are not independent because they must obey Maxwells
However, the E
equations. For example replacing the electric wave solution in Gauss law we obtain
42
~ E
~
r
i(~
k~
r !t)
~
~
r E0 e
~ 0 re
~ i(~k~r !t)
E
~ 0 ~ke
iE
i(~
k~
r !t)
(3.64)
which gives the condition

~ 0 ~k = 0.
E
(3.65)
With a similar procedure we obtain for the magnetic field

~ 0 ~k = 0.
B
(3.66)
These two equations mean that the electric and magnetic fields are both orthogonal
to the direction of propagation of the wave ~k. We conclude that electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves.
Using Faradays law, the wave solution gives
~ E
~
r
h
i
~ E
~ 0 ei(~k~r !t)
r
~ 0 ei(~k~r !t)
i~k E
~k E
~0
~
@B
@t
@ h ~ i(~k~r
B0 e
@t
~ ei(~k~r !t)
i! B
~ 0.
!B
=
=
!t)
i
(3.67)
~ and B
~ are mutually orthogonal.
This equation shows that the three vectors ~k, E
Taking the norm of this equation we obtain the relation between the magnitudes
3.3.1.1
~k E
~ =! B
~
(3.68)
~ =c B
~ .
E
(3.69)
Polarization of Plane Waves
Because of relations (3.67) and (3.69), the fields for a plane wave moving in the
direction n
3 can be expressed as
~ (t, ~r)
E
~ (t, ~r)
B
(E01 n
1 + E02 n
2 ) ei(k~r
1
~
n
3 E
c
!t)
(3.70)
(3.71)
43
where E01 and E02 are, in general, complex amplitudes (because the fields in
dierent dirctions may have dierent phases).
The Polarization of a plane wave describes the direction, magnitude and phase of
the electric part of the wave. Thus, we have some special cases of polarization:
1. Linear Polarization. When E01 and E02 have the same phase (and maybe
dierent magnitudes). We define the polarization
vector with a magnitude E =

p
1 E02
2
2
E01 + E02 and making an angle = tan
with respect to the direction n
1.
E01
It is convenient to choose coordinates so that E02 = 0.
2. Elliptical Polarization. When E01 and E02 have dierent phases and dierent magnitudes. The polarization vector traces out an ellipse in the plane defined by
n
1 and n
2.
3. Circular Polarization. Corresponds to a special case of the elliptical polarization in which E01 and E02 have a dierence of phase of exactly 2 and the
magnitudes are equal. Since ei 2 = i, the electric field takes the form
~ (t, ~r)
E
3.3.2
E01
p (
n1 i
n2 ) .
2
(3.72)
Propagation in Linear Media
Inside matter, in regions where there is no free charges or currents, the Maxwells
equations can be written
~ D
~
r
~ B
~
r
(3.73)
(3.74)
~ E
~
r
~ H
~
r
~
@B
@t
~
@D
.
@t
(3.75)
(3.76)
If the media is linear the electric displacement is

~ = "E
~ = "0 E
~ +P
~
D
(3.77)
~ the polarization vector and " the electric permitivity of the material. Simwith P
ilarly
~ = 1B
~ = 1B
~ +M
~
H
0
(3.78)
with the magnetic permeability of the material. If the medium is homogeneous

(i.e. the parameters " and that characterize the media do not vary from point to
point), Maxwells equations become
44
~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
(3.79)
(3.80)
~ E
~
r
~ B
~
r
~
@B
@t
~
@E
"
.
@t
(3.81)
(3.82)
Note that these equations are completely similar to Maxwells vacuum equations
with the new parameters and " instead of 0 and "0 . Therefore, electromagnetic
waves appear in a similar form as in vacuum but they propagate in the linear and
homogeneus medium with speed
where
1
c
v=p =
"
n
(3.83)
p
"
c
n= p
=
"0 0
v
(3.84)
is called the index of refraction of the material.

3.3.2.1
Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence
Consider a plane wave with frequency ! moving in a medium I in the z direction,

polarized in the x direction and approaching the plane xy which forms the boundary
with medium II. The electric and magnetic fields are given by
~ I = E0 e
E
~ I = B0 e
B
i(!t kI z)
i(!t kI z)
y =
(3.85)
E0
e
vI
i(!t kI z)
(3.86)
where vI is the propagation speed in medium I. When the wave arrives to the
interface, it gives rise to a reflected wave described by the fields
~ R = E0R e
E
~R =
B
B0R e
i(!t+kI z)
i(!t+kI z)
y =
(3.87)
E0R
e
vI
i(!t+kI z)
(3.88)
which travels back to the left in medium I (that is represented by the minus sign in
~ R is required
the argument of the exponential function). Note that the minus sign in B
by the ortoghonality relations between the fields and the direction of propagation.
However, the incident wave also gives rise to a transmitted wave into medium II,
described by
45
~ T = E0T e
E
~T =
B
B0T e
i(!t kII z)
i(!t kII z)
y =
(3.89)
E0T
e
vII
i(!t kII z)
(3.90)
where vII is the propagation speed in medium II.

3.3.2.2
Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence
Now we will consider the general case of oblique incidence, in which the incoming
wave meets the boundary at an arbitrary angle of incidence I . Consider the incident
plane wave with frequency ! moving in medium I and described by the fields
~
kI ~
r)
(3.91)
~ I = 1 kI E
~I .
B
v1
(3.92)
~I = E
~ 0 e i(!t
E
It gives rise to a reflected wave described by the fields

~
kR ~
r)
(3.93)
~ R = 1 kR E
~R .
B
v1
(3.94)
~
kT ~
r)
(3.95)
~ T = 1 kT E
~T .
B
v2
(3.96)
~R = E
~ 0R e i(!t
E
and to a transmitted wave into medium II, described by

~T = E
~ 0T e i(!t
E
Note that all three waves have the same frequency ! becuase it is determined by
the source of the wave. Thus the three wave numbers are related with the velocity of
propagation and the frequency by
~k v1 = ~k
I
v1 = ~k
v2 = !
(3.97)
n1 ~
k
n2
(3.98)
or equivalently
~k
= ~k
v2 ~
k
v1
with n1 and n2 the indices of refraction in each region. The phase of the plane wave
must be the same at every point in the interface (i.e. z = 0). Hence, we obtain the
conditions
~kI ~r = ~kR ~r = ~kT ~r
(3.99)
46
with z = 0, or explicitly in cartesian coordinates,

kIx x + kIy y = kRx x + kRy y = kT x x + kT y y
(3.100)
for all values of x and y. This equation holds for the components separately because
taking x = 0 gives
kIy = kRy = kT y
(3.101)
kIx = kRx = kT x .
(3.102)
while taking y = 0 gives
These conditions mean that if we orient our axes so that ~kI lies in the xz planes
(i.e. kIy = 0), the vectors ~kR and ~kT are in the same plane. This result can be stated
as
The incident, reflected and transmitted wave vectors form a plane (plane
of incidence) which also includes the normal to the surface.
Equation (3.102) also implies that
~kI sin I = ~kR sin R = ~kT sin T
(3.103)
where I is the angle of incidence, R is the angle of reflection, and T is the angle of
refraction (remember that all angles are measured with respect to the normal). Using
equation (3.98) we conclude the law of reflection,
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection,
I = R .
(3.104)
Similarly, we conclude the law of refraction, or Snells law,

sin T
n1
=
.
sin I
n2
3.4
(3.105)
The Electromagnetic Field Equations
The complete theory of electromagnetism is condensed in Maxwells equations. In

order to write them in a convariant language, we will choose some special units.
First, we will use units in which the magnetic field has the same dimensions as the
electric field. This is acomplished via equation (3.69) i.e. we will rescale the magnetic
field by a c factor. Secondly, we will put "0 = 1 and therefore 0 "0 = 0 = c12 . This
gives the Maxwells equations
3.5. ELECTROMAGNETIC POTENTIALS
~ E
~ =
r
~ B
~ =0
r
~
~ E
~ = 1 @B
r
c @t
~
1
1
~ B
~ = ~j + @ E
r
c
c @t
47
(Gausss law)
(3.106)
(no magnetic monopoles)
(3.107)
(Faradays law)
(3.108)
(Amperes law with Maxwells term)
(3.109)
together with the Lorentz force,
and the continuity equation
3.5
1
~
~
~
F = q E + ~v B ,
c
(3.110)
@ ~ ~
+ r j = 0.
@t
(3.111)
Electromagnetic Potentials
Now we will present the representation of the fields in terms of potentials. In electrostatics, the electric field is conservative and we write it in terms of the scalar potential.
~ is nonzero. HowIn electrodynamics this is no longer possible because the curl of E
ever, equation (3.107) tell us that the magnetic potential is divergenceless, so we can
write it in terms of a potential vector as
~ =r
~ A
~
B
(3.112)
becuase the divergence of a curl is always zero. Using this relation in Faradays law
we have
~ E
~ =
r
1 @ ~
~
rA
c @t
~
1~
@A
r
c
@t
!
~
~ + 1 @ A = 0.
E
c @t
~ E
~ =
r
~
r
(3.113)
(3.114)
(3.115)
Since the curl of the term in the parenthesis is always zero,we can write it in terms
of the gradient of a scalar potential ,
or
~
~ + 1 @A =
E
c @t
~
r
(3.116)
48
~
1 @A
.
(3.117)
c @t
The potential representation of the fields automatically fulfills the two homogeneous Maxwell equations (3.107) and (3.108). Putting expression (3.117) in Gausss
law we obtain
!
~
1 @A
~
~
r r +
=
(3.118)
c @t
~ =
E
~
r
1 @ ~ ~
r A = .
(3.119)
c @t
Finally, replacing equations (3.112) and (3.117) in Ampere/Maxwells law we obtain the equation
!
1
~
1
@
1
@
A
~ r
~ A
~ = ~j
~ +
r
r
(3.120)
c
c @t
c @t
r2 +
~
1 @2A
~ r
~ A
~ = 1~j 1 r
~ @
r
.
2
2
c
c
@t
c @t
~ r
~ A
~ =r
~ r
~ A
~
~ gives
Using the vector identity r
r2 A
~ r
~ A
~
r
~ = 1~j
r A
c
1~
r
c
@
@t
~
1 @2A
.
c2 @t2
(3.121)
(3.122)
~ (t, ~x) and B

~ (t, ~x)
Note that the system of four equations to obtain the fields E
given the sources (t, ~x) and ~j (t, ~x), has been simplified to a system of two equations
~ (t, ~x). However, the simplification obtained by
to obtain the potentials (t, ~x) and A
~ are not
the introduction of the potentials must be paid for by the fact that and A
unique for a given electromagnetic field.
3.6
Covariant Form of Maxwell-Lorentz Equations
~ as
We define the 4-vector potential in terms of and A
~
A = , A
(3.123)
or equivalently
A =
so the electromagnetic field is given by
~
, A
F = @ A
@ A .
(3.124)
(3.125)
3.6. COVARIANT FORM OF MAXWELL-LORENTZ EQUATIONS
49
which is obviously an antisymmetric tensor. We will postulate that the total charge Q,
or equivalently the equation of continuity, is invariant under Lorentz transformations.
We define the 4-current density j by
j := 0 U
(3.126)
with 0 the rest charge density which is an invariant quantity. We can write also
j = 0
dx
dt dx
dx
= 0
=
d
d dt
dt
(3.127)
where
dt
= 0 (u)
(3.128)
d
is the actual charge density. Then, the components of the 4-current density can be
written
j = (c, ~v ) = c, ~j .
(3.129)
= 0
The norm of this 4-vector is the invariant
j 2 = j j = 20
(3.130)
and the equation of continuity can now be written as

@ ~ ~
+ r j = 0,
(3.131)
@t
which is simply the 4-dimensional divergence of the current vector.
The Maxwell equations with sources (Gausss law and Ampere/Maxwells law) are
written in a covariant form as
@ j =
1
j .
(3.132)
c
This relation also includes the continuity equation because any antisymmetric
tensor satisfies @ @ F = 0 and thus
@ F =
1
@ j .
(3.133)
c
The homogeneous Maxwell equations are automatically satisfied because any antisymmetric tensor F satisfies the identity
@ @ F = 0 =
F, + F, + F, = 0
(3.134)
or in terms of the dual tensor,
F
=
1
F ,
2
(3.135)
50
they can be written in the simple form

@ F = 0.
(3.136)
To show that this identity is true note that

@ F =
@ F =
1
@ ( F )
2
1
@ ( @ A
2
(3.137)
@ A )
(3.138)
@ F = @ ( @ A )
(3.139)
@ F = @ @ A = 0,
(3.140)
where in the last term we use the fact that @ @ A is symmetric in the indices
while is completely antisymmetric.
From its definition, the dual tensor is obtained by replacing Ei by Bi and Bi by
Ei in the field tensor. thus, in matricial notation this tensor is
0
1
0
B1
B2
B3
B B1
0
E3
E2 C
C
F
=B
(3.141)
@ B2
E3
0
E1 A
B 3 E2
E1
0
or equivalently
3.7
0
B B1
=B
@ B2
B3
B1
0
E3
E2
B2
E3
0
E1
1
B3
E2 C
C.
E1 A
0
(3.142)
Gauge Transformations
As we have mentioned, potentials do not determine uniquely the fields because a

transformation of the potential 4-vector of the form
@
A ! A = A +
(3.143)
@x
with (x) an arbitrary scalar function, does not aect the components of the field
tensor F ,
F
F
@ A
@ A
@ A + @ @
F
F
@ A
F .
@ A
(3.144)
@ A
@ @
(3.145)
(3.146)
(3.147)
3.7. GAUGE TRANSFORMATIONS
51
Equation (3.143) is called a gauge transformation and the quantities invariant

under this kind of transformation are called gauge invariants, and only those will
have a direct experimental significance.
3.7.1
Lorentz Gauge
The freedom given by gauge transformations can be used to simplify the field equations by imposing some specific condition. For example, imposing the Lorentz gauge
condition
@ A = 0,
(3.148)
the field equations (3.132) take the simple and interesting form
@ F = @ (@ A
1
j
c
@ A ) =
@ @ A =
1
j
c
(3.149)
(3.150)
1
j
(3.151)
c
which is just a wave equation with sources for the vector field A . Note that the
choice of this gauge is made by adding to A a term such that @ = @ A .
However, it is important to note that even with the Lorentz gauge imposed, the field
is not uniquely defined because you can add to the potential a divergence @ ' of any
function ' solution of the equation ' = 0, and the fields do not change.
In the Lorentz gauge, both the potential and the field satisfy a wave equation.
This result is independent of coordinates and exhibits the causal propagation of the
fields or potentials at the speed of light.
A =
3.7.2
The Coulomb or Transverse Gauge
Other important gauge is the Coulomb gauge, also known as transverse gauge, that
is defined by the condition
~ A
~ = 0.
r
(3.152)
r2 =
(3.153)
The field equations in terms of the potentials (3.119) and (3.122) become
and
~
r A
2
The potential
~
1 @2A
=
2
2
c @t
1~ 1 ~
j+ r
c
c
is the well known solution
@
@t
(3.154)
52
1
(~r) =
4
which comes from the Greens function

G (~r, ~r0 ) =
(~r0 ) 3
d x0
|~r ~r0 |
(3.155)
1
4 |~r ~r0 |
(3.156)
that solves the point-source dierential equation

r2 G (~r, ~r0 ) = (~r
~r0 ) .
(3.157)
However, function (~r) represents an instantaneous potential. This means that a

change in the charge distribution modifies instantly the electric potnetial throughout
all space. a potential that
3.8
Lorentz Invariants
Using the Minkowskian product, we can define many Lorentz invariants from the 4vector A and the tensor F . Two important invariant quantities that contain only
the fields (and therefore are also gauge invariants) are
2
2
~
~
F F = 2 B
E
(3.158)
and
F F = 2F F =
~ B.
~
8E
(3.159)
These invariant will be important in following chapters.
3.9
Problems
1. Obtain equation (3.4) using Gauss law.

2. Obtain equation (3.6).
~
3.
Probe that
the divergence of the curl of any vector is always zero, i.e. r
~
~
~
r C = 0 for any vector C.
4. Assume that there is a Coulomb law for magnetic charges in the form
0 Qm qm
F~ =
r.
(3.160)
4 r2
Find the force that the magnetic charge qm feels when moving with velocity ~v
~ and B.
~ (Hint: See [12])
through electric and magnetic fields E
5. Consider a magnetic charge qm passing through a loop of wire without resistance
and self inductance L. Find the current induced in the loop. (Hint: See [4])
3.9. PROBLEMS
53
6. Show that equation (3.125) gives the same expression as equation (2.36).
7. Show that equations (3.132) and (3.136) correspond to Maxwells equations.
8. Using the definition of the field tensor and its dual, probe equations (3.158) and
(3.159).
54
Chapter 4
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian

Formulation
4.1
Equation of Motion in Lagrangian Form
In order to write a covariant Hamiltons principle for a single particle we define the
action integral using the proper time as
2
S=
L [x ( ) , x ( ) , ] d
(4.1)
1
dx
d
where x =
= U and L is a functional such that the true trajectory of the
particle x ( ) gives an extremum of the action,
S = 0.
(4.2)
As always, the variation is defined so that the end points x (1 ) and x (2 ) are
fixed. However, this time we also have the extra condition
U 2 ( ) = c2 .
(4.3)
The lagrangian is a Lorentz scalar and it is invariant under reparameterizations.

Hence, in order to obtain the equations of motion and include the condition (4.3),
we will use another invariant parameter instead of the proper time. This gives the
variational principle
L [x ( ) , v ( ) , ] d = 0
(4.4)
dx
d dx
d
=
=
U .
d
d d
d
(4.5)
where
v =
55
56
CHAPTER 4. LAGRANGIAN AND HAMILTONIAN FORMULATION

The norm of this 4-vector is
v2 =
which gives
d
d
and therefore we have
d
d
U2 =
d
d
c2
v 2
c
v
U .
c
In order to calculate the variation of the action let us write
L=
(4.6)
(4.7)
v =
(4.8)
@L
@L
x + v .
@x
@v
(4.9)
Using the relation

d
( x ) =
d
dx
d
= v ,
(4.10)
the variation of the lagrangian can be written as
@L
@L d
x +
( x )
@x
@v d
d
@L
d
@L
x +
x .
d
@v
d
@v
L=
L=
@L
@x
(4.11)
(4.12)
Because of the condition of fixed end points, the second term in the right hand
side does not contribute to the total variation of the action. Thus the variation gives
2
@L
d
@L
S=
x d = 0
(4.13)
@x
d
@v
1
and since x is arbitrary inside the boundaries, we obtain the equations of motion
d
@L
@L
= 0.
(4.14)
d
@v
@x
Defining the generalized momenta
p =
@L
,
@v
(4.15)
the equations of motion may be written

dp
@L
=
.
d
@x
(4.16)
4.2. EXAMPLES
4.2
4.2.1
57
Examples
Free Particle
In order to obtain the lagrangian of a free particle, we will consider first its action. In
special relativity the trajectory of a particle in spacetime is known as the worldline,
that can be parameterized by the particles proper time . The action of the particle
must be a scalar and since is relativistic invariant we will propose
S0 / d.
(4.17)
The action has the units
[S] = [Energy] [Time]
(4.18)
[ ] = [Time] .
(4.19)
while
Therefore, the proportionality constant between action an proper time must have
energy units. For a particle with proper mass m0 we proose that this constant is the
rest energy E0 = m0 c2 , giving the action
2
S0 = m0 c
d
(4.20)
where we introduce a minus sign to obtain the correct non-relativistic limit as will be
seen below. From the definition of line element we have
d =
ds
c
(4.21)
and then the action can be written

S0 =
4.2.1.1
m0 c
(4.22)
ds.
Non-Relativistic Limit
We can use the coordinate time t as the variable of integration by noting that the line
element can be written as
s
2
|~u|
ds = cdt 1
(4.23)
c2
where we have defined the physical velocity as
2
|~u| =
dx1
dt
dx2
dt
dx3
dt
(4.24)
58

Thus, the action is
m0 c2
S0 =
t2
t1
|~u|
dt
c2
(4.25)
from which we have the lagrangian

L0 =
In the limit of small speeds,
L0 '
m0 c2
m0 c2
|~u|
.
c2
(4.26)
|~
u|
c
1, the lagrangian can be expanded as

!
2
1 |~u|
1
2
1
= m0 c2 + m0 |~u| .
2 c2
2
(4.27)
The first term in the right hand side is a constant, so it does not aect the
equation of motion while the second term is just the non-relativistic lagrangian for a
free particle (Note that the minus sign introduced in the action is neccesary to obtain
the correct non-relativistic lagrangian).
4.2.1.2
Equation of Motion
From the equation (4.7) we can change the proper time for a new parameter
action (4.20) by making
p
d
2
S0 = m0 c
d = m0 c
v2 d
d
and therefore the free particle is described by the Lagrangian
p
L 0 = m0 c v 2
in the
(4.28)
(4.29)
where we have ommited this time the irrelevant minus sign. The generalized momentum is
p =
p
@L0
@
=
m0 c v v
@v
@v
(4.30)
m0 c
p = p v
v2
(4.31)
p = m0 U ,
(4.32)
but using (4.8),
that corresponds to the definition of the 4-momentum in equation (2.1). The equation
of motion is
dp
d
=
(m0 U ) = 0
d
d
(4.33)
4.2. EXAMPLES
59
d d
(m0 U ) = 0
d d
d
(mo U ) = 0
d
which is the Minkowskian equation of motion for a free particle.
4.2.2
(4.34)
(4.35)
Charged Particle in Electromagnetic Fields
The Lagrangian of a particle in the presence of a vector field is given by

p
q
L = L0 + L1 = m0 c v 2 + A (x) v
(4.36)
c
where the interaction part couples the particle velocity to the external vector field
A (x). The generalized momentum is
p =
@L
m0 c
q
= p v + A
@v
c
v2
q
p = m0 U + A
c
(4.37)
(4.38)
or equivalently
q
p = m 0 U + A .
(4.39)
c
Note that in this case it is clear the dierence between the generalized or canonical
momentum and the 4-momentum used in the Minkowskian equation of motion (2.20).
The Lagrangian equation of motion (4.14) is in this case
i
d h
q
@L
m0 U + A (x) =
d
c
@x
i q @A (x)
d d
d d h q
[m0 U ] +
A (x) = v
d d
d d c
c
@x
(4.40)
(4.41)
i q @A (x)
d d
d dx d h q
[m0 U ] +
A
(x)
= v
d d
d d dx c
c
@x
(4.42)
d d
d q @A (x)
q d @A (x)
[m0 U ] +
U
=
U
d d
d c
@x
cd
@x
(4.43)
d
q
@A (x) q @A (x)
[m0 U ] = U
U
d
c
@x
c
@x
d
q @A (x) @A (x)
[m0 U ] = U
.
d
c
@x
@x
(4.44)
(4.45)
60
Identifying the external vector field A (x) with the electromagnetic potential the
term in parenthesis corresponds to the antisymmetric electromagnetic field tensor F
and this equation becomes the Lorentz force found in (2.41),
d
q
[m0 U ] = U F .
d
c
4.3
(4.46)
Hamiltonian Equations of Motion
Now we will introduce formally a Hamiltonian from the Lagrangian L = L [x , v ].

Note that
dL
@L
@L dv
=
v
+
d
@x
@v d
and using the equations of motion, this gives
dL
d
@L
@L dv
=
v
+
d
d
@v
@v d
dL
d
@L
=
v
d
d
@v
(4.47)
(4.48)
(4.49)
which can be written
d
d
@L
v
@v
= 0.
(4.50)
This relation let us define the Hamiltonian as the term in parenthesis,

H = p v
L,
(4.51)
even though this quantity is not the energy (remember that the relativistic energy
coresponds to the zero component of the 4-momentum) and its numerical value is
zero as we will see below. The canonical equations of motion are
@H
@x
@H
@p
4.3.1
=
=
dp
d
dx
.
d
(4.52)
(4.53)
Charged Particle in Electromagnetic Fields
As an example of this formulation consider again the Lagrangian of a particle in the

presence of a vector field,
p
q
L = m0 c v 2 + A (x) v
(4.54)
c
whose generalized momentum is
4.3. HAMILTONIAN EQUATIONS OF MOTION
61
@L
m0 c
q
= p v + A (x) .
2
@v
c
v
The Hamiltonian definition gives
h
i
p
q
H = p v
m0 c v 2 + A (x) v
c
h
i
p
m0 c
q
q
H = p v v + A (x) v
m0 c v 2 + A (x) v = 0
c
c
v2
p =
(4.55)
(4.56)
(4.57)
which is identically zero. However the equations of motion (4.52) and (4.53) can be
calculated from its functional dependence,
@H
@ h
=
p v
@x
@x
i
q
A (x) v =
c
p
m0 c v 2
dp
d
q @A (x)
dp
v
=
c
@x
d
(4.58)
(4.59)
and
@H
@ h
=
p v
@p
@p
v =
4.3.2
i dx
q
A (x) v =
c
d
p
m0 c v 2
dx
.
d
(4.60)
(4.61)
Other Forms of Hamiltonian
Although the above definition of the Hamiltonian function is correct, it has two singular characteristics: it is identically vanishing and it does not corresponds to the
energy. Therefore, in order to avoid these unwanted characteristics we can define
dierent kinds of hamiltonians.
4.3.2.1
Hamiltonian Tensor
Instead of the function H some authors use the non-vanishing symmetric tensor
H = p v
(4.62)
and a set of canonical equations,

@H
@x
@H
@p
=
=
dp
d
dx
.
d
However, this tensor does not have the meaning of energy.
(4.63)
(4.64)
62
4.3.2.2
Hamiltonian as Energy
As we have seen above, the generalized or canonical momentum dier from the 4momentum used in the Minkowskian equation of motion (2.20). In general, teh
canonical momentum p consist of the kinetic term m0 U plus a term that comes
from the interaction with external fields (thus being independent of the proper mass
m0 ) as can be seen from equation (4.39). This can be written as
p = m0 U + f ( , U )
(4.65)
where f is a function of the fields and eventually of the 4-velocity U . From this
relation we can write the generalization of the norm of the 4-momentum,
(p
f ) = m20 U 2 = m20 c2
(4.66)
Assuming that the function f is independent of the velocities we have

p0
f0
p~
f~
= m20 c2
= cp0 ,
and hence, the energy of the particle is the component H
r
2
0
H = cp = c p~ f~ + m20 c2 .
(4.67)
(4.68)
Note that this quantity is not a scalar (nor a vector and nor a tensor) but it is a
transforms as the zero component of a four
component of a 4-vector. Therefore, H
vector under a change of coordinates. This energy can be used as the Hamiltonian
function and the corresponding canonical equations of motion are
@H
@~r
@H
@~
p
=
=
d~
p
d
d~r
.
d
(4.69)
(4.70)
These equations are clearly non-covariant but they are still relativistic invariant.
For a particle in an electromagnetic field, described by the canonical momentum
is
(4.39), we have f = qc A . Therefore, the hamiltonian function H
r
2
= c p~ q A
~ + m2 c2 .
H
(4.71)
0
c
4.3.2.3
Two Dierent Hamiltonians
It is also possible to define two dierent scalar Hamiltonians with the meaning of
energy, supossing that f is independent of the velocity, through the relations
4.4. CLASSICAL SPIN. ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC MOMENTS
h=
1
(p
2m0
f) =
1
m0 c2
2
63
(4.72)
and
h0 =
(p
(4.73)
f ) = m0 c.
Note that function h satisfies the canoncial equations of motion,

@h
1
=
(p
@p
m0
f ) = U =
dx
d
@h
1
dp
=
(p f ) @ f = U @ f =
.
@x
m0
d
It is easy to show that function h0 satisfies a similar set of equations.
4.4
(4.74)
(4.75)
Classical Spin. Electric and Magnetic Moments
One of the greatest advantages of the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations is

that new intrinsec properties of classical relativistic particles can be easily considered
by adding the adequate terms to the lagrangian.
Consider an external electromagnetic field and a particle with an intrinsec magnetic moment
~ = (1 , 2 , 3 ) (not the orbital magnetic moment!) and intrinsec
~ an
dipole moment d~ = (d1 , d2 , d3 ). This particle has, in an external magnetic field B,
~
~
additional energy
~ B and in the presence of an external electric field E, it has an
~ (actually, these moments are defined phenomenologically by
additional energy d~ E
the extra terms in the energy). These two extra terms of energy can be written in
covariant notation as
1
F
(4.76)
2
where
is the antisymmetric tensor
0
1
0
d1
d2
d3
B d1
0
3
2 C
C.
=B
(4.77)
@ d2
3
0
1 A
d3 2
1
0
The fact that this is a tensor means that electric and magnetic moments transform
as
0
@x @x
(4.78)
@x @x
under a general coordinates transformation. Since the moments are not scalars but
vectors in the rest frame of the particle, their orientation can change along the trajectory. Therefore, we have to solve not only the motion of the particle in the presence
of the moments but also the precessions of the moments.
0
64
4.4.1
Motion of the Particle in the Presence of Moments
To obtain the new lagrangian consider the new term in the action of the particle due
to the presence of the moments,
1
1
d
Sm =
F d =
F d
(4.79)
2
2
d
or
p
1
v2
Sm =
F
d .
(4.80)
2
c
The complete lagrangian that describes the particle is obtained by adding this
new term to the lagrangian (4.36),
p
p
1
q
L = m0 c v 2 +
F v 2 + A v
(4.81)
2c
c
and for simplicity, we will consider initially a constant . In order to obtain the
equation of motion note that the new term in L has
p
@
1
1 p 2
1 d
F v 2 =
v @ F =
@ F
(4.82)
@x 2c
2c
2
d
and
p
@
1
d 1
v
2
F
v
=
F p
@v
2c
d
2c
v2
p
d
@
1
d 1
U
2
F v
=
F
d
@v 2c
d
2c
c
p
d
@
1
d d
1
2
F
v
=
F U
d
@v 2c
d d 2c2
d
d
(4.83)
(4.84)
(4.85)
Hence, the lagrangian equation of motion is

d
q
1
[m0 U ] = U F +
d
c
2
@ F
d
d
1
2c2
F U .
(4.86)
In order to interpret physically this equation we rewrite the las term in the right
hand side as
d
1
1
dU
1
F U = 2 F
+ 2 U U @ F
(4.87)
2
d 2c
2c
d
2c
which let us group some terms in the equation (4.86),
d
q
1
[m0 U ] = U F +
d
c
2
@ F
1
2c2
dU
d
1
2c2
U U @ F
(4.88)
1
1+
2m0 c2
d
1
[m0 U ] =
d
1+
d
q
1
[m0 U ] = U F +
d
c
2
q
1
U F +
c
2
@ F
@ F
1
2c2
1
2c2
65
U U @ F
U U @ F
(4.89)
(4.90)
where we defined
1
F .
(4.91)
2m0 c2
The equation of motion shows that the eect of the moments is twofold: first,
they change eectively the mass or the charge of the particle (because of the term
1/ (1 + )); and second, the moments add forces which depend on the gradient of the
external field (i.e. @ F ).
In the particular case of a homogeneus field, @ F = 0, the equation of motion
becomes
=
i
d
1 hq
[m0 U ] =
U F
(4.92)
d
1+
c
which shows a deviation from the Lorentz force. However, if the energy of the moments
is small with respect to the proper energy, 12 F m0 c2 i.e.
0, the Lorentz
equation is recovered.
4.4.2
The Spin Vector
The above analysis is just a first approximation because is, in general, a function
of and therefore we must consider the precession of the moments. To describe it we
can use the tensor or its dual vector S which is defined through the relation
1
p S
2
(4.93)
or equivalently
1
p
(4.94)
2
where is the totally antisymmetric symbol with 0123 = +1 and p is the
momentum vector.
From these relations we obtain easily the properties
S =
p S
(4.95)
(4.96)
0.
(4.97)
66
Hence, the spin of the particle may be described by the 4-vector S that is orthogonal to the momentum. For example, in the rest frame of the
its momentum
particle
~ .
is p = (m0 c, 0, 0, 0) and the spin is the spacelike vector S = 0, S
4.4.2.1
Spin Precession
~ be the spin 4-vector of a particle in an arbitrary system of reference

Let S = S 0 , S
and U its 4-velocity. We can write
~
U @ S = U @ S 0 , S
(4.98)
or using U @ =
dx @
d @x
d
d ,
~
dS 0 dS
,
d d
U @ S =
(4.99)
If there are no forces interacting with the spin of the particle, the equation of
~
motion for the spin vector in the rest frame must be ddS = 0, hence
0
dS ~
U @ S =
,0 .
(4.100)
d
Note that equation (4.95) gives
U @ S U
(4.101)
=0
U U @ S + S U @ U = 0
and using U @ U
particle, we have
dx
@
d @x U
(4.102)
= A , with A the 4-acceleration of the
dU
d
U U @ S =
S A .
(4.103)
Now we will consider

the rest frame of the particle where its 4-velocity has com
~
ponents U = c, 0 and therefore equation (4.100) gives
U U @ S = c
dS 0
=
d
S A
(4.104)
from which we have

dS 0
=
d
S A
.
c
(4.105)
Hence, we can write
U @ S =
S A ~
,0
c
(4.106)
67
or in terms of the 4-velocity,

U @ S =
S A
U
c2
(4.107)
dS
S A
=
U.
(4.108)
d
c2
A general Lorentz boost (i.e. one with ~v in any direction but without rotations)
is given by
ct0
~r0
h
( ) ct
"
= ~r + (
~ ~r
1)
(4.109)
~ ~r
t ~
(4.110)
while the inverse transformation is obtained by replacing ~ ! ~ . In particular, the

spin 4-vector obeys this kind of transformation.
Thus, if the primed components are
~ , the components in the laboratory system

evaluated in the rest frame, S 0 = 0, S
are given by
!
~S
~
~S
~ ,S
~ + ~(
S=
1)
.
(4.111)
2
However, we have that
1
2
(4.112)
1+
and therefore
S=
~S
~ ,S
~+~
1+
~S
~
(4.113)
In addition we know that the 4-velocity and the 4-acceleration in the laboratory
frame are
U = c, ~ c
(4.114)
and
1+
!
d d ~
d~
A= c ,
c+
c .
d d
d
"
#
d
d~
2
~
d
2
~S
~S
~
~
~
S
c
c+~
c
d
d
1+
d
These relations give
(4.115)
68

"
2
~
~
~S
~d +
~ ~d
c S
d
1+
d
SA =
(4.116)
and therefore equation (4.108) becomes

"
#
2
~
~
dS
d
d
~S
~
~ ~
=
S
+
U.
d
c
d
1+
d
(4.117)
Using equations (6.47) and (4.114) we can write the temporal and spatial components of this equation as
d h ~ ~ i
S
d
d ~ ~ 2 ~ ~
S+
S
d
1+
"
"
2
~
~
~S
~d +
~ ~d
S
d
1+
d
(4.118)
2
d~
d~ ~
~
~
~
~
S
+
S
. (4.119)
d
1+
d
These two equations can be written as one relation
d ~ ~ 2 ~ ~
d h ~ ~ i
S+
S = ~
S
d
1+
d
(4.120)
which can be rewritten as
~
dS
d
=~
d
d
1+
~S
~
2
d~
~S
~
d 1 +
(4.121)
Finally, equation (4.121)

be rewritten
may
(with
some algebraic work and using
~
~
~
~
~
~
~B
~ C)
~ as
the vectorial identity A B C = A C B
A
!#
2 "
~
~
dS
d
~ ~
=
S
(4.122)
d
1+
d
or better as
~
dS
~ !
=S
~T
d
(4.123)
where we have defined

!
~T =
1+
~
~d
d
(4.124)
Equation (4.123) represents the Thomas Precession and correspondingly, !

~ T is
known as Thomas Precession Frequency. Note that in this case, the precession of the
spin is produced only by the state of movement of the particle (there are no forces!)
and is clearly a relativistic eect.
4.4.3
69
Equation of Motion for the Spin in the Presence of Electromagnetic Fields
The magnetic moment of a particle can be expressed as proportional to its spin vector.
The proportionality constant depends on a combination of fundamental constants
which have the dimensions of a magnetic moment and is known as the Bohr magneton,
q~
B = 2m
. This relation is
0c
~ = gB
~
S
gq ~
=
S
~
2m0 c
(4.125)
where g is a dimensionless number called the gyromagnetic ratio or Land factor. For
example, the works of Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit (1926) shown that the electron has
~ the torque on the magnetic
g = 2. In the presence of an external magnetic field B,
moment gives the equation of motion for the spin
~
~B =
~ = dS
N
~ B
(4.126)
d
with the proper time that is equivalent to the coordinate time t in the non-relativistic
~ it can be
limit. Similarly, if the particle has an intrinsec electric dipole moment d,
written in terms of the spin as
fq ~
d~ =
S
2m0 c
(4.127)
~ the torque
where f is the electric analog of g. If there is an external electric field E,
on the electric moment gives the equation of motion for the spin
~
~ E = d~ E
~ = dS .
N
(4.128)
d
If the particle has both moments and there are external electric and magnetic
fields, the complete equation of motion for the spin is
~
dS
gq ~ ~
fq ~ ~
=
SB+
S E.
d
2m0 c
2m0 c
(4.129)
From the condition p S = 0 we also have

U S = 0.
(4.130)
~ . Thus
In an arbitrary frame of reference U = (u) (c, ~u) and S = S 0 , S
h
i
~ =0
U S = (u) cS 0 ~u S
(4.131)
from which
S0 =
~
~u S
.
c
(4.132)
70

dS 0
d
While S 0 vanishes in the instantaneous rest frame, its variation
~
d
~
u
S
0
~
dS
1
1 d~u ~ 1
dS
=
=
S + ~u
.
d
c
d
c d
c
d
needs not,
(4.133)
The equations of motion for the spin (4.129) and (4.133) can be generalized covariantly by writting
dS
d
gq
[F S + S F U U ]
2m0 c2
fq
+
[F S + S F U U ]
2m0 c2
1 dU
S U ,
c d
(4.134)
where F
is the dual of F . To probe that (4.134) reproduces equations (4.129) and
(4.133) you just have to evaluate the expression in the rest frame of the particle.
In order to complete the description of the motion of the spin vector there is just
one more thing to consider. The factor dU

d in the last term has to be replaced using
the eqution of motion of the particle (4.90). It gives
1 dU
1
q
1
S U =
U F +
c d
c (1 + m) m0 c
2m0
1
2m0 c2
@ F
U U @ F
S U
and using the orthogonality S U = 0, the last term dissapears,
1 dU
1
q
1
S U =
U F +
c d
(1 + m) m0 c2
2m0 c
@ F
S U .
(4.135)
Replacing in the equation of motion of the spin vector we obtain finally

dS
d
q h g
g
F
S
+
m0 c2 2
2
+
f
(F S + S F
2
1
1+ m
U U )
S F
U U
@ F S U
.
2m0 c (1 + m)
(4.136)
If we consider only magnetic moments (f = 0), homogeneus fields (@ F = 0)

and that the energy of the moments is small with respect to the proper energy,
1
F m0 c2 , i.e. m 0, this equation reduces to
2
dS
d
g
q h g
F
S
+
m0 c 2 2
2
1 S F
U U
that is the well known result reported by Bargmann, Michel and Telegdi [2].
4.5. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CLASSICAL SPIN
4.5
71
General Description of the Classical Spin
The description of classical spin described above is correct but it is most satisfactory
to introduce a Lagrangian that gives both, the equation of motion for the trajectory
of the particle and the equation for the spin. This new Lagrangian must contain
spacetime coordinates that give rise to the equation of motion and also a certain
number of internal degrees of freedom describing the spin and that give rise to the
spin equation. Therefore, we write the action of the particle with spin in the presence
of the vector field A as
S = Ld
(4.137)
where the Lagrangian is
h
i
L = L x , x , q()
, q()
, A (x) , @ A (x)
(4.138)
where the internal coordinates are represented by the four 4-vectors q()
labeled by
= 0, 1, 2, 3. Without loosing generality, we choose the four vector q(0) in the direction of the 4-velocity U and the other three 4-vectors, q(1) , q(2) and q(3) , orthogonal
to this direction, i.e. they are spacelike.
Variation of this action with respect to spacetime coordinates gives the equations
of motion,
S
d
@L
@L
=0 )
=0
(4.139)
x
d @ x
@x
while the variation of this action with respect to internal coordinates gives the equations
!
@L
@L
S
d
=0 )
= 0.
(4.140)
q()
d @ q()
@q()
Now consider the general infinitesimal spacetime and internal transformations
x ! x0 = x + x ,
(4.141)
q()
! q ()
= q()
+ q()
.
(4.142)
Since the field A (x) depends on spacetime coordinates, the infinitesimal transformation change it as
0
A (x) ! A (x0 ) = A (x) + A (x) .
(4.143)
The variation of the field can be written at first order as

0
A (x) = A (x0 )
A (x) = A (x) + x (@ A )
A (x)
(4.144)
72
A (x) =
0A
+ x (@ A ) .
(4.145)
The variation of the action under these transformations is
S=
Ld,
(4.146)
where the variation of the lagrangian is
L=
@L @L
@L
@L
@L
x + x + q()
+ q()
++
@x
@ x
@q()
@ q()
@A
0 A +
@L
@ (@ A )
"
@L
d
@L
@L
x +
@x
d @ x
@q()
"
#
d @L
@L
+
x + q()
d @ x
@ q()
+
@L
[ A
@A
@ A x ] +
d
d
(@ A ) ,
(4.147)
@L
@ q()
@L
[ (@ A )
@ (@ A )
!#
q()
@ @ A x ] . (4.148)
In this exprression the first two brackets vanish because they correspond to the
Euler-Lagrange equations for coordinates x and q, respectively. In order to analyze
the conserved quantities we will consider the following transformations:
d
d
+
4.5.1
"
@L
@L
x + q()
@ x
@ q()
@L
[ A
@A
@ A x ] +
#
@L
[ (@ A )
@ (@ A )
@ @ A x ] . (4.149)
Spacetime Translations
If the spacetime translations defined by the relations

x = a ,
d
d
( x ) = 0,
q()
= 0,
A = 0,
(4.150)
let invariant the lagrangian, i.e. L = 0 in Eq. (4.149), they give the equations of
motion for the particle
d
@L
@L
@L
= p =
@ A +
@ (@ A )
(4.151)
d @ x
@A
@ (@ A )
which is a generalization of the equation of motion (4.90).
4.5. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CLASSICAL SPIN
4.5.2
73
Lorentz Transformations
Now consider the infinitesimal homogeneous Lorentz transformations described by

x = x ,
q()
= q()
.
(4.152)
The 4-vector A and its derivative ,wich is a (0, 2) tensor, transform as

A = A ,
(4.153)
(@ A ) = @ A + @ A ,
Replacing in equation (4.149), this transformation gives the variation
d
d
"
#
@L
@L
@L
x + q() +
A
@ x
@ q()
@A
@L
@L
@ A x +
(@ A )
@A
@ (@ A )
d
d
@L
d
x +
@ x
d
"
@L
@ @ A x
@ (@ A )
#
@L
@L
A
q() +
@ q()
@A
@L
@L
@ A +
@ A
@ (@ A )
@ (@ A )
@L
@ A x
@A
@L
@ @ A x .
@ (@ A )
Renaming some mute indices,
d
d
[p x ] +
d
d
"
#
@L
@L
+
A
q()
@ q()
@A
@L
@L
@ A +
@ A
@ (@ A )
@ (@ A )
@L
@ A x
@A
@L
@ @ A x ,
@ (@ A )
and using the antisymmetry of , we obtain
2 L
2
3

d
d 4 @L
@L
p[ x ] +
q ]() 5 +
A ]
d
d @ q[
@A[
()
@L
@L
A ], +
@ ] A
[
@ @ A
@ A,[
@L
A,
@ (@ A )
@L
A,[ x ]
@A
[ x ]
If the lagrangian (and correspondingly the action) is invariant under the considered
transformation, i.e. L = 0, this equation can be written
74
n
+ p [ x ]
d 4 @L
q ]() 5 + p[ x ]
d @ q[
()
@L
@A[
@L
@A A,[ x ]
@L
[
@A,
A ]
@L
@A,
A,
[ x ]
@L
@ A .
@ (A,[ ) ]
A ],
However, note that the term in brackets in the left hand side is zero because of
the equation of motion (4.151). Thus
2
d 4 @L
q ]() 5 + p[ x ] =
d @ q[
()
@L
A ]
@A[
@L
[
@A,
A ],
@L
@ ] A . (4.154)
@ A,[
Finally, we can write eq. (4.154) as

S + p[ U ] =
M[ A ],
j[ A ]
M[ @ ] A
(4.155)
where we have defined
@L
[
@ q()
@L
@A
and
M =
(4.156)
q ]()
M =
(4.157)
@L
.
@A,
(4.158)
The last two term in the right hand side may be expanded to write
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A = M
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A = M
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A = M
A,
A, + M @ A
A,
A, + M
@ A
A,
A,
@ A ]
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A = M
[A,
and defining the antisymmetric tensor F = A,
A, ,
M @ A
M @ A
@ A + M
[A,
@ A
@ A ]
4.6. PROBLEMS
75
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A = M
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A =
M[ A ], + M,[ @ ] A =
F + M
M[ F ]
Therefore the equation for the spin finally becomes

S + p[ U ]
4.6
j[ A ] + M[ F ] .
(4.159)
Problems
1. Show that the canonical equations of motion are given by equations (4.52) and
(4.53).
2. Write the Hamiltonian tensor H given by equation (4.62) for a charged particle
in an electromagnetic field. Obtain the corresponding canonical equations of
motion (4.63) and (4.64).
given by equation (4.68) for a charged particle
3. Write the scalar Hamiltonian H
in an electromagnetic field. Obtain the corresponding canonical equations of
motion (4.69) and (4.70).
4. Show that the Hamiltonian h0 defined by equation (4.73) satisfies a set of canonical equations of motion.
5. Write the scalar Hamiltonians h and h0 given by equations (4.72) and (4.73)
for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field. Obtain the corresponding
canonical equations of motion.
6. Probe properties (4.95), (4.96) and (4.97).
7. Show that a general Lorentz boost is given by equations (4.109) and (4.110).
9. Derive equation (4.116).
10. Find equations (4.118) and (4.119).
11. Probe that equation (4.121) is obtained from (4.118) and (4.119).
12. Find (4.122) from (4.121).
13. Probe that (4.134) reproduces equations (4.129) and (4.133) by evaluating the
expression in the rest frame of the particle.
76
Chapter 5
Lagrangian Description of the

Fields
Fields as physical systems will be described by a set of functions (x) with =
1, 2, ..., N , that satisfy certain partial dierential equations called the field equations.
Insetad of initial conditions, this set of field equations have boundary conditions to
ensure a unique solution. In this section we will obtain the field equations starting
from an action principle, which guarantees the relativistic invariance of the theory.
The action is written as
S=
Ld4 x
(5.1)
where is a 4-dimensional spacetime region with a 3-dimensional boundary @ and

L = L[
(x) , @
(x) , x ]
(5.2)
is called the Lagrangian density and it is assumed to be a Lorentz scalar. We propose

the variational principle
S=
Ld4 x = 0
(5.3)
and consider a fixed boundary @. Then, we have

@L =
@L
@
@L
(@
@ (@ )
).
(5.4)
Note that the variation is taken by changing the fields but the coordinates x are
not varied. hence, we write
@L
@L
@L
@L =
@
+
@
(5.5)
@
@ (@ )
@ (@ )
and then
77
78
CHAPTER 5. LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELDS
S=
@L
@
@L
@
@ (@ )
d x+
@L
@ (@ )
d4 x = 0.
(5.6)
As always, the last divergence term can be transfromed by Gausss theorem into a
3-dimensional integral at @ and vanishes because of the condition of fixed boundary
for the
.
Because the are arbitrary in , the action principle implies the field equations
@L
@
@L
= 0.
@ (@ )
(5.7)
It is important to note that this deduction is valid for scalar, vectorial and tensorial
fields and that the Lagrangian for a specific field is not unique, we can always add to
L a term with the form @ with an arbitrary = ( , x), and the field equations
do not change.
5.1
Symmetries and Conservation Laws. Noethers

Theorem
The invariance of the action under some transformation gives a conserved quantity.
One of the greatest advantages of lagrangian formulation is that these conserved
quantities can be easily identificable. Consider a field (x) and some infinitesimal
transformation that aects the coordinates,
x ! x0 = x + x ,
(5.8)
which induces a change in the field as
(x) !
(x0 ) =
(x) +
(5.9)
(x) .
The variation of the field can be written at first order as
(x) =
(x0 )
(x) =
(x) =
(x) + x (@
+ x (@
(x)
).
(5.10)
(5.11)
The variation of the action under this coordinate transformation has two contributions,
S=
d4 x L + d4 x L.
(5.12)
To obtain the variation of the integration measure we use the Jacobian,
0
dx
4 0
d x = det
d4 x,
dx
(5.13)
5.1. SYMMETRIES AND CONSERVATION LAWS. NOETHERS THEOREM 79

which using the coordinate transformation becomes
to obtain finally
d4 x0 = |det [
+ @ ( x )]| d4 x = [1 + @ ( x )] d4 x
d4 x = d4 x0
0
(5.14)
d4 x = @ ( x ) d4 x.
(5.15)
On the other hand, the variation of the lagrangian density comes from x and
@L
@L
x +
@x
@
@L
@L
L=
x +
@x
@
+ @
@L
@ (@ )
@L
@ (
@ (@ )
(5.16)
@L
@ (@ )
(5.17)
and using the field equations we get,
@L
@L
L=
x + @
@x
@ (@ )
(5.18)
Replacing these results in the action gives
@L
@L
S = d4 x L@ ( x ) +
x
+
@
@x
@ (@ )
(5.19)
or grouping some terms
S=
5.1.1
d4 x@ L x +
@L
@ (@ )
(5.20)
Noether Current and Conserved Charge
Given a particular transformation, the variation in the coordinates and in the field
can be expressed using a certain number of independent infinitesimal parameters ! r ,
x = Xr (x) ! r
(5.21)
(5.22)
(x) =
(x) ! r .
Replacing these expressions in equation (5.11) gives

0
=[
(x)
Xr (x) (@
)] ! r
and the variation of the action (5.20) can be written as
(5.23)
80
S=
d4 x@ [jr ! r ] ,
(5.24)
where we have defined the Noether current jr ,

jr =
@L
(@
@ (@ )
Xr (x)
@L
@ (@ )
(x) .
(5.25)
Since the parameters ! r are independent, the variation S is

S=
d4 x [(@ jr ) ! r + jr @ ( ! r )] .
(5.26)
Suppose that S is invariant under a global (constant) transformation, i.e. that for
! r = constant, we have S = 0. Then, it implies that
d4 x (@ jr ) ! r = 0,
(5.27)
from which it follows that the Noether current is conserved,
@ jr = 0.
(5.28)
Associated with this current we define a charge Q in a certain 3-dimensional

volume V as
Qr =
d3 xjr0 ,
(5.29)
which is a constant (independent of t) if there is no flux of Noethers current thorugh

the boundary of V. In order to probe this statement consider the derivative
dQr
=
dt
dQr
=
dt
d3 x@0 jr0
d3 x @ jr
dQr
=
dt
@i jri
(5.30)
d3 x@i jri
(5.31)
(5.32)
and using the theorem of divergence, the integral can be taken over the 2-dimensional
boundary S
dQr
=
dt
~jr d~a = 0,
which vanishes if there is no flux of Noethers current thorugh S.
(5.33)
5.2. THE LAGRANGIAN FOR THE REAL SCALAR FIELD
5.2
81
The Lagrangian for the Real Scalar Field
It is easy to choose the Lagrangian densities that give us the known field equations.
For example, for a massive real scalar field we can use
1
(@ ) (@ )
2
The conjugate field is defined as
1 2
m
2
L=
(5.34)
@L
= @
@ (@ )
(5.35)
and the field equations are

@L
= @
@
(5.36)
m2 = @ @
(5.37)
+ m2
(5.38)
= 0,
which is the Klein-Gordon equation.
5.2.1
Conserved Quantities
5.2.1.1
Infinitesimal Translation. Energy-Momentum Tensor
Consider the infinitesimal transformation

x ! x0 = x +
(5.39)
that corresponds to an infinitesimal translation with constant parameters ! =

and
X (x)
(5.40)
(x)
0.
(5.41)
The action for the real scalar field is invariant under this kind of transformation,
since it is just a shift of the origin of coordinates. Thus, the Noether current (5.25) is
@L
j =
(@ ) L
(5.42)
@ (@ )
j =
j = (@ ) (@ )
@L
(@ )
@ (@ )
1
(@
2
) (@
L
)
1
+ m2
2
(5.43)
2
(5.44)
82

or raising the index,
1
1
(@ ) (@ ) + m2 2 .
(5.45)
2
2
The Noether current is called in this case the energy-momentum tensor and is
clearly a symmetric tensor. The associated charge is called in this case the energymomentum vector,
P = d3 xP = d3 xj0
(5.46)
j = (@ ) (@ )
where P is called the density of momentum vector. The zero component of P is
@L
P0 = d 3 x
(@0 ) L ,
(5.47)
@ (@0 )
or using the definition of the conjugate momenta,
h
i
P0 = d 3 x 0 L ,
(5.48)
where = @0 . It is clear now that P0 corresponds to the Hamiltonian.

5.2.1.2
Infinitesimal Lorentz Transformation
Consider now the infinitesimal Lorentz transformation,

x0 = x + x ,
where the coeficients
(5.49)
are antisymmetric, i.e.

=
(5.50)
The action is invariant now if we consider in addition that the fields are subjected
to the corresponding spin transformation,
i X
s (x) ,
2
is the spin tensor of the theory,
8
0
(spin 0)
>
>
< 1
(spin 12 )
2
s =
(spin 1)
> S
>
:
S + 12
(spin 32 )
0
where s
(x) =
(x) +
(5.51)
In the case of spinless fields the spin term is obviously abscent. This time, we take
X !
(5.52)
0.
(5.53)
5.2. THE LAGRANGIAN FOR THE REAL SCALAR FIELD
83
From equation (5.24),
S=
d4 x@ j ! = 0,
the invariance of the action under this transformation implies the condition
@L
@ j ! = @
@
L X ! = 0
@ (@ )
@L
@
@
L x = 0
@ (@ )
or in the terms of the energy-momentum tensor,
@ [j x ] = 0
@
1
@ [j x
2
Defining the antisymmetric object
M = j x
j x ) = 0
(5.60)
j x ] = 0.
(5.61)
j x =
M ,
and consequently, there are six constants of motion defined as
M = M 0 d3 x
j0 x
(5.58)
(5.59)
@ M = 0
(5.56)
j x ) = 0
the six conserved currents satisfy
(5.55)
(5.57)
1
(j x + j x ) = 0
2
1
(j x
2
1
@ (j x
2
(5.54)
j 0 x d3 x.
In terms of the density momentum vector P this is
M = d3 x [x P x P ] .
(5.62)
(5.63)
(5.64)
(5.65)
(5.66)
M is known as the total angular momentum tensor of the field. In this case
it corresponds only to the orbital term because the scalar field is spinless. If you
consider a non-spinless field (e.g Dirac field), there appear a spin term in the total
angular momentum tensor.
84
5.3
The Lagrangian for the Complex Scalar Field
A massive complex scalar field is described by the lagrangian

1
(@ ) (@ )
2
The conjugate fields are defined as
1 2
m
2
L=
@L
1
= @
@ (@ )
2
(5.67)
(5.68)
and
=
@L
1
= @ .
@ (@ )
2
(5.69)
This time we have two field equations given by

@L
= @
@
(5.70)
@L
= @ .
@
(5.71)
and
These give the Klein-Gordon equations

+ m2
+m
(5.72)
0.
(5.73)
5.3.1
Conserved Quantities
5.3.1.1
Infinitesimal Translation. Energy-Momentum Tensor
The infinitesimal translation

x ! x0 = x +
(5.74)
leaves the action for the complex scalar field invariant. Thus, the Noether current
(5.25) is called again the energy-momentum tensor and is given by
j = (@
) (@ ) + (@ ) (@
) (@ ) + (@ ) (@
(5.75)
L.
(5.76)
or
j = (@
The associated charge is the energy-momentum vector,
5.3. THE LAGRANGIAN FOR THE COMPLEX SCALAR FIELD
P =
d3 xP =
d3 xj0
and the zero component of P is the Hamiltonian
@L
@L
P0 = d 3 x
(@0 ) +
(@0
@ (@0 )
@ (@0 )
or using the definition of the conjugate momenta,
h
P0 = d3 x 0 + 0
5.3.1.2
i
L .
85
(5.77)
L ,
(5.78)
(5.79)
Following the same procedure as for the real scalar field, the infinitesimal Lorentz
transformation,
x0 = x + x ,
(5.80)
gives the continuity equation

@ [j x
j x ] = 0.
(5.81)
We define again the antisymmetric object
from which
M = j x
j x =
@ M = 0
M ,
(5.82)
(5.83)
and consequently, there are again six constants of motion identified with the angular
momentum components,
M = d3 x [x P x P ] .
(5.84)
5.3.1.3
Internal Symmetries
An internal symmetry is one in which

x = 0.
For example, consider the field
(5.85)
(x) changing by an overall constant phase factor,

0
(x) = eiq
and the complex conjugate field changing by
(x)
(5.86)
86
iq
(x) = e
(5.87)
(x) .
For an infinitesimal such transformation we have

=
iq
iq
(x)
(5.88)
(5.89)
(x) .
where we have only one parameter

that controls de transformation. Evidently the
action is invariant under such transformation because always appears multiplied by
. This time we have

X (x)
(5.90)
(x)
(x)
=
=
iq (x)
iq (x)
(5.91)
(5.92)
Then, we will define the Noether current, eq. (5.25), as1

j
c
j
c
@L
@L
+
@ (@ )
@ (@ )
1
1
(@
) iq
(@ ) iq
2
2
=
=
j =
1
iqc [ (@
2
(5.93)
(@ )] .
(5.94)
(5.95)
This result will be important later when we study the interaction between fields.
5.4
The Lagrangian for the Electromagnetic Field
We already know that Maxwells equations involve first derivatives of F (or second
derivatives of A ) and the lagrangian must be both Lorentz and gauge invariant.
Thus, the only possibility is a lagrangian quadratic in the tensor field F but we
make the variations with respect to the vector field A . The usual choice is for
describing the free electromagnetic field is
which is equivalent to L =
1 Note
1
2
L=
~
E
1
F F
4
2
~
B
.
that this definition diers from the Noether current in eq. (5.25) by a factor of
(5.96)
c.
5.4. THE LAGRANGIAN FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
87
However, if we want to obtain Maxwells equations with sources we need to introduce a term proportional to the 4-vector j (which breaks the guage invariance).
Hence, the complete lagrangian for the field is
1
1
F F
j A .
(5.97)
4
c
This lagrangian is not invariant under the gauge transformation (3.143) because
it becomes
L=
1
F F
4
L =
1
F F
4
or in term of the original lagrangian,
1
j A
c
L =
1
j A
c
(5.98)
1
j @
c
1
j @
c
L=
(5.99)
(5.100)

1
1
@ (j ) + @ j .
(5.101)
c
c
Note that the first term is a 4-divergence and therefore it does not aect the
equation of motion. The second term permit us to conclude that the physical laws
coming from this lagrangian are invariant under gauge transformations if @ j = 0,
i.e. as long as charge is absolutely conserved.
L
5.4.1
L=
Equations of Motion
The variation of the corresponding action gives
1
1
4
S=
d x
F F + j A
4
c
1
1
S=
d4 x F F + j A .
2
c
(5.102)
(5.103)
The definition of the electromagnetic tensor gives

F = (@ A
@ A ) = @ A
@ A
(5.104)
and using the antisymmetry of F ,

F F
F
F
F
=
=
=
F @ A
F
2F
F @ A
@ A + F
@ A .
@ A
(5.105)
(5.106)
(5.107)
88

Hence,
S=
S=
1
d x F @ A + j A
c
4
d4 x @ (F A )
1
@ F A + j A
c
(5.108)
(5.109)
The first integral vanishes because of the condition of fixed A at the boundary
and as we assume that this variation is arbitrary in the region of integration we obtain
the field equations
1
@ F + j = 0.
(5.110)
c
As we have seen, the two homogeneus Maxwell equations correspond to an identity
fulfilled because F is derived from the potential A , therefore they are not deduced
from this action.
5.4.2
Alternative Lagrangians for the Free Electromagnetic

Field
The standard lagrangian for the free electromagnetic field, i.e. without sources, is the
one in equation (5.96). However, we already know that the definition of the lagrangian
is not unique, and hence, there are severals forms which dier from each other by a
divergence term.
For example consider the non gauge-invariant Fermi lagrangian,
1
1
2
F F
(@ A ) ,
4
2
which give, variating the field A , the field equations
LI =
A = 0,
(5.111)
(5.112)
i.e. Maxwells equations in the Lorentz gauge. The same field equations are obtained
from the lagrangian
LII =
1
@ A @ A
2
(5.113)
whch dier from L by the divergence term 12 @ (A @ A ).

Another form is the Schwinger lagrangian
1
1
F F + [A @ F
4
2
which give the field equations
LIII =
A = 0
@ A F ]
(5.114)
(5.115)
5.5. POINCAR TRANSFORMATIONS
89
and
@ F = 0
when varying independently both A and F
5.5
(5.116)
Poincar Transformations
The Lagrangian density for the free electromagnetics field,

L=
1
F F ,
4
(5.117)
is invariant under Poincar transformations,

x ! x0 = x + a ,
(5.118)
where represents a Lorentz transformation and a corresponds to spacetime translations. Therefore, there are some conserved quantities (in fact there are in general
10 conserved quantities associated with the ten parameters of the transformation).
We will consider some special cases in order to interpret physically these quantities.
5.5.1
Infinitesimal Translation. The Energy-Momentum tensor
Consider the infinitesimal transformation

x ! x0 = x +
(5.119)
that corresponds to an infinitesimal translation with constant parameters ! =

and
X (x)
(5.120)
(x)
0.
(5.121)
The action for the free electromagnetic field is invariant under this kind of transformation, since it is just a shift of the origin of coordinates. Considering the vector
field A , the Noether current (5.25) is
@L
j =
(@ A ) L
(5.122)
@ (@ A )
or
j =
From (5.117) we have
@L
(@ A )
@ (@ A )
(5.123)
90
@L
=
@ (@ A )
(5.124)
and then
j =
F @ A +
1
4
F .
F
(5.125)
We rise the index to obtain

j =
1
F @ A + F
4
(5.126)
which is clearly non-symmetric in the indices , . However, adding the term j =

F @ A , we make it symmetric and it becomes
1
+ F F
(5.127)
4
which is called the energy-momentum tensor. Now we will show that the added term
does not violate the conservation law, so the tensor T will be conserved. The new
term has
@ j = @ (F @ A ) = @ F @ A + F @ @ A .
(5.128)
T = j + j = F F
Note that the last term vanishes because it is the product of an antisymmetric
tensor F and the symmetric @ @ A . Meanwhile the first term vanishes because of
Maxwells equations in empty space @ F = 0. Hence we have
@ j = 0.
(5.129)
On the other hand, for j we have

@ j =
@ (F @ A ) +
@ j =
1
4
(F
1
@ (F @ A ) + @ (F
4
@ F @ A
@ j =
@ j =
1
F @ @ A + @ (F
4
1
F @ @ A + F
2
(5.131)
F )
1
F @ @ A + @ (F
4
which, using again the Maxwells equations @ F = 0, gives
@ j =
(5.130)
F )
F )
F )
@ F .
(5.132)
(5.133)
(5.134)
Writting
@ A =
1
(@ A
2
@ A ) +
1
(@ A + @ A )
2
(5.135)
91
1
1
F + (@ A + @ A )
2
2
we have the first term in equation (5.134) as
(5.136)
@ A =
F @ @ A =
1
1
F @ F + F @ (@ A + @ A )
2
2
(5.137)
1
F @ F
(5.138)
2
where the second term vanishes because of the antisymmetry of F and the symmetry
of the term in parenthesis. Thus, equation (5.134) becomes
F @ @ A =
1
1
F @ F + F @ F = 0,
(5.139)
2
2
and therefore it is clear that the energy-momentum tensor satisties the conservation
law
@ j =
@ T = 0.
5.5.1.1
(5.140)
Conserved Charge
In this case, the associated charge is called the energy-momentum vector and is defined
by
P =
o 3
P =
d3 x
P d x=
d x=
d x F0 F
1
+ 0 F
4
1
F 0 F + 0 F
4
The zero component of this vector is
1
0
3
P = d x F 0 F 0 + F F
4
1
P 0 = d3 x F 0i F 0i + F F .
4
(5.141)
(5.142)
(5.143)
(5.144)
Remembering that
F 0i = @ 0 Ai
@ i A0 =
F 0i = @ 0 Ai
@ i A0 =
and
we have
1 @Ai
+ ri =
c @t
1 @Ai
c @t
Ei
(5.145)
r i = Ei ,
(5.146)
92
~
E
F 0i F 0i =
(5.147)
Similarly, the other term gives

1
F
4
Therefore the component P 0 is
~
P 0 = d3 x E
P0 =
d3 x
1
2
and we identify
P0 =
1
2
1
2
~
E
1
2
~
E
~
E
~
E
~
+ B
~
B
(5.148)
~
B
~
+ B
(5.149)
(5.150)
(5.151)
=U
with the energy density of the electromagnetic field.

The spatial components of P are
P i = d3 x F 0 F i .
(5.152)
To interpret these quantities consider, for example, the component P 3 ,
P 3 = d3 x F 0 F 3 = d3 x F 01 F 31 F 02 F 32 .
(5.153)
Using
F 31 = @ 3 A1
F 32 = @ 3 A2
@ 1 A3 =
@ 2 A3 =
@Ax
@Az
+
=
@z
@x
(5.154)
By
@Ay
@Az
+
= Bx
@z
@y
(5.155)
we obtain
3
P =
d x [Ex By
Ey B x ] =
~ B
~ .
d3 x E
z
(5.156)
Thus, the spatial components of the conserved quantity P form the 3-dimensional
vector
P~ =

~
~ B
~ = d3 x S
d3 x E
c
(5.157)
93
~ = c E
~ B
~ is called the Poynting Vector and represents the energy per
where S
unit time and per unit area transported by the fields. Thus we can write
!
~
S
P = U,
.
(5.158)
c
The conservation law for the = 0 component of the energy-momentum tensor
says
1~ ~
@ T 0 = @ P = @0 P 0 + r
S =0
c
(5.159)
@U
~ S
~ = 0.
+r
@t
(5.160)
This result, called Poyntings Theorem, confirms that the Poynting vector is the
energy flux density or the momentum radiation flowing into or out of a volume which
leads to an increase or decrease in the energy.
However, for the electromagnetic field not only is the energy conserved but momentum is itself conserved. The rate of change of total momentum in a volume is
i
due to momentum flux flowing in and out of the system. Just as T 0i = P i = Sc is
the energy flux, the components T 1i , T 2i and T 3i are the momentum flux. To probe
it, consider the = i components of the conservation law for the energy-momentum
tensor,
1 @T 0i
+ rj T ji = 0
c @t
or in terms of the components of the Poynting vector,
@ T i =
(5.161)
1 @S i
+ rj T ji = 0.
c2 @t
ten
(5.162)
Defining the 3-dimensional vector T~ i = T 1i , T 2i , T 3i , this equation can be writ1 @S i ~ ~ i

+rT =0
c2 @t
(5.163)
which shows that T~ i can be interpreted as the flux of the energy flux.
We conclude
that for the electromagnetics field not only the total energy
in3 a a
~ x is
volume U d3 x is conserved but also the total momentum of the radiation Sd
conserved. The above analysis permit us to interpret the dierent components of the
energy-momentum tensor as
T =
U [Energy Density]
~ [Energy Flux]
S
~ [Energy Flux]
S
ij
T [Momentum Flux]
(5.164)
94
5.5.2
Consider now the infinitesimal Lorentz transformation,
where the coeficients
x0 = x x + x ,
(5.165)
are antisymmetric,
=
(5.166)
There are six independent parameters in this Lorentz trasnformation. As well

known, three of them correspond to spatial rotations while the other three characterize the Lorentz boosts. In general, the relativistic fields are chosen to belong to a
representation of the Lorentz group. This means that under a Lorentz transformation, the components of the field mix together, as, for instance, a vector field does
under rotations. Therefore, we will require the transformation of the fields under the
infinitesimal Lorentz transformation to be of first order in the parameters in the
form
1
A ,
(5.167)
2
where the coecients (antisymmetric in its indices , ) is the spin tensor of the
theory and define a matrix in the indices (, ) which can be shown to be the representative of the infinitesimal generators of the Lorentz group in the field representation2 .
This time, the infinitesimal parameters ! are given by the relations
0
A = A
X !
x
1
(5.168)
A .
(5.169)
From equation (5.24),
S=
d4 x@ j ! = 0,
(5.170)
the invariance of the action under this transformation implies the conservation
@ j
= @
@L
@ A
@ (@ A )
@L
@ A
@ (@ A )
x +
X !
@L
1
@ (@ A ) 2
2 The
general form of the transformation of a field is

the values
= 0 for scalar fields,
= g g
= 14
@L
@ (@ A )
g g for scalar fields,

for scalar fields, etc.
! = 0 (5.171)
A = 0
(5.172)
where the coecient takes
5.6. INTERNAL SYMMETRIES
95
or in the terms of the energy-momentum tensor,
@L
1
@ T x +
A = 0
@ (@ A ) 2
1
@L
1
@
(T x + T x ) +
A = 0
2
@ (@ A ) 2
1
@L
1
@
(T x
T x ) +
A = 0
2
@ (@ A ) 2
1
@L
1
@ (T x
T x ) +
A = 0
2
@ (@ A ) 2
1
@L
@ T x
T x +
( ) A = 0.
2
@ (@ A )
(5.173)
(5.174)
(5.175)
(5.176)
(5.177)
Defining the antisymmetric object

M = T x
T x +
@L
( ) A =
@ (@ A )
M ,
(5.178)
the six conserved currents satisfy

@ M = 0
(5.179)
and consequently, there are six constants of motion defined as
M = M0 d3 x.
Three of these constants (the ones with spatial values of the indices
correspond to the components of the angular momentum of the field.
5.6
(5.180)
and )
Internal Symmetries
An internal symmetry is one in which

x = 0.
(5.181)
For example, consider the lagrangian given in Eq. (5.117) and the gauge transformation
0
A = A + @
(5.182)
which evidently lets the action invariant. This time we have

x = X !
0A
=
=
(5.183)
(5.184)
96
and from equation (5.24),
S=
d4 x@ [j !] = 0,
(5.185)
the invariance of the action under this transformation implies the conservation law
@ j
= @
@L
@ A
@ (@ A )
@
X !
@L
@ (@ A )
! =0
@L
@ =0
@ (@ A )
(5.187)
@ [F @ ] = 0.
5.7
(5.186)
(5.188)
Canonical Form of the Field Equations
Now we will discuss the Hamiltonian form of the field equations. In general, the
lagrangian density is a function of the field variables and their derivatives,
L = L[
(x) , @
(x) , x ] ,
(5.189)
and we define the conjugate field variables (conjugated momenta) by

=
@L
.
@ (@ )
(5.190)
The formal definition of the Hamiltonian density is the quantity

H
= @
L,
(5.191)
which is known as the canonical energy-momentum tensor and is a function of the

field and its conjugate,
H
= H
, , x ) .
(5.192)
From this definition it is clear that the formal covariant Hamilton equations of the
field theory are
@H
= @
@
@H
=
@
@L
=
@
(5.193)
(5.194)
where, in the last step, we have made use of the field equations
We may also define a scalar function
@L
@
=@
@L
@(@ )
5.8. PROBLEMS
97
= @
H
which gives the Hamilton equations as
@H
= @
@
@H
=
@
5.7.1
(5.195)
L,
@L
=
@
(5.196)
@ .
(5.197)
Hamiltonian for the Electromagnetic Field
The free electromagnetic field in equation (5.96) gives the conjugate field
@L
@
1
=
=
F F = F
@ (@ A )
@ (@ A )
4
(5.198)
as shown in equation (5.124). Therefore, the hamiltonian for the free electromagnetic
field is
1
F @ A + F F .
(5.199)
4
Note that this hamiltonian is equivalent to the contraction of the Noethers current
(energy-momentum tensor) given in equation (5.126).
H=
T = F F
j
5.8
1
+ F
4
F @ A +
j = j
1
4
(5.200)
F
F
F @ A + F
(5.201)
(5.202)
Problems
1. Obtain the field equations (5.112) from the Fermi lagrangian (5.111).
2. Obtain the field equations (5.115) and (5.116) from the Schwinger lagrangian
(5.114).
4. Show that the energy-momentum tensor for the free electromagnetic field given
in equation (5.127) is traceless.
5. Probe relation (5.148).
98

6. Show that the hamiltonian for the free electromagnetic field is given by equation
(5.199).
7. Show that the hamiltonian for the free electromagnetic field can be written as
H = T F @ A = F @ A , wher T is the trace of the energy-momentum
tensor, T = T = 0.
8. Find the conjugate fields and hamiltonian functions for the Fermi and Schwinger
lagrangians.
Part III
Interaction of Particles and

Fields
99
Chapter 6
Interacting Fields
As is well known, an accelerated charged particle produces a field which changes the
external field in which the particle moves. The new field, in turn, aects the motion of
the particle. This kind of interaction between particles and fields will be the subject
of study along this chapter using, of course, the lagrangian formalism.
6.1
Interaction Field - External Current
Consider a field (x) described by the free field lagrangian L0 . If there is a variable
external current j (x) acting as source of the field, it will modify the lagrangian
and hence the equations of motion. The interaction between field and current is
represented by an additional term to the lagrangian,
L = L0 [
6.1.1
(x) , @
(x) , x ] + L1 [j (x) ,
(x)] .
(6.1)
The Electromagnetic Field with Sources
Consider the electromagnetic field A described by the free field lagrangian

1
F F .
(6.2)
4
In the presence of a current 4-vector j (x) we can add the simplest scalar interaction
term j A to obtain the lagrangian
L0 =
1
1
F F
j A
4
c
which gives, as we have seen, Maxwells field equations with sources,
L=
@v F =
Making the gauge transformation
101
1
j .
c
(6.3)
(6.4)
102
CHAPTER 6. INTERACTING FIELDS
(6.5)
A ! A = A + @
0
the lagrangian change as L ! L where

1 0 0
F F
4
L =
0
L =
1
F F
4
1
F F
4
L =
1 0
j A
c
(6.6)
1
j (A + @ )
c
(6.7)
1
j A
c
1
j @
c
(6.8)
1
j @ .
c
However, the last term can be rewritten as
0
(6.9)
L =L
1
1
@ (j ) + @ j
(6.10)
c
c
and because the second term in the right hand side is a divergence it can be neglected,
giving
0
L =L
0
1
L = L + @ (j ) L
c
assuming that the continuity equation @ j = 0 holds.
The energy-momentum tensor for the lagrangian (6.3) is
(6.11)
1
A j
c
is the free field energy-momentum tensor (5.127),
= T
where T
(6.12)
1
+ F F .
(6.13)
4
Since the lagrangian (6.3) is not invariant under translations, the energy-momentum
tensor does not satisfy an equation of continuity, in fact
T = F F
@ = @ T
1
@ (A j ) .
c
(6.14)
Note that
@ T
@ T =
= @
1
F F + F
4
(@ F ) F
and by Maxwells equations,
F @ F +
(6.15)
1
(@ F
2
)F
(6.16)
6.1. INTERACTION FIELD - EXTERNAL CURRENT
@ T
@ T =
1
j F +
c
103
1
@F + @ F
2
1
1
j F + [ @F
c
2
@ F + @ F ] F
1
1
j F + [ @ F + @ F + @ F ] F .
c
2
Applying the Maxwells equations @ F + @ F + @ F = 0 we have
@ T =
@ T =
@ T =
1
1
j F + [@ F
c
2
+ @ F + @ F
1
1
j F + [ @ F + @ F + @ F
c
2
+ @ F ] F
+ @ F ] F
(6.17)
(6.18)
(6.19)
(6.20)
(6.21)
1
1
j F + [@ F + @ F ] F .
(6.22)
c
2
Since the term in parenthesis is symmetric in the indices , and is multiplied by
the antisymmetic tensor F , the second term in the right hand side vanishes and we
obtain finally
@ T =
1
j F = k
(6.23)
c
where we introduced the vector k called the force density. Equation (6.23) is very
interesting because it tell us that when the field is driven by a current j (x), the
energy momentum tensor T no longer satisfies a continuity equation (as in the case
of free fields). Therefore, the energy and momentum of the field change as a function
of time, and the rate of change are given in terms of the force density 4-vector k .
Replacing this result in the divergence of we obtain
@ T =
@ =
1
j F
c
1
@ (A j )
c
(6.24)
1
1
j F
@ (A j )
(6.25)
c
c
that tell us that this tensor does not satisfy a continuity equation neither. However,
introducing an energy-momentum tensor for the current, i.e. the matter tensor,
thorugh the equation
@ =
1
j F ,
c
the relation (6.23) takes the form of an equation of continuity
@ = k =
(6.26)
104
@ (T + ) = 0.
(6.27)
In conclusion, we say that the total energy and momentum of the field plus matter
are conserved, although they are not conserved separately. This means that there is
an exchange of energy and momentum between field and matter systems.
6.2
Interaction Field - Particle
Consider now a system composed by the field and a set of particles when there
is an energy exchange between them. We may consider that there is a current j (x)
that is a function of the particles coordinates y ( ) and their derivatives. Hence, the
total lagrangain can be written as
L
L0 [
+L1 [
(x) , @
(P )
(x) , x ] + L0
(x) , @
[y ( ) , y ( )]
(x) , y ( ) , y ( )] ,
(6.28)
(P )
where L0 is the lagrangian of the free field, L0 is the lagrangian of the free
particle, and L1 is the lagrangian of interaction. Varying the total lagrangian with
respect to the particles coordinates gives the equations of motion
m0 y = f (
(6.29)
where the force depends now on the field variables. Similarly, the variation of L with
respect to the variables gives the field equations,
L
= K (y) ,
(6.30)
where the inhomogeneus source term is due to the presence of particles. The free field
equations are recovered when k = 0. The coupled equations (6.29) and (6.30) form
a complete system to describe the interaction between particles and fields.
6.2.1
A Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic Field
As an example of this interaction, consider a single charged particle with world line
y = y ( ). This particle defines a current j (x) that, as a function of x , is zero
everywhere except along the world line. The corresponding charge density is expressed
in terms of a function,
y ( )] ,
(6.31)

and the current density is defined as j = qtot y = y ds, which is written in this
case as
j (x) = q dsy ( ) (x y ( ))
(6.32)
(x) = q [x
6.2. INTERACTION FIELD - PARTICLE
105
where the integral is taken along the world line of the particle. In terms of its proper
time, this is
+1
j (x) = qc
d y ( ) (x
(6.33)
y ( ))
where the 4-velocity satisfies y y = c2 . The current density j satisfies the equation
of continuity. To probe it, note that
@ j = qc
+1
d y ( )
1
@
[ (x
@x
y ( ))] .
(6.34)
y ( ))]
(6.35)
Using the property of the Diracs delta function

@
[ (x
@x
@
[ (x
@y
y ( ))] =
and the relation

@f @y
df
=
@y @
d
(6.36)
we have
@ j =
qc
+1
d
1
d
[ (x
d
y ( ))] =
qc (x
=+1
1
y ( ))| =
@ j = 0.
(6.37)
(6.38)
The complete lagrangian describing the field ands the particle is

(P )
+ L1
(6.39)
1
d3 x F F
4
(6.40)
1
d 3 x j A
c
(6.41)
L = L0 + L0
donde
L0 =
L1 =
d3 xL0 =
d3 xL1 =
y
(P )
L0
m0 c
q
2
[y ( )] .
(6.42)
In order to describe the field, we consider the terms in the lagrangian involving
A , i.e.
L0 + L1 =
1
F F
4
1
j A
c
(6.43)
106
which give the field equations (6.4),

@ F =
+1
d y ( ) (x
y ( )) .
(6.44)
y ( ))
(6.45)
This time, the divergence of T (6.23) gives

@ T
= qF
+1
d y ( ) (x
1
@ T = qF y ( )|y( )=x .
(6.46)
This equation shows that the divergence of the energy-momentum tensor of the
electromagnetic field at point x is essentially the Lorentz force on the particle at point
y ( ) = x.
In order to obtain the equation of motion for the particle, we consider the terms
in the lagrangian involving the particles coordinates, i.e.
q
1
(P )
2
L0 + L1 = m0 c [y ( )]
d3 xj A
(6.47)
c
from which the equation of motion is
d
q
[m0 y ] = y F .
d
c
(6.48)
Now, we will consider only the free particle lagrangian

(P )
L0
= m0 c
which gives the variation

(P )
L0
(P )
@L0
@y
[y ( )]
(P )
y +
(P )
L0
@L0
@ y
@L0
@y
(6.49)
(P )
(P )
@L0 @ ( y )
@ y
@
y =
@L0
@y
y +
@L0 @ ( y )
@ y
@
(P )
y +
(6.50)
(P )
and applying Euler-Lagrange equations,

"
#
(P )
(P )
@ @L0
@L0 @ ( y )
(P )
L0 =
y
+
.
@
@ y
@ y
@
Under the particular case of a traslation, y = = cte. and thus
"
#
(P )
@ @L0
(P )
L0 =
@
@ y
(6.51)
(6.52)
(6.53)
6.2. INTERACTION FIELD - PARTICLE
(P )
L0
@
= y
@y
107
"
(P )
@L0
@ y
(6.54)
(P )
Assuming invariance under translations, L0 = 0, we obtain the equation

"
#
(P )
@L0
@
y
=0
(6.55)
@y
@ y
y
@
[m0 cy ] = 0.
@y
(6.56)
Since the 4-position and the 4-velocity are assumed to be independent we can write
@
[m0 y y ] = 0.
@y
(6.57)
This equation shows that the energy-momentum tensor (conserved quantity associated
with translational invariance) can be defined as
= m0 d y y (x y ( ))
(6.58)
which obviously has
= = m0 c2 .
(6.59)
The divergence of this tensor is

@ = m0
@ =
@ =
m0
m0
d y y @ [ (x
d y y
m0
d
d
[y (x
d
d y
@
[ (x
@y
d
[ (x
d
y ( ))] + m0
(6.60)
y ( ))]
(6.61)
y ( ))]
(6.62)
y ( ))]
d y (x
y ( ))
(6.63)
but the first term vanishes and thus

@
= m0
d y (x
Equations (6.45) and (6.64) give

+1
@ (T + ) =
[ qF y ( ) + m0 c
y ] (x
1
(6.64)
y ( )) .
y ( )) d
(6.65)
108
which vanishes by using the equation of motion (6.48),

@ (T + ) = 0.
6.3
(6.66)
Interaction between Fields
Finally, we will consider the interaction between fields. Remember that quantum field
theory considers particles and fields as the same entity, hence it is natural to consider
now the interaction between the electromagnetic field with another kind of field.
Consider the vector field A and let the charged particles be described by a complex scalar field (x). The total lagrangian will be written as
L
( )
L0 [A (x)] + L0 [ (x)] + L1 [A (x) (x)]
(6.67)
( )
where L0 and L0 are the lagrangian of the free electromagnetic and scalar fields
given by equations (5.96) and (5.67), respectively. The interaction lagrangian, L1 , is
written by taking into account the requirement of Lorentz and gauge invariance as
follows.
As we have seen, the complex scalar field is invariant under gauge transformations
of the first kind,
0
= eiq
(6.68)
with a constant, while the electromagnetic field is invariant under gauge transformations
A ! A0 = A + @ (x) .
(6.69)
In order to build the interaction term, we will require the whole lagrangian to
be invariant simultaneously under (6.69) and under the gauge transformation of the
second kind,
!
Note that the expression
= eiq(x) .
D = (@
(6.70)
(6.71)
iqA )
changes under the desired transformations as

D0
= @
D0
D0
iqA0
= eiq(x) [@
0
= [@
iq (A + @ (x))]
iqA ] + [@
= eiq(x) D + [iq@ (x)
eiq(x)
iq@ (x)] eiq(x)

iq@ (x)] eiq(x)
(6.72)
(6.73)
(6.74)
6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN FIELDS
D0
109
iq(x)
=e
(6.75)
D .
Taking the complex conjugate of this equation gives

0
iq(x)
=e
(6.76)
and therefore we obtain the invariance of the product,

D 0 D
= D D
(6.77)
This property invites us to replace the partial derivative operator as

@ ! D = @
(6.78)
iqA
in the free fields lagrangian . This gives

L=
1
1
F F + [@
4
2
1
)+ q 2 A A
2
1
( )
L = L0 [A (x)] + L0 [ (x)] + q 2 A A
2
L=
1
1
F F + (@ ) (@
4
2
iqA ] [@ + iqA ]
1
iqA [ @
2
1
iqA [ @
2
1 2
m
2
(6.79)
1 2
m
2
(6.80)
@ ]
@ ] .
(6.81)
Defining the current density as in equation (5.95),

j =
1
iqc [ @
2
(6.82)
@ ]
we write the lagrangian as

1
1
j A + q 2 A A
c
2
from which we identify the interaction lagrangian as
( )
L = L0 [A (x)] + L0 [ (x)]
1
j A +
c
The variation of the lagrangian with respect
coupled field equations
L1 [A (x) (x)] =
@v F =
1 2
q A A .
2
to the fields A and
1
j + q 2 A
c
(6.83)
(6.84)
gives the
(6.85)
= 0.
(6.86)
and
h
(@
iqA )
m2
110
These equations show that one field acts as the source of the other. However, it
is not obvious the way in which the coupling between fields is made.
Since the obtained lagrangian is invariant under inhomogeneous Lorentz transformations, there are several conserved quantities. In particular, the total energymomentum tensor is conserved,
@ = 0,
(6.87)
showing that there is an exchange of energy and momentum between the fields.
6.4
Problems
1. Using the definition of the Noether current, show that the energy momentum
tensor associated with the lagrangian (6.3) is given by equation (6.12).
2. Derive particles equation of motion (6.48) from the lagrangian (6.47).
3. Show that the lagrangian (6.83) gives the coupled field equations (6.85) and
(6.86).
4. Deduce the energy-momentum tensor for the lagrangian (6.83) and show that
it satisfies a continuity equation.
Chapter 7
Solution of the Equations of

Motion
In this section we will begin the solution and interpretation of the coupled equations
of motion of fields and particles. In this chapter we will illustrate the method of
Greens Functions to solve one of the coupled equations.
7.1
Greens Functions
Consider the free electromagnetic field described by the equation

1
j .
c
@v F =
(7.1)
Choosing the gauge

@ A = 0
(7.2)
the field equation becomes

A =
If G (x
1
j .
c
(7.3)
x0 ) is a solution of the equation

G (x
x0 ) =
(x
x0 ) ,
then the most general solution of the field equation (7.3) is
A (x) = A0 (x) +
d4 x0 G (x x0 ) j (x0 ) ,
c
where A0 (x) is any solution of the homogeneous equation
111
(7.4)
(7.5)
112
CHAPTER 7. SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
A0 (x) = 0.
(7.6)
Clearly, solution (7.5) is not unique, unless specified by boundary conditions. The
Greens Function G (x x0 ) represents the field at the point x due to a unit current
density at the point x0 . In the solution (7.5) this function is integrated over all points
x0 with a weight factor j (x) to obtain the total field due to currents. In order to
probe that the potential in (7.5) is indeed a solution of the non-homogeneous equation
(7.3), note that by applying the DAlambertian operator we obtain
A (x) = A0 (x) + d4 x0 G (x x0 ) j (x0 )

(7.7)
c
A (x) =
d4 x0 G (x x0 ) j (x0 )
(7.8)
c
1
1
A (x) =
d4 x0 4 (x x0 ) j (x0 ) = j .
(7.9)
c
c
To obtain the Greens function we will take the Fourier transform of equation
(7.4). Remember that a function f (x) and its the Fourier transform f (k) are related
by
1
f (x) =
d4 kf (k) e ikx .
(7.10)
4
(2)
For example, to obtain the Fourier transform of the function, consider its integral
definition
0
1
4
0
(x x ) =
d4 ke ik(x x ) ,
(7.11)
4
(2)
i.e. the Fourier transform of the
relation for the Greens function,
G (x
x0 ) =
function is one. Now consider the corresponding

1
(2)
d4 kG (k) e
ik(x x0 )
(7.12)
where G (k) is the Foureir transform of G (x x0 ). Inserting these two equations into
(7.4) we get
0
1
1
ik(x x0 )
dkG
(k)
e
=
dke ik(x x )
(7.13)
4
4
(2)
(2)
0
0
(7.14)
dkG (k) e ik(x x ) = dke ik(x x )
dkG (k) e
from which we conclude that
ik(x x0 ) 2
k =
dke
ik(x x0 )
(7.15)
7.2. ELECTROSTATIC FIELD
113
1
(7.16)
k2
which is known as the propagator (in momentum space). Replacing this function into
the Fourier transform of the Greens function we have
G (k) =
x0 ) =
G (x
(2)
d4 k
ik(x x0 )
(7.17)
k2
and the general solution of the field equation becomes
A (x) =
7.2
A0
(x)
(2) c
4 0
d kd x j (x )
ik(x x0 )
k2
(7.18)
Electrostatic Field
Consider the simple case of a static electric field, described by the 4-potential
A = ( , 0, 0, 0)
where
(7.19)
(~r). The field equation (7.3) reduces to the Poisson equation
1 0
j = .
(7.20)
c
The solution of this equation will be given in terms of the 3-dimensional version
of the Greens function (7.17)
r2 =
~x0 ) =
G (~x
1
(2)
d3 k
~
x0 )
eik(~x
~k
(7.21)
where the measure in the integral can be written as d3 k = K 2 dKd and the argument
~ so the inner product is ~k R
~ = KR cos . Note that
of the exponential as ~x ~x0 = R
the argument of the integral has a positive sign (because of our sign convention for
the spatial part) as well as the measure of the integral. Then it becomes
G (~x
~x ) =
(2)
~x0 ) =
G (~x
G (~x
G (~x
~x ) =
dK sin d
2
(2)
iR (2)
(7.22)
~x0 ) =
iKR cos
1
iR (2)
eiKR cos
iKR
eiKR
e
K
dK
(7.23)
(7.24)
0
iKR
dK
2i sin (KR)
dK
K
(7.25)
114
G (~x
~x0 ) =
2
R (2)
~x0 ) =
G (~x
sin (KR)
dK
K
(7.26)
R (2) 2
(7.27)
1
1
=
4R
4 |~x ~x0 |
(7.28)
~x0 ) =
G (~x
This result represents the static field at a distance R from a unit source and as is
well known, it depends only on the magnitude R = |~x ~x0 |. The general solution of
the Poisson equation is then
=
(~x0 ) d3 x0
4 |~x ~x0 |
(7.29)
where 0 is a solution of the Laplace equation, r2 0 = 0. This part of the solution is

determined by the boundary conditions. For example, if we require that ! 0 when
|~x| ! 1, we need 0 = 0.
7.3
Non-static Field
In th general 4-dimensional non-static case, we need to solve the integral in Greens

function (7.17). The measure can be written as d4 k = dk 0 d3 k and then we can write
the integral
G (x
x0 ) =
1
(2)
d3 k
+1
dk 0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
i~
k(~
x ~
x0 )
2
(k 0 )
~k
(7.30)
where the integrand is singular because it is a function of k 0 with two poles at

0
k =
~k
= K.
(7.31)
A straightforward technique for solving this integral employs integration in the

complex plane (treating k 0 as thecomplexvariable). In the lower or upper half k 0
plane, depending on the sign of
x0
x 0 , the integrand goes to zero at infinity
exponentially. Therefore the k 0 integration transforms into a contour integration. By

choosing dierent contours, we get dierent solutions which dier from each other
by the solution of the homogeneous equations, i.e. dierent contours correspond to
dierent boundary conditions.
7.3. NON-STATIC FIELD

7.3.0.1
115
The Residue Theorem in Bref
Before integrating the dierent contours, we will review shortly the residue theorem.
Let f (z) be an analytic function inside and on a closed curve C, except for isolated
singular points z1 , z2 , ..., zN lying inside C. Then the contour integration of f (z) gives
f (z) dz = 2i
N
X
Resz=zk [f (z)]
(7.32)
k=1
where the contour C is evaluated counterclockwise and Resz=zk [f (z)] stands for the
residue of f (z) at z = zk which can be evaluated as the coecient c 1 in the Laurent
expansion of f (z),
f (z) =
1
X
cn (z
(7.33)
zk ) .
n= 1
If the pole zk is of order m, the residue can be calculated as

Resz=zk [f (z)] = lim
z!zk
1
(m
dm
1)! dz m
1
1
[(z
zk ) f (z)] .
(7.34)
In Figure 7.1, we can see three dierent contours representing three important
physical situations. Lifting the integration segment along the real axis by the amount
i in the direction of the imaginary axis Im (k0 ), we can close the integration loop
with a semicircle at infinity in either the positive or negative imaginary half plane.
To choose the correct loop we need to ensure that the integral from
the semicircle is
0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
0
0
zero. When x
x
> 0, we need that the integrand e
! 0 in the
limit |Im (k0 )| ! 1, therefore we need that Im (k0 ) < 0 and hence
the loop
must
0
0
0
be closed in the negative half-plane. On the other hand, when x
x
< 0 we
need that Im (k0 ) > 0 and hence the loop must be closed in the positive half-plane.
Depending on the choosen trajectory, the loop encloses two singularities or none.
7.3.1
Retarded Greens Functions
Consider the contour CR for which the corresponding Greens function is denoted
Dret (x x0 ). Obviously
we need to close the contour an we will

make0 it
in the upper
0
half plane for x0 x 0 < 0 or in the lower half plane for x0 x 0 > 0. In the
former case, the contour does not include any poles, so the integral is zero. In the
latter case, the k 0 integration gives a residue of the integrand at the two poles. This
gives
2
0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
ik0 x0 x 0
e
6e
7
dk 0
2iResk0 =|~k| 4
(7.35)
2 =
2 5
2
2
CR
~k
~k
(k 0 )
(k 0 )
116
Figure 7.1: Contours for the k 0 integration in Greens function.

where the minus sign comes from the clockwise sense of CR when closing in the lower
2
2
~k =
half-plane. In order to evaluate the residue, we write the denominator as k 0
~k
k0
k 0 + ~k and use relation (7.34) with m = 1. Thus we write
dk
0e
CR
0
ik0 x0 x 0
(k 0 )
~k
2i 4 lim
k0 !|~
k|
0
ik0 x0 x 0
k 0 + ~k
lim
|~k|
3
0
ik0 x0 x 0
k0
k0 !
dk
0e
CR
0
ik0 x0 x 0
2
(k 0 )
~k
2i
i|~
k|
4e
x0 x
2 ~k
00
i~
k
e| |
x0 x
2 ~k
(7.36)
which gives
~k
00
5.
(7.37)
Therefore, Greens function is
ret
(x
x)=
2i
(2)
1
d k
2 ~k
3
i~
k
e | |
x0 x
00
i~
k
e| |
where we introduce the Heaviside function (t),

(
0 for t < 0
(t) =
1 for t > 0
x0 x
00
x0
~
0
x 0 eik(~x
(7.38)
(7.39)
~
x0 )
117
in order to account for both possible loops in the contour. Replacing R = |~x
and d3 k = K 2 dKd we have
ret
ret
ret
ret
(x
(x
(x
(x
ret
(x
x)=
x)=
x)=
x)=
x)
i x0
(2)
i x0
(2)
i x0
(2)
x0
0
x0
0
x0
0
x0
dKK
dK e
0
x0
0
iK x0 x 0
(2) R
0
iK R+ x0 x 0
0
i
iKR cos
dK e
e
iKR
0
iK x0 x 0
0
iK x0 x 0
0
iK x0 x 0
i
0
iK R
x0 x 0
i
0
iK R+ x0 x 0
eiKR cos
0
iK x0 x 0
sin d e
eiKR cos
iKR
iKR
0
x0
x0
e
dKK
(2) R
2
dKd K sin e
2
~x0 |
0
iK x0 x 0
0
iK x0 x 0
0
iK x0 x 0
i
0
iK R
x0 x 0
+e
By using the limits of integration, we can write this integrals as
Dret (x
x0 )
x0
0
x0
h
iK R
dK e
x0 x
00
i
0
iK R+ x0 x 0
(2) R
1
In virtue of 2 (u) = dkeiku and the property ( u) = (u), we get [1]

Dret (x
Dret (x
x0 )
x0 )
x0
0
x0 h
(2) R
x0
4R
0
x0 h
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0+R
x0+R
.(7.40)
0
Due to the Heaviside function, we have x0 x 0 > 0 and since we need R > 0
the second function does not contribute, leaving us with
118
1 0
x
4R
x0
1
x0
4 |~x ~x0 |
x0
x0 )
Dret (x
or better
x0 )
Dret (x
|~x
(7.41)
~x0 | .
(7.42)
Equation (7.40) can be rewritten covariantly by using the property of the

tion1
t2
a2 =
1
[ (t
2a
func-
(7.43)
a) + (t + a)] .
Specifically we have
x0
x0
R2 =
1 h 0
x
2R
R + x0
x0
and multiplying by the Heavyside function,

x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
x0
R2
R2
x0
x0+R
(7.44)
0
0
1 h 0
x
x0
x0 x 0 R
2R

i
0
0
+ x0 x 0
x0 x 0 + R
1 0
x
2R
x0
x0
x0
R (7.45)
,
where the second term in the right hand side vanishes in virtue of the arguments of
the and functions. Therefore, equation (7.40) can be written as
Dret (x
x0 )
1
2
x0
0
x0 .
(7.46)
This is known as the retarded function because of its dependence in the function.
Note that the field at the point x due to the unit source at point x0 is dierent from
zero only if the time at the source point ~x0 is earlier than the time at which one
evaluates the field at ~x. Moreover, the retarded Greens function shows that only
signals travelling with a velocity of light from ~x0 to ~x contribute to the field because
the function is zero unless its argument is zero. In Figure 7.2 we draw the light cone
centered at x and the greens function tell us that x0 must lie on the backward light
cone.
1 This
[6],
is a particular case of the composition property of the function, see for example [1] and
P (x x )
[g (x)] = k |g0 (x k)| , where xk are the roots of function g (x).
k
119
Figure 7.2: Field at point (t, ~x) produced by a unit source at point (t0 , ~x0 ).
7.3.2
Advanced Greens Functions
Now we will consider the contour CA , which produces the Advanced Greens Function
Dadv (x x0 ). This time we have
(
0
= 0 for x0 > x 0
adv
0
D
(x x ) =
,
(7.47)
0
6= 0 for x0 < x 0
i.e. that the advanced function will represents a field at the point ~x at time t due to
unit charge at ~x0 at a later time t0 . Of course this kind of solution is contrary to the
physical idea of propagation with increasing time, but due to the form of the field
equations, it is a valid solution. Following the same procedure as for the retarded
function, we obtain
Dadv (x
x0 )
or
Dadv (x
x0 )
1
x0
4 |~x ~x0 |
1
2
x 0 + |~x
0
x0
~x0 |
x0 .
(7.48)
(7.49)
The advanced Greens function shows that only signals travelling with a velocity
of light from ~x to ~x0 contribute to the field because the function is zero unless its
argument (x x0 ) is a light-like vector. Hence, this time x0 must lie on the forward
light cone of point x and we can write
Dret ( x) = Dadv (x) .
(7.50)
120
7.3.3
Other Greens Functions
0
Now consider the contour CF in Figure 7.1. Depending on the sign of x0 x 0
we get the contribution of one or the other pole only. Thus we write the complete
Greens function as
x0 ) = x0
DF (x
where D+ and D
+ function is
+
CF
0
x 0 D+ (x
0
x0
x0 )
x0 D (x
are the contributions of the poles +K and
dk 0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
2
(k 0 )
~k
(7.51)
K, respectively. The
3
0
ik0 x0 x 0
6e
2iResk0 =+|~k| 4
2
(k 0 )
x0 )
~k
7
5
(7.52)
where the minus sign comes from the clockwise sense of CF when closing in the lower
2
2
~k =
half-plane. In order to evaluate the residue, we write the denominator as k 0
~k
k0
k 0 + ~k and use relation (7.34) with m = 1,
3
2
0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
ik0 x0 x 0
e
e
5
dk 0
2i 4 lim
(7.53)
2 =
+
2
0+ ~
k0 !|~
k|
CF
0
~
k
k
(k )
k
+
CF
dk 0
0
ik0 x0 x 0
2
(k 0 )
~k
2i
0
i|~
k | x0 x 0
2 ~k
(7.54)
Thus, the Greens function is

D+ (x
x0 ) =
i
(2)
d3 k
1
i~
k
e | |
~
2 k
x0 x
00
~
x0 )
eik(~x
The first exponential in in the integral can be written as
0
0
0
i~
k x0 x 0
~k e ik x
e | |
= dk 0 k 0
00
(7.55)
(7.56)
and therefore
D+ (x
x0 ) =
D+ (x
d4 k
x0 ) =
(2)
(2)
~k
k0
2 ~k
d4 k
0
ik0 x0 x 0
i~
k(~
x ~
x0 )
k0
2 ~k
~k
ik(x x0 )
(7.57)
(7.58)
or
121
Now we will introduce the
2
k0
function
~k
1
=
2
k2 =
1
2
d!e
i!
(k 0 )
|~k|
(7.59)
d!ei!k ,
(7.60)
which, following eq. (7.43), satisfies

k2 =
1 h 0
k
2 ~k
~k
k 0 + ~k
(7.61)
Multiplying by the Heavyside function,

k0
k2
k0
k2
1 h
~k
k0
k0
2 ~k
i
+ k 0
k 0 + ~k
1
k0
~
2 k
~k
k0
(7.62)
where the second term in the right hand side vanishes in virtue of the arguments of
the and functions if k 0 > 0. Thus, for the D+ function we obtain finally
0
i
D+ (x x0 ) =
d4 ke ik(x x ) k 2 k 0 .
(7.63)
3
(2)
Similarly, the D
function can be written as
i
0
D (x x ) =
d4 ke ik(x
3
(2)
x0 )
k2
k0 .
(7.64)
It is straightforward to show the additional properties

D+ [ (x
and
D+ (x
x0 )] =
x0 )
D [x
= D (x
x0 ]
x0 )
(7.65)
(7.66)
where denotes complex conjugation.

Finally, other Greens function is obtained as the principal value of the k 0 integration. The resulting function can be written as2
2 Remember that the principal value of a singular integral is equal to 1/2 the residue of the pole
term.
122
(x) = 1 Dret (x) + Dadv (x)

D
2
and is an even and real function, i.e.
7.4
(7.67)
(x) = D
( x) = D
(x) .
D
(7.68)
Solving the Inhomogeneous Equation
The solution of the electrodynamics equation (7.3),

1
j ,
(7.69)
c
depends on the boundary conditions (Cauchy data). Let us choose these conditions
on the spacelike surface t = 1. The corresponding solutions of the homogeneous
equation will be denoted as Ain (x) and we must use the retarded Greens function
to write the complete solution
1
A (x) = Ain (x) +
d4 x0 Dret (x x0 ) j (x0 )
(7.70)
c
0
0
0
0
x
x
|~
x
~
x
|
1
A (x) = Ain (x) +
j (x0 ) d4 x0 .
(7.71)
4c
|~x ~x0 |
A =
where we have determined the field at point x starting with the initial value at
t = 1. Now, let us choose the Cauchy data at t = +1. The solutions of the
homogeneous equation will be denoted as Aout (x) and we will use the advanced
Greens function,
A (x) = Aout (x) +

d4 x0 Dadv (x x0 ) j (x0 )
(7.72)
c
x0 x 0 + |~x ~x0 |
1
A (x) = Aout (x) +
j (x0 ) d4 x0 .
(7.73)
4c
|~x ~x0 |
In this case we determine the field at point x from the future backwards starting
with its value at t = +1.
Dirac noted that the above solutions, i.e. choosing the retarded Greens function (ingoing wave) or an advanced function (outgoing wave), give a misleading picture of the physical system because it must have a complete time-reversal symmetry.
Therefore, he introduced the radiation field as the dierence between the ingoing and
outgoing waves,
Aradiation (x) = Aout (x)
Ain (x) =
1
c
d4 x0 D (x
x0 ) j (x0 )
(7.74)
7.4. SOLVING THE INHOMOGENEOUS EQUATION
123
where
x0 ) = Dret (x
D (x
x0 )
Dadv (x
x0 )
(7.75)
is a solution of the homogeneous equation. Some people interpret the radiation field
as the only physically important one because it represents the change in the vector
potential at an event produced symmetrically by any given 4-current due to its past
and future motion (i.e. radiation reaction is produced by transfer of momentum both
to a charge from other charges in its past and from a charge to those same charges in
its future!).
The radiation Greens function is
D (x
x0 )
D (x
1
2
x0 )
1
2
2 h
x0
x0
sgn x0
0
x0
0
x0 ,
x0
(7.76)
(7.77)
where the sign function sgn (t) is defined as

sgn (t) = (t)
( t) =
1 for t < 0
+1 for t > 0.
(7.78)
Since
Dret [ (x
x0 )] = Dadv (x
x0 ) ,
(7.79)
the homogeneous Greens function is and odd function,

D (x0
x) =
D (x
x0 ) .
(7.80)
Using the retarded and advanced Greens function together with property (7.43)
of the function, we get
0
0
i
4
2
0
0
D (x x0 ) =
d
k
k
sgn
x
x
e ik(x x ) .
(7.81)
3
(2)
This expression can be rewritten as
i
0
D (x x ) =
d4 k
3
(2)
k 2 sgn k 0 e
ik(x x0 )
(7.82)
where we have changed the argument in the sign function because the 4-vector
k
0
0
0
must be future directed (retarded) or past directed (advanced) when x
x
>0
0
0
0
or x
x
< 0, respectively. From this equation we calculate the time derivative
of the Greens function as
124
@D (x x0 )
@x0
(2)
x0 =x0 0
d4 k
k 2 sgn k 0
ik 0 e
0
ik0 x0 x 0
i~
k(~
x ~
x0 )
x0 =x0 0
(7.83)
@D (x x0 )
@x0
=
x0 =x0 0
1
(2)
d3 keik(~x
~
x0 )
+1
dk 0 k 0
k 2 sgn k 0 .
(7.84)
The integral over k 0 gives one because k 0 sgn k 0 = k 0 and thus, using equation
(7.61), we have
+1
0
dk k
k0 h
+1
dk 0
1
2 ~k
+1
dk 0 k 0
k2 =
k0
~k + ~k
= 1.
k 0 + ~k
1 h
2 ~k
~k
(7.85)
(7.86)
Hence the time derivative gives

@D (x x0 )
@x0
=
x0 =x0 0
@D (x x0 )
@x0
1
(2)
d3 keik(~x
(~x
~x0 ) .
x0 =x0 0
~
x0 )
(7.87)
(7.88)
This equation can be written covariantly in the form
@D (x x0 )
f (x) = f (x0 )
@x
(7.89)
where is a spacelike surface on which x and x0 lie. Introducing a covariant spatial

function by
@D
=
@x
(x
x0 ) = n (~x
~x0 )
(7.90)
x0 ) f (x) = f (x0 ) .
(7.91)
with n the normal vector to . Thus we write
(x
7.5. GAUGE CONDITION
7.4.1
125
Scattering
From equation (7.74) we relate the incident radiation field with the radiated field by
1
Aout (x) = Ain (x) +
D (x x0 ) j (x0 ) d4 x0 .
(7.92)
c
In an Scattering Experiment we measure the undisturbed field at distant past or
distant future and then we introduce a disturbance at finite time. Hence, equation
(7.92) determines the net eect of the interaction and just as in quantum mechanics,
we can introduce a classical scattering matrix S as the ratio between Aout and Ain ,
i.e.
Aout (x) = S Ain (x) ,
which can be given in terms of D (x
7.5
(7.93)
x ).
Gauge Condition
Along this chapter we have worked in the gauge @ A = 0. Now we will show that
his condition is satisfied by the presented solutions. First we will assume that the
homogeneous part of the solutions satisfy the condition,
@ Ain = @ Aout = 0.
Then, equations (7.71) and (7.73) give
1
@ adv,ret
D
(x
@ A (x) =
c
@x
or equivalently
@ A (x) =
1
c
@ adv,ret
D
(x
@x0
The integrand can be rewritten to obtain
@ A (x)
(7.94)
x0 ) j (x0 ) d4 x0
x0 ) j (x0 ) d4 x0 .
1
@ adv,ret
D
(x x0 ) j (x0 ) d4 x0
0
c
@x
1
@j
+
Dadv,ret (x x0 ) 0 d4 x0 .
c
@x
(7.95)
(7.96)
(7.97)
@j
where the second term vanishes by the equation of continuity @x
0 = 0 and the first
integral can be transformed into a surface integral
@ A (x) =
d 0 Dadv,ret (x x0 ) j (x0 ) ,
(7.98)
c
126
with a spacelike surface containing x and x0 . Finally, the right hand side integral
vanishes because Dadv,ret (x x0 ) = 0 for space-like separated x and x0 . Hence we
obtain the desired condition
@ A = 0.
7.6
(7.99)
Jefimenkos Equations
Considering a region where the external free field satisfies Ain (x) = 0, the retarded
potential is written in terms of the retarded Greens function as
1
A (x) =
d4 x0 Dret (x x0 ) j (x0 )
(7.100)
c
0
0
0
0
x
x
|~
x
~
x
|
1
A (x) =
j (x0 ) d4 x0 .
(7.101)
4c
|~x ~x0 |
0
Performing the integration in the retarded time x 0 we obtain
j x0R , ~x0 3 0
d x,
(7.102)
|~x ~x0 |
~x0 |. Since j = c, ~j , the components of
x0R , ~x0 3 0
d x
|~x ~x0 |
A (x) =
1
4c
where the retarded time is x0R = x0

this equation are
|~x
(x) =
1
4
~ (x) = 1
A
4c
~ 0 0
j xR , ~x 3 0
d x.
|~x ~x0 |
(7.103)
(7.104)
The electromagnetic field is written in term of the retarded potential as

F (x) = @ A (x)
@ A (x)
(7.105)
or separating its components as

~ =
E
and
~
r
~
1 @A
c @t
(7.106)
~ =r
~ A.
~
B
(7.107)
@~j x0R , ~x0

@~j x0R , ~x0 @x0R
@~j x0R , ~x0
=
=
@x0
@x0R
@x0
@x0R
(7.108)
Using the retarded potentials and the relation
7.7. PROBLEMS
127
we obtain the electric field

#
@~j x0R , ~x0
d3 x0
c |~x ~x0 |
@x0R
|~x
(7.109)
which is the time-dependent generalization of Coulombs law (note that when the
charge and current densities do not depend on time this expresion recovers the
Coulomb field obtaine from the potential given in equation (7.29)).
On the other hand, using the relation
~ (x) = 1
E
4
"
x0R , ~x0
(~x
@ x0R , ~x0 (~x ~x0 )

+
3
2
@x0R
~x0 |
|~x ~x0 |
~x0 )
~ 0 0
~ ~j x0R , ~x0 = @ j xR , ~x (~x
r
@x0R
|~x
~x0 )
~x0 |
the magnetic field can be written as

~ (x) = 1
B
4c
"~ 0 0
j xR , ~x
|~x
2
~x0 |
1
|~x
@~j x0R , ~x0

0
~x |
@x0R
(~x
|~x
(7.110)
~x0 ) 3 0
d x
~x0 |
(7.111)
which corresponds to the generalization of the well-known Biot-Savart law.

Equations (7.109) and (7.111) are the causal solutions of Maxwells equations (i.e.
retarded solutions) and are called Jefimenkos Equations. It is interesting to note that
this equations where presented in the literature jus some decades ago (1966) [8, 9].
7.7
Problems
1. Derive explicitly the advanced Greens function (7.49).

2. Obtain explicitly the D (x
x0 ) function given by equation (7.64).
3. Probe properties (7.65) and (7.66).

4. Show that the radiation Greens function can be written as equation (7.81).
5. Derive explicitly equation (7.110).
128
Chapter 8
Radiation
8.1
Lienard-Wiechert Potentials
In this section we will discuss the field of a moving charged particle in a region where
the external free field satisfies Ain (x) = Aout (x) = 0. The current density associated
to the charged particle traveling along the worldline y ( ) is given by equation (6.33),
j (x0 ) = qc
+1
y ( ) [x0
(8.1)
y ( )] d,
where y ( ) is the 4-velocity and is its proper time. The generated potential at point
x is described by the retarded function (7.71),
A (x) =
Dret (x x0 ) j (x0 ) d4 x0
(8.2)
c
A (x) = q
+1
Dret (x
x0 ) y ( ) [x0
y ( )] d d4 x0 .
(8.3)
Using equation (7.46) for Dret ,

q
A (x) =
2
+1
1
x0
0
x 0 y ( ) [x0
y ( )] d d4 x0 ,
(8.4)
we can perform the x0 integration to obtain

q
A (x) =
2
+1
1
The argument of the function
(x
h
(x
y ( ))
y ( ))
picks up the root with x > y ( ). Note that

0
129
x0
i
y 0 y ( ) d.
(8.5)
has two roots but the function
130
CHAPTER 8. RADIATION
i
d h
2
(x y ( )) =
d
and from the property of the function,
[g (x)] =
2 (x
(8.6)
y ( )) y ,
X (x xk )
,
|g 0 (xk )|
(8.7)
where xk are the roots of function g (x), we have

h
(x
y ( ))
(x y ( ))
,
| 2 (x y ( )) y | =0
(8.8)
where the expression is evaluated at the retarded proper time 0 such that x
is light-like and x0 y 0 (0 ) = R > 0. Thus A becomes
+1
q
(x y ( ))
A (x) =
y ( ) d.
4
[(x
y
(
))
y
]
1
=0
which gives the Lienard-Wiechert potentials,
q
y
A (x) =
4 (x y) y
y (0 )
(8.9)
(8.10)
.
=0
The conditons defining 0 show that it corresponds to the point where the trajectory
of the particle cuts the past light cone with vertex x. From Figure 8.1, it is clear
that only from the point y (0 ), a light signal can reach the point x. The particle and
~ = |~x ~y (0 )| and
the field point are separated by a 3-dimensional distance R = R
|x0 y0 (0 )|
a time interval Rc =
= t tR . With a similar procedure, but using the
c
advanced Greens function, we obtain the point y (1 ) shown in Figure 8.1 which is
the only point of the trajectory which contributes to the field at point x.
~ = ~x ~y (0 ) and writting the 4-velocity as
With R
y = (c, ~u)
we have
(x
y) y = Rc
dt
,
d
(8.11)
~ ~u dt = Rc 1
R
d
~ ~u
R
Rc
dt
.
d
(8.12)
Introducing the normalized vector
n
=
~
R
R
(8.13)
this expression becomes

(x
y) y = Rc 1
n
~
dt
d
(8.14)
8.1. LIENARD-WIECHERT POTENTIALS
131
Figure 8.1: Field at point x produced by a point particle moving along the worldline
y ( ). The points at 0 and 1 contribute to the retarded and adanced potential,
respectively.
where ~ = ~uc . Hence, the Lienard-Wiechert potential can be written as
2
3
q
y
4
5
A (x) =
4cR
1 n
~ dt
d
(8.15)
=0
or its components as
~=
A
8.1.1
4R 1
1
n
~
4R 1
n
~
(8.16)
=0
= ~.
(8.17)
=0
Coulomb Field
As an example, consider a particle at rest described by

y
c, ~0

c, ~0 .
Therefore, the components of the Lienard-Wiechert potential become

q
=
4R
(8.18)
(8.19)
(8.20)
132
~ = 0,
A
(8.21)
which correspond to the usual Coulomb field.
8.2
The Electromagnetic Field
Now we will evaluate the field tensor F using equation (8.3). Performing the x0
integration we get
+1
A (x) = q
Dret (x y ( )) y ( ) d.
(8.22)
1
By dierentiation we have
@ A (x) = q
+1
d
1
@ ret
D (x
@x
y ( )) y ( )
(8.23)
and since the retarded Greens function depends on (x y) , it can be written as

h
i
2
+1
@
(x
y)
ret
@D
i
y
(8.24)
@ A (x) = q
d h
2
@x
1
@ (x y)
@ A (x) = 2q
@ A (x) = 2q
+1
+1
d
1
Using equation (8.6) we obtain

@ A (x) =
(x
q Dret
(x
y) y
y) y
dDret
d
h
i (x
d d (x y)2
and integrating by parts
@ A (x) =
@Dret
i (x
d h
2
@ (x y)
+1
d
1
+1
+q
1
d
1
d
d
(8.25)
(8.26)
y) y .
dDret (x
d (x
+1
y) y
y) y
y) y
(x
(x
(8.27)
y) y
Dret (x
y) y
y) .
(8.28)
The first term is zero, while the second term can be integrated by replacing the
retarded Greens function as the function in equation (7.46),
q
@ A (x) =
2
+1
1
d
d
d
(x
(x
y) y
y) y
(x
y)
x0
y0 .
(8.29)
8.2. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
133
Using again equation (8.6) we get
+1
q
d (x

@ A (x) =
d
4
d (x
1
@ A (x) =
y) y
(x y)
y) y
(x y) y
1
d (x y) y
.
y) y d (x y) y
q
4 (x
Introducing
(8.30)
(8.31)
(x
y) y
(8.32)
(x
y) y
(8.33)
we have
q
@ A (x) =
4 (x
y) y
q 1
@ A (x) =
4 Y
"
"
y y + (x y) y
(x y) y
y y + (x
Y
y) y
y) y ( y y + (x
(x
((x
(x
y) y )
#
y) y c2 + Z
Y2
y) y )
(8.34)
Hence, the electromagnetic field is

F
8.2.0.1
q
4Y 3
y) y Y
(x
(x
y) y Y + (x
(x
y) y Z
c2
y) y Z
c2
Coulomb Field
(8.35)
A particle at rest is characterized by equations (8.18) and (8.19). This gives Z = 0

and the field
F
q
4Y 3
qc3
4Y 3
c 2 + x
The electric field has components

qc3 1
x
4Y 3
3
qc
=
x2
4Y 3
qc3 3
=
x .
4Y 3
c2
(8.36)
(8.37)
E1
F 10 =
(8.38)
E2
F 20
(8.39)
E3
F 30
(8.40)
134
Note that
y) y = x0
Y = (x
y 0 c = Rc
(8.41)
~ = (x1 , x2 , x3 ). Thus
and R
q ~
R.
4R3
Similarly, the magnetic field has components
~ =
E
B1
B2
B3
(8.42)
F 32 = 0
=
=
=
(8.43)
13
=0
(8.44)
21
=0
(8.45)
and hence
~ = 0.
B
(8.46)
It is clear that equations (8.42) and (8.46) represent the Coulomb field.
8.2.0.2
Electromagnetic Field of a Uniformly Moving Charged Particle
Consider now a uniformly moving particle with a velocity ~u = (u, 0, 0).

acceleration and 4-velocity are (see equation (1.38))
y
(c, u, 0, 0)
Its 4-
(8.47)
dt
= (c, u, 0, 0) (u)
d
y 0 , y 1 , 0, 0 .
(8.48)
(8.49)
Then
Y
(x
y) y = x0
(c
u) R
y0 c
x1
y 1 u = Rc
Ru
(8.50)
(8.51)
and
(8.52)
Z = 0.
The field is
F =
q
4 (c
u) R3
F =
(x
y) y
qc2
4 (c
u) R3
[(x
c2 + (x
y) y
(x
y) y
y) y ]
c2
(8.53)
(8.54)
8.3. THE RADIATION FIELD

F =
with
F =
F =
135
q
3
) R3
4c (1
[(x
y) y
+ (x
y) u
(x
y) y ]
(8.55)
= uc . This can be written as
R3 3
R3 2
q
4c (1
q
4c (1
(x
y) c
(x
y) c
+ (x
y) u
(x
(x
y) c
y) c
(x
(x
y) u
The electric field has components

E1
E1
E1
E1
F 10 =
q
3
) R3
4c (1
q
3
) R3
4c (1
[Rc
x1
Ru]
y1 c
x0
y0 u .
q
2
4 (1
) R2
q (1 + )
4R2 (1
)
(8.56)
and
8.3
E2
F 20 = 0
(8.57)
E3
F 30 = 0.
(8.58)
The Radiation Field
From the two examples above we can interpret the general electromagnetic field given
in equation (8.35). It has two contributions: the first one is the near field which
depends only on the velocities y and is porportional to R12 . The second contirbution
is the far field or radiation which depends on the acceleration y and is proportional
to R1 .
Using the Lienard-Wiechert potentials (8.16) and (8.17), we will obtain the electric
and magnetic fields by the relations
~ =
E
and
Note that
~
r
~
1 @A
c @t
~ =r
~ A.
~
B
y) u
(8.59)
(8.60)
136
2
~ = q r
~ 4
r
4
R
~ =
r
~~
R
1
5
~~
R
~ R
2 r
(8.61)
~~
R
(8.62)
where all quantities are evaluated at the retarded time = 0 . Since R = x0 y 0 (0 ) =

ct ctR , the first term in the gradient is
~ =
rR
~ R.
crt
(8.63)
The second term in the gradient can be rewritten as
~ R
~~ = R
~ r
~ ~+ ~r
~ R
~ +R
~ r
~ ~ +~ r
~ R
~ .
r
(8.65)
Now we will evaluate the four terms in the right hand side,
~ r
~ ~
R
=
=
=
where ~ =
term is
1 d~
u
c dtR
~ = ~x
and using R
1 Here
~u
(Rx @x + Ry @y + Rz @z )
c
d~u @tR
d~u @tR
d~u @tR 1
Rx
+ Ry
+ Rz
dtR @x
dtR @y
dtR @z c
~ R
~ rt
~ R
(8.66)
is the acceleration of the particle at the retarded time. The second
~r
~ R
~ =(
x @x
y @y
(8.67)
z @z ) R
~y (0 ) we write
~r
~ R
~
( x @x + y @y +
d~y @tR
+
x
dtR @x
~ R .
c ~ ~ rt
y
z @z ) ~
d~y @tR
+
y
dtR @y
d~y @tR
z
dtR @z
we use the vector identity
~ r
~ A
~
~ A
~B
~ = A
~r
~ B
~+ B
~ r
~ A
~+A
~ r
~ B
~ +B
r
(8.68)
(8.64)
137
In the third term we have the curl

~ ~=
r
~ ~=
r
@ y
@z
x
+
d y @tR
dtR @z
x
+
@ z
@y
d z @tR
dtR @y
@ x
@z
@ z
@x
d x @tR
dtR @z
~ ~=
r
y +
d z @tR
dtR @x
@ y
@x
y+
@ x
@y
(8.69)
d y @tR
dtR @x
d x @tR
z
dtR @y
(8.70)
~ rt
~ R.
(8.71)
Finally, in the fourth term we have the curl

~ R
~ =r
~ [~x
r
~ R
~ =r
~ ~x
r
~ R
~ =
r
~y (0 )]
(8.72)
~ ~y (0 )
r
(8.73)
~ ~y (0 )
r
(8.74)
~ R
~ = c ~ rt
~ R.
r
(8.75)
Replacing equations (8.66), (8.68), (8.71) and (8.75) in (8.65) we obtain
~ R
~ ~ = ~ R
~ rt
~ R +~
r
~ ~ rt
~ R + ~ c ~ rt
~ R .
R
(8.76)
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
Using the vector identity A B C = B A C
C A B in the last two
terms we have
~ R
~~
r
~ R
c ~ ~ rt
~ R
~ R
~ rt
~ R + ~ c ~ ~ rt
~ R
~ rt
~ R
~ ~
~ R
~ R
+ ~R
rtR + c ~ ~ rt
c ~ ~ rt
~ R
~ ~ = ~ + ~ R
~ rt
~ R
r
h
~ R
~ ~ = ~ + ~ R
~
r
2~
(8.77)
~ R.
rt
(8.78)
c
2
rtR
Equations (8.63) and (8.78) replaced in (8.62) gives the gradient of the electric
potential as
138
~ = q
r
4
~ =
r
1
~~
R
4R2
1
1
From the relation R = x0
~
+c
2 ~ + ~ R
n
~
~
+c
2 ~ + ~ R
y 0 (0 ) = x0
~ R=r
~ x0
crt
R =
~ R
rt
i
~ R .
rt
ctR we can write

p
~ = r
~
~ R
~
rR
R
1 ~ ~ ~
r RR
2R
which using the vector identity (8.64) becomes
~ R=
crt
i
1 h ~ ~ ~
~ r
~ R
~
2 R r R + 2R
2R
h
i
~ R= 1 R
~ r
~ R
~ +R
~ r
~ R
~ .
crt
R
and
~y (0 ) we have
~ r
~ R
~ =R
~
R
~ rt
~ R
~u R
i
~ rt
~ R +R
~ ~u rt
~ R
~u R
~B
~ C
~ =B
~ A
~C
~
~ A
~B
~ ,
and using the vector identity A
C
~ R=
crt
1 h~
R
R
~ rt
~ R + ~u R
~ rt
~ R
~u R
~ R=
crt
This gives
~ R=
crt
~ R
crt
1 h~
R
R
~
R
+
R
i
~ ~u rt
~ R .
R
!
~
R
~ R
~u rt
R
~ R=
(
n ~u) rt
(8.83)
(8.84)
(8.86)
1 h~
R
R
~ R=
crt
(8.81)
(8.85)
~ R
~ = ~u rt
~ R.
r
Hence,
(8.80)
(8.82)
~ R=
crt
~ = ~x
Replacing R
(8.79)
i
~ ~u rt
~ R
R
(8.87)
(8.88)
(8.89)
(8.90)
(8.91)
139
h
~ R 1
crt
i
n
~ =
~ R=
rt
n
~
c 1
(8.92)
(8.93)
Therefore, the gradient of the potential becomes
~ =
r
4R2
~ = q
r
4R2
1
1
n
~
1
n
~
2 4 ~
"
~ R
~ +c
n
~ ~
c 1
~ +1
R
n
~
! #
n
.
(8.94)
(8.95)
In order to complete the deduction of the electric field we need to compute the
time derivative
2
3
~
~
1 @A
q @ 4
5
=
(8.96)
c @t
4c @t
~~
R R
2
~
1 @A
q 6
=
4
c @t
4c
R
8
>
~
1 @A
q <
=
c @t
4c >
: R
@~
~ ~ @t
R
1
@t
~ R
@t
~~
R
The relation R = x0
~~
R
y 0 (0 ) = x0
@R
@
=
x0
@t
@t
~~
R
ctR gives
ctR = c
@ R
3
~~
R
7
5
@t
dR
dt
d ~ ~ @tR
R
dtR
@t
@tR
@t
(8.97)
9
>
=
>
;
(8.98)
(8.99)
and hence
8
>
~
1 @A
q <
=
> R
c @t
4c :
1
@t
~ R
@t
~~
R
~~
R
2 c
@tR
@t
9
>
d
@tR =
~
~
R
dtR
@t >
;
(8.100)
140
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
n
~
1
n
~
1
n
~
~ = ~x
Using R
8
<
~ R 1
:
(
n
~
@t
@t
c~ + 4~R 1
"
~
c + ~R 1
d ~ ~ @tR ~
R
dtR
@t
@tR
@t
(8.101)
1 3
9
~~
=
d R
@t
A ~5 R
n
~ + @c +
dtR
@t ;
0
(8.102)
n
~ +
~
~
~ d + dR ~
c+R
dtR
dtR
! #
)
~ @tR .
@t
(8.103)
~y (0 ), we obtain
~
dR
d
=
(~x
dtR
dtR
~y ) =
(8.104)
~u
and therefore,
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
1
1
n
~
1
1
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
n
~
1
1
n
~
c~ + ~R 1

~ ~
n
~ + c+R
i @t
R
~u ~ ~
@t
c~ + ~R 1

~ ~
n
~ + c+R
i @t
R
c~ ~ ~
@t
c~ + ~R 1
On the other hand, the relation R = x0

c
@tR
@
=
x0
@t
@t
c

n
~ + c
y 0 (0 ) = x0
R =c
@
R=c
@t
@tR
=c
@t
~
1 ~ @R
R
R
@t
(8.105)
(8.106)
i
~ ~ ~ @tR
+R
@t
ctR let us write
@ p ~ ~
RR
@t
(8.107)
(8.108)
(8.109)
141
c
~ = ~x
Replacing R
@tR
=c
@t
@tR
=c
@t
@tR
@tR
= c + c
n~
@t
@t
(8.113)
Hence,
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2
n
~
1
1
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2
n
~
1
n
~
c~ 1
(8.111)
~y )
(8.112)
@tR
=
@t
1
@
(~x
@t
@tR
@~y @tR
=c+n
@t
@tR @t
(8.110)
~y (0 ) we have
c
~
1 @A
q
=
c @t
4R2 c
~
@R
.
@t
n
~
(8.114)
n
~ + ~R 1
~ 1
"
n
~ +
~
c
R 1
~
~+ R
1
c

n
~ + c
n
~ +
n
~ +
4R2
q
4R2
1
1
n
~
1
n
~
3
3
"
"
n
~ ~
~
~+ R
1
c
~
c
! )
~
2
~
~
+R
c
(8.116)
~ +1
R
n
~ +
o
~ ~ ~
+R
(8.115)
! #
~
~ .
~
+R
c
Combining equations (8.95) and (8.117), the electric field (8.59) is
~
E
(8.117)
! #
n
! #
~
~
~
+R
c
142
4R2
~ =
E
4R2
~ =
E
~ =
E
~ =
E
1
1
n
~
1
1
4R2
q
4R2
n
~
1
n
~
1
n
~
"
"
"
"
~ +1
R
n
+
n
+
n
+
~B
~ C
~ =B
~ A
~C
~
Now note that using A
h
~ n
~ ~
R
~ ~ = n
~ R
~
R
i
~ ~ = n
~ =
E
4R2
q
4R2
1
n
~
1
1
n
~
n
~ +
R 1
~ n
R
+
~
c
n
~
R 1
~~
R
1 ~ h
R n
h
~ + 1R
~ n
! #
~
~
~
+R
c
(8.118)
n
~ +
R 1
!
~
~
R
~
R
!
~
c
~ A
~B
~ we have
C
h
i
~ n
R
~ ~
~ ~
R
and therefore the electric field can be written

~ =
E
~ ~ ~
R
! #
~
~
~
R
c
(8.119)
(8.120)
(8.121)
(8.122)
(8.123)
i
~ ~
(8.124)
i
~ ~ .
(8.125)
In order to obtain the magnetic field we need to evaluate, using equation (8.17),
the curl
h i
~ =r
~ A
~=r
~ ~ .
B
(8.126)
143

~ fA
~ =f r
~ A
~
~ rf
~
The vector identity r
A
gives

~ r
~ =
~ ~
~
B
r
(8.127)
which using equations (8.71) and (8.95) becomes
q ~ 6
4
4R2
~ rt
~ R
~ =
B
~ =
B
4R 1
~ =
B
1
n
~
4R 1
~ R+
~ rt
1
n
~
n
~
4R2
n
~ ~
n
~
n
~
~ +1
R
~ +1
R
~ +1
R
~ =
B
~ =
B
~ =
B
4R
n
2 4 ~
c
n
~
1
4R2
n
~
4
2 n
1
1
n
~
"
~
c
R 1
3 n
R 1
R 1
n
~
1
n
~
1
n
~
~
c
7
n
5
~ n
(8.129)
The gradient of the retarded time is written using equation (8.93), giving
q
4R
! #
(8.128)
1
1
~
6
4 ~ rt
R
"
~ +1
R
7
~n
5 .
(8.130)
3
~n
5
(8.131)
~
c
~
c
~ +1
R
~ +1
R
! 3
2
~5
(8.132)
! #
2
~ .
(8.133)
Comparing this equation with (8.118) and noting that n

n
= 0 we write finally the
magnetic field as the simple expression
~ =n
~
B
E.
(8.134)
Now we are in position to interpret the dierent term in the electric and magnetic
fields. The first term in the electric field (8.125) is called the generalized Coulomb
144
field (or velocity field or near field) because it does not depend on the acceleration
and decays with R12 . Togheter with the corresponding term in the magnetic field,
they form the electromagnetic near field:
~ near
E
1
q
2
4R
~ near
B
q
4R2
3
n
~
2
~n
1
3 .
1 n
~
(8.135)
q
n
.
4R2
(8.137)
(8.136)
Note that for for a static particle (i.e. ~ = 0) the electric field reduces to the
Coulomb field,
~ near =
E
On the other hand, the second term in the electric field (8.125) depends on the
acceleration and falls with R1 , so it is dominant at large distances. This is the responisble term for electromagnetic radiation and togheter with the corresponding term in
the magnetic field, they formthe radiation field (or far field),
~ rad
E
~ rad
B
n
~ ~
q n
3
4cR
1 n
~
n
h
io
~ ~
n
q
.
3
4cR
~
1 n
(8.138)
(8.139)
Now we will concentrate on the radiation field. Note that for slowly moving
particles, 1, the far fields reduce to2
2 Here
~B
~ C
~ =B
~ A
~C
~
we used the vector identity A
and hence
~ ~ = n
~ n
and for small
n
h
n
n
n
we obtain
n
n
io
~ ~
=
n
h
n
n
n
n
~
io
~ ~
'
~ A
~B
~ to write
C
~ = n
~ n
n
~
n
~
n
~ .
n
~
n
~
n
~ ~ (8.140)
(8.141)
(8.142)
145
~ rad
E
'
~ rad
B
'
n
n
~
4cR
q
n
~.
4cR
8.3.1
Poynting Vector of Radiation
8.3.1.1
Small Velocities Limit
The pointing vector for the radiation field in the
~=c E
~ B
~ =
S
q2
2
(4) cR2
(8.143)
(8.144)
1 limit is
i h
i
n
n
~ n
~ .
(8.145)
~ B
~ C
~ =B
~ A
~C
~
This expression can be written as using the vector identity A
~ A
~B
~ again. Note that
C
n
n
~ = n
~ n
(
nn
) ~ = n
~ n
~
(8.146)
and hence
h
h
h
i h
i h
n
n
~ n
~ = n
~ n
i h
i
~ n
~
i h
i
h
n
n
~ n
~ = n
~ n
n
~
i h
i
h
n
n
~ n
~ = n
~ n
n
~
h
i h
i
2
n
n
~ n
~ = n
~ n
or
i h
i
n
n
~ n
~ = cos2
h
i h
i
n
n
~ n
~ =
~ n
~
(8.148)
2n
+~ n
~
(8.149)
2n
.
(8.150)
2n
(8.151)
1 2n
(8.152)
If is the angle between ~ and n

we have
h
i h
i
n
n
~ n
~ = 2 cos2
n
h
(8.147)
sin2 2 n
(8.153)
146
and therefore,
i h
i
n
n
~ n
~ =
~=
S
q2
2
(4) cR2
n
~
n
~
(8.154)
(8.155)
n
.
This expression shows explicitly that the energy flux is radial in the direction of n
,
~ Note that the Poynting vector has magnitude
i.e. in the direction of R.
2
2 2
~ = q u sin
S
2
(4) c3 R2
(8.156)
which represents the characteristic radiation pattern (i.e. / sin2 ) in the dipole
approximation.
8.3.1.2
General Case
In general, the radiation field is described by equations (8.138) and (8.139),
~ rad
E
~ rad
B
i
~ ~
n
3
4cR
1 n
~
(8.157)
~ rad .
n
E
(8.158)
The Poynting vector is then
~=c E
~ B
~ = cE
~ rad n
~ rad
S
E
(8.159)
and from the figure it is easy to see that its norm is

2
~ =c E
~ rad .
S
(8.160)
or
~ =
S
q2
2
(4) cR2
n
n
~ ~
3
1 n
~
(8.161)
The angular distribution of the emitted radiation can be analyzed using this relation. Defining the solid angle subtended by an element of area A
n a distance R
from the source as = RA
,
the
power
radiated
into
is
2
P=
@t
~ n
R2 S
,
@tR
(8.162)
147
where we ahve taken into account that the interval of time t for the observer is not
the same as the interval tR for the emitter. In other words, in order to obtain the
radiated power we need to take into account that the radiated energy per unit time
must be calculated in terms of the retarded time tR , i.e.
dW
@t dW
=
.
dtR
@tR dt
(8.163)
Therefore, we obtained that the radiated power per unit solid angle is
dP
@t
~ n
= R2 S
.
d
@tR
(8.164)
Using equations (8.114) we have

@t
=1
@tR
n
~=1
(8.165)
cos
and from (8.161) we obtain

2
dP
q
=
2
d
(4) cR2
n
n
~ ~
3
1 n
~
2
dP
q
=
2
d
(4) cR2
8.3.2
n
~
i2
~ ~
.
5
n
~
(8.166)
(8.167)
Larmor Formula
Consider a non-relativistiv particle, 1, whose Poynting vector is given by equation

~ over the sphere
(8.155). The energy radiated per unit time is obtained by integrating S
of radius R. This gives

2
q2
2
~ d.
~
~
~
P = S d = S n
R d =
n
(8.168)
2
(4) c
2
2
Using n
~ = uc sin and d = sindd' we write

q 2 u 2
P=
2
sin2 sin d
(8.169)
2
(4) c3
0
q 2 u 2
P=
1 cos2 sin d
(8.170)
8c3 0
q 2 u 2
cos3
P=
cos
+
(8.171)
8c3
3
0
148
q 2 u 2
P=
1+1+
8c3
1 1
q 2 u 2
=
2
3
8c3
2
q 2 u 2 4
=
3
8c3 3
(8.172)
q 2 u 2
.
(8.173)
6 c3
This expression is known as the Larmor Formula for the power radiated from a
nonrelativistic accelerated point charge. The covariant version of this equation can
be written3
P=
P=
q 2 1 dp dp
.
6 m20 c3 d d
(8.179)
By substituting E = m0 c2 and p~ = m0 ~u in the components of the momentum 4vector and using some vectors identities it is possible to write the relativistic radiated
power (due to Linard) as
q 2 6 2 ~ ~ 2
P=
.
(8.180)
6 c3
Note the 6 factor which increases the radiated power enormously as the particle
approaches the speed of light. The procedure is extremely large and therefore we will
not deduce this equation completly. However, we include the following example to
visualize the apparition of the 6 factor.
8.3.2.1
Particle in Linear Motion (Bremsstrahlung )
Suppose that a particle is moving instantaneously in a straight line, so at time t = tR
it has ~ and ~ colinear. The complete radiation fields (8.138) and (8.139) give4
3 Note
that the momentum 4-vector p =
dp
=
d
and thus
E
,p
~
c
has
1 dE d~
p
,
c d d
dp dp
1 dE 2
= 2
d d
c
d
In the non-relativistic limit this quantity reduces to
(8.174)
(8.175)
d~
p
d
dp dp
d~
u 2
= m20
.
d d
dt
Hence, the coavariant generalization of equation (8.173) is proposed to be
P=
4 In
q 2 1 dp dp
.
6 m20 c3 d d
~B
~ C
~ =B
~ A
~C
~
the magnetic field we used the vector identity A
(8.176)
(8.177)
(8.178)
~ A
~B
~ to write
C
~ rad
E
~ rad
B
149
~
n
3
4cR
1 n
~
h
n
n
~
q n
=
3
4cR
1 n
~
(8.183)
n
~
q
3
4cR
1 n
~
and therefore the corresponding Poynting vector is
~=c E
~ B
~ =
S
q2
2
(4) cR
1
n
~
i h
i
n
~ n
~ .
6 n
(8.184)
(8.185)
As it was shown before, the numerator can be rewritten to obtain

q
~=
S
(4) cR
n
~
n
~
If is the angle between n

and ~ we have
~=
S
6 .
2 sin2
n
q2
2
(4) cR2 (1
cos )
(8.186)
(8.187)
6.
Therefore, the radiated power per unit solid angle gives, see eq. (8.164),
dP
@t ~
q2 2
sin2
=
Sn
R2 =
2
5
d
@tR
(4) c (1
cos )
(8.188)
which integrating becomes

P=
q 2 2 2
2
(4) c
@t
sin2
6 sin d.
@tR (1
cos )
(8.189)
Using equation (8.165) we have

P=
and hence
q2 2
8c
sin2
(1
n
n
~ = n
~ n
cos )
(
nn
) ~ = n
~ n
n
n
n
~ =
(8.190)
sin d.
n
~
(8.181)
(8.182)
150
In order to integrate we perform the sustitution x = cos obtaining
P=
q2 2
8c
x2
(1
x)
(8.191)
5 dx
which can be intergrated by parts as

"
q2 2
P=
8c
P=
4
3
3 (1 + ) (1
(8.192)
q2 2
1
2 )3
6c (1
(8.193)
q2 2 6
.
(8.194)
6c
Note the obtained 6 factor and the whole expression for the radiated power as
expected from equation (8.180) when ~ and ~ are colinear. It is also interesting to note
that the angular distribution of this radiation has the same form whether the particle
is accelerating > 0 or decelerating < 0 because it depends on the square of . In
either case, the the radiation is concentrated in the forward direction (with respect to
the velocity). This example describes the classical bremsstrahlung or braking radiation
(e.g. when a high speed electron hits a metal target and decelerates).
Expression (8.188) give us the angular distribution of the radiated power and it
laso tell us that the intesity reaches a maximum at the angle m given by the condition
d dP
= 0.
(8.195)
d d m
P=
This gives
sin2
d
d
2 sin m cos m (1
(1
cos m )
(1
2 cos m
2 cos2 m
cos m )
10
cos m )
cos m )
(8.196)
=0
m
5 sin3 m (1
cos m )
2 cos m (1
2 cos m (1
cos )
5 sin2 m = 0
1
cos2 m = 0
5 + 5 cos2 m = 0
3 cos2 m + 2 cos m
5 = 0.
=0
(8.197)
(8.198)
(8.199)
(8.200)
(8.201)
151
This quadratic equation can be solved as

1+
cos m =
1 + 15
3
(8.202)
where the + sign has been choosen in order to keep the value of cos m between 1
and 1.
To consider the ultra-relativistic case,
! 1, we will expand the velocity as
= 1 where 1. Expanding the right hand side to first order in we obtain
cos m =
1+
q
1 + 15 (1
3 (1
hp
1
(1 + )
1 + 15 (1
3
p
1
(1 + ) 16
3
" r
1
(1 + ) 4 1
3
cos m
cos m
cos m

1
(1 + ) 4 1
3
cos m
1
(1 + ) 4
3
15
8
15
16
i
1
(8.203)
(8.204)
(8.205)
(8.206)
15
1
cos m (1 + ) 3
3
cos m (1 + ) 1
cos m 1 +
30
2)
(8.207)
15
(8.208)
(8.209)
(8.210)
1
.
(8.211)
4
This expression shows in this limit the angles is m 0. Hence, we approximate
2
the Cosine function as cos m 1 12 m
and therefore
cos m 1
1 2
1
2 m
2
m
(8.212)
(8.213)
152
=
2
1
2
(8.214)
1.
We conclude that most of the power is therefore emitted within a relatively narrow
p
cone with opening angle m with respect to the direction ~ / ~ .

2
8.4
General Properties of the Radiation Field
In this section we will consider the general electromagnetic field produced by a moving
particle and given by equation (8.35),
F
q
4Y 3
y) y Y
(x
(x
y) y Y + (x
(x
y) y Z
This field satisfies the free Maxwell equations

@ F = 0
y) y Z
c2
c2
(8.215)
(8.216)
everyhwere except on the world-line of the particle and the corresponding electromagnetic energy-momentum tensor satisfies the conservation law
@ T = 0
(8.217)
everyhwere except on the world-line. The field F also satisfies the properties
F F = 0
(8.218)
and
F
(x
y) = 0
(8.219)
because is completely antisymmetric whereas the products F F and F (x y)

are symmetric in the indices , and , respectively. Introducing again the dual
tensor
F = F ,
(8.220)
F F = 0.
(8.221)
the first property can be written
~ and B
~ are orthogonal. Similarly, the
This equation means that the vectors E
~
~ are perpendicular to the
second property, equation (8.219), means that E and B
vector (~x ~y ).
As stated before, the radiation field corresponds to the part of F that depends
on the acceleration y. From equation (8.35) this can be written
8.4. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE RADIATION FIELD
F(rad)
=
q
[(x
4Y 3
y) y Y
(x
y) y Z
(x
y) y Y + (x
153
y) y Z]| =0 .
(8.222)
Similarly to equations (8.223) and (8.33), it is easy to show that the radiation field
satisfies the properties
F(rad) F(rad)
=0
and
(x
y) F(rad) = 0.
(8.223)
(8.224)
In order to probe these relations we also use the relation

2
[x
y (0 )] = 0,
(8.225)
which expresses the fact that x and y (0 ) are separated by a null distance (i.e. the
retarded time definition). Equation (8.223) gives the equality of the magnitudes of
~ and B.
~
the fields E
When an electromagnetic field has the two invariants F F and F F identically zero, it is said to be a pure radiation field or is also called a null field.
8.4.1
Electromagnetic Plane Waves
Consider a plane wave moving in the direction x1 . Hence, the potential A that describes this wave depends only on the time coordinate and just one spatial coodinate.
The gauge choosing condition @ A = 0 becomes
@0 A0 + @1 A1 = 0.
(8.226)
A0 = 0
(8.227)
~ A
~=0
r
(8.228)
Consider a potential with
and
which is equivalent in this case to @1 A1 = 0. The field equations @ F = 0 are

@ (@ A
@ @ A
@ A ) = 0
(8.229)
@ @ A = 0
(8.230)
and by the gauge condition it reduces to

@ @ Ai = Ai = 0
or in vector terms this is the one-dimensional wave equation
(8.231)
154
~ = 0.
A
(8.232)
The component A of this equation gives

1
@ 0 @ 0 A1 = 0
(8.233)
@0 A1 = constant = C1 .
(8.234)
or
If this constant is dierent from zero, C1 6= 0, this equation gives the constant
electric field E1 = @0 A1 = C1 , which does not represent a wave. Thus, we choose
A1 = 0.
(8.235)
For the component A2 the wave equation gives

@ 0 @ 0 A2 + @ 1 @ 1 A2 = 0
(8.236)
and therefore A2 must be a function of the dierence x0

@ 0 A2 =
x1 , i.e.
@ 1 A2 .
(8.237)
@ 1 A3 .
(8.238)
Similarly, the A component satisfies

3
@ 0 A3 =
These relations give the non-vanishing components of the field,

0
1
0
0
E2
E3
B 0
0
B3 B2 C
C
F = B
@ E2 B 3
0
0 A
E3
B2
0
0
(8.239)
and hence the dual tensor is
0
B 0
=B
@ B2
B3
0
0
E3
E2
B2
E3
0
0
1
B3
E2 C
C.
0 A
0
(8.240)
From these tensors we calculate the field invariants. The first one, F F = 0,
gives the well known relation
~ = B
~ .
E
(8.241)
The second invariant, F F = 0, gives the condition

~ B
~ = 0.
E
(8.242)

8.4.1.1
155
Polarization
The relations between the electric and magnetic fields found above are not sucient
~ and B.
~ For example, these vectors at a given point can still
to fix completely E
change as a function of time in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation
~k. Thus, plane waves may be distinguished by the direction of one of these vectors,
say the electric field, by introducing the so-called polarization degree of freedom. Since
~ and B
~ vary in a plane (perpendicular to ~k), two numbers are suficient to describe
E
the polarization of radiation, i.e. there are two degrees of polarization. In order to
describe polarization covariantly, consider a monochromatic plane wave
A (x) = " e
ikx
(8.243)
where " is a constant vector. Replacing this solution in the wave equation A = 0
we obtain the condition
k 2 " = 0
(8.244)
k 2 = 0.
(8.245)
or
On the other hand, the gauge condition @ A = 0 implies

k " = 0
(8.246)
which means that the amplitude " is orthogonal to k . We will choose a basis
for the Minkowkski space dependent on k. Denoting this basis vectors by e( ) with
= 0, 1, 2, 3, we impose the conditions
k e( ) = k 0 , k 0 , 0, 0 ,
(8.247)
i.e. in this basis the wave vector only has a time component and the first spatial
component. Since the amplitude " is expanded in the new basis as
X
" =
"( ) e( ) ,
(8.248)
conditions (8.246) and (8.247) become
X
"( ) e( ) k = k 0 "(0)
or
k 0 "(1) = k 0 "(0)
"(0) = "(1) .
Therefore, " in this basis is written as
" e( ) = "(0) , "(0) , "(2) "(3) .
"(1) = 0
(8.249)
(8.250)
(8.251)
156
The corresponding field calculated from the potential (8.243) is
F = i (" k
" k ) e
ikx
(8.252)
~ and B
~ along the
From here it is straightforward to writet the components of E
direction of ~k,
E1 = F 01 = i "0 k 1
"1 k 0 e
ikx
(8.253)
B1 = F 23 = i "2 k 3
"3 k 2 e
ikx
(8.254)
and
Using the basis
and
( )
e
we have (see equations (8.247) and (8.250))
E1 = F 01 = i "(0) k 0 "(1) k 0 e ikx = 0

B1 = F 23 = i "2 k 3
"3 k 2 e
ikx
= 0.
(8.255)
(8.256)
These results show clearly the transverse character of the electromagnetic wave.
8.4.2
Plane Wave Decomposition of the General Solution
An arbitrary field satisfying the field equation
and the condition
A = 0
(8.257)
@ A = 0
(8.258)
can be expanded in a Fourier series as

1
A (x) =
(2)
a (k) e
ikx
dk.
(8.259)
Since the field A is real, the complex coecients in the expansion must satisfy
a (k) = a ( k) .
(8.260)
Replacing the general solution (8.259) in the wave equation (8.257) gives the condition
k2 = 0
(8.261)
while replacing in the gauge condition (8.258) gives

a (k) k = 0.
The Fourier decomposition of A gives the field tensor
(8.262)
F (x) =
[k a (k)
k a (k)] e
ikx
[k a (k)
k a (k)] e
ikx
(2)
157
dk
(8.263)
dk.
(8.264)
or
F (x) =
8.4.3
i
(2)
Energy-Momentum Tensor for the Radiation Field
The energy momentum tensor (6.12) is given by equation5

T = F F
1
+ F
4
(8.267)
F .
From equation (8.239) we have
F F
and
B E2 B 3
=B
@
E2
E2 B 3
E3 B 2
0
0
B2
0
0
= 2B 2
E3 B 2
0
0
E22 + B32
E2 E 3 B 2 B 3
2E 2 = 2 B 2
0
0
C
C
E 2 E3 B 2 B 3 A
E32 + B22
(8.268)
E2 = 0
(8.269)
because the radiation field satisfies E = B . Thus the energy-momentum tensor is

2
E2
B E2 B 3 E 3 B 2
T = B
@
0
0
E2 B 3
E3 B 2
0
0
E22 + B32
E2 E 3 B 2 B 3
0
0
C
C.
E2 E3 B 2 B 3 A
E32 + B22
(8.270)
It is also true for radiation fields that its transverse character gives
E2
0
0
E3 B2 ) k
~ B
~ = (E2 B3
E
(8.271)
5 A general formula that hold for tensors and its duals is the following: Any two tensors F and
G with dual tensors F and G satisfy the general formula
1
F G = F G
2
as
G F
Hence, the energy-momentum tensor can be written using the dual tensor F
T =
1
[F F
2
+ F F ] .
(8.265)
and this property
(8.266)
158
and
~ B
~ = E
~ B
~ k = E 2 k.
E
(8.272)
Thus
E3 B 2 = E 2
E2 B 3
(8.273)
and the energy-momentum tensor becomes
E2
B E2
=B
@ 0
0
E2
E2
0
0
0
0
E22 + B32
E 2 E3 B 2 B 3
0
0
C
C.
E 2 E3 B 2 B 3 A
E32 + B22
(8.274)
The Poynting vector for the monochormatic wave can be written simply as
~=c E
~ B
~ = cE 2 k.
S
(8.275)
For the specific potential (8.243) we can write the energy-momentum tensor as
T = "2 k k e
2ikx
(8.276)
Since k is a null 4-vector, the energy-momentum tensor satisfies the relations

T = 0
(8.277)
T k = 0
(8.278)
T T = 0.
(8.279)
and
8.5
Radiation Reaction
As we have seen, an accelerated charge radiates. The radiation carries energy (and
momentum) which is supplied by the kinetic energy of the particle. This means that
the radiation exerts a force back to the charge known as the radiation reaction. From
Larmors formula for a non-relativistic particle we know that the radiated power is
P=
q 2 u 2
.
6 c3
(8.280)
Calling F~rad the radiation reaction force, the conservation of energy says that the
rate at which the particle loses energy under the influence of this force must be related
8.5. RADIATION REACTION
159
with P. Considering a time interval t = t2 t1 , the energy carried away by the

radiation must be equal to the energy lost 6 , i.e.
t2
t2
q2
~
Frad ~udt =
u 2 dt.
(8.281)
6c3 t1
t1
Integrating by parts the right hand side gives
t2
u dt =
t1
t2
t1
~u ~u dt =
t2
t1
d~u d~u
d~u
dt = ~u
dt dt
dt
t2
t1
t2
t1
d2 ~u
~udt.
dt2
(8.282)
The first term vanishes because the velocities and accelerations are the same at t1
and t2 (same state of the system),
t2
t2
~udt.
u 2 dt =
~u
(8.283)
t1
t1
Hence,
or
t2
t1
q2
F~rad ~udt =
6c3
t2
t1
"
F~rad
t2
t1
~udt
~u
q 2 ~u
~udt = 0.
6c3
(8.284)
(8.285)
This equation gives finally the Abraham-Lorentz Formula for the radiation reaction
force,
q 2 ~u
F~rad =
.
(8.286)
6c3
This equation has disturbing implications as we will see. For example, consider a
particle that is subject to no external forces. Its equation of motion is simply
q 2 ~u
F~rad =
= m~u
6c3
(8.287)
from which we write

d~u
6mc3
=
~u
dt
q2
3
~u = a0 exp 6mc t
q2
(8.288)
(8.289)
6 The time interval is choosen such that over

t the system returns to its initial state. For example,
when considering periodic motion we must integrate over an integral number of full cycles. When
the motion is not periodic , we need to asure that the state (specifically the velocity fields) of the
system at t1 is equal to the state at t2 .
160
or
t
~u = a0 e
(8.290)
q
where = 6mc
3 . This equation tell us that the acceleration incresas
es exponentially with time (without external forces!!). For an electron we have
the mean time = 6 10 24 s. which is roughly the timeit takes light to cross tha
2
classical electron radius re = mee c2 .
8.6
Problems
1. Using the Lienard-Wiechert potential, find the electromagnetic potentials produced by a point charge moving with constant velocity ~u = u
x.
2. Explain why the first term in equation (8.28) vanishes.
3. Integrate equation (8.191) to obtain (8.192).
4. Probe equations (8.218) and (8.219) for the electromagnetic field (8.35).
~ and B
~ are
5. Show explicitly that equation (8.221) implies that the vectors E
~ and B
~ are perpendicular
orthogonal and that equation (8.219) implies that E
to the vector (~x ~y ).
6. Probe equations (8.223) and (8.224) for the radiation electromagnetic field
(8.222).
7. Show that equation (8.223) implies the equality of the magnitudes of the fields
~ and B.
~
E
8. Show explicitly that the energy-momentum tensor (8.276) satisfies equations
(8.277),(8.278) and (8.279).
Chapter 9
Special Topics
9.1
Time-Independent Multipolar Expansion
The electric potential

(~x) =
(~x0 ) 3 0
d x
|~x ~x0 |
(9.1)
includes an arbitrary charge distribution described by (~x0 ). However, this equation

does not show that the corresponding field may have angular symmetries due to the
charge configuration. In order to show the dierent angular components we will
consider that the distribution is time independent and we will decompose the field
into spherical waves with a common center. The distance modulus |~x 1~x0 | can be
written
1
~x0 |
|~x
1
|~x
=q
1
2
|~x| + |~x0 |
"
2
1
|~x0 |
=
1
+
2
~x0 |
|~x|
|~x|
(9.2)
2~x ~x0
2~x ~x0
|~x|
1
2
(9.3)
and expanding by using the binomial theorem for observation distances much larger
than the source size, i.e. for |~x|
|~x0 |, gives
1
|~x
"
1
~x ~x0
1
+
2
~x0 |
|~x|
|~x|
1 |~x0 |
3 (~x ~x0 )
+
2 |~x|2
2 |~x|4
1
2
(9.4)
We replace this expansion in the electric potential and integrate to obtain

(~x) =
q X xi di
1X
xi xj
+
+
Qij 5 + ...
3
r
r
2
r
i
i,j
161
(9.5)
162
CHAPTER 9. SPECIAL TOPICS

where
Qij =
q=
(~x0 ) d3 x0
(9.6)
di =
x0i (~x0 ) d3 x0
(9.7)
3x0i x0j
r2
ij
(~x0 ) d3 x0
(9.8)
are identified as the monopole moment q, the dipole moment vector d~ and the quadrupole
moment tensor Qij , respectively.
9.1.1
Examples
A) Consider the distribution (~x0 ) = q

at ~x0 = 0. This gives the potential
(~x0 ) wich represents a point particle located
q
+ 0 + 0 + ...
(9.9)
r
where only the radial spherically symmetric contribution survives. It is clear that no
angular dependence is present in this distribution
(~x) =
B) Consider the distribution (~x0 ) = q 3 (~x0 ~x1 ) q 3 (~x0 ~x2 ) which describes
to point particles with charges q and q located at ~x0 = ~x1 and ~x0 = ~x2 , respectively.
The electric potential gives this time
(~x) = 0 +
X xi di
r3
(~x) = 0 +
+ 0 + ...
~x d~
+ 0 + ...
r3
(9.10)
(9.11)
defining the dipole moment vector d~ = q~x1 q~x2 . Note the starightforward angular
dependence cos , where is the angle between the observation point vector ~x and
~
the line passing through the charges (represented by the vector d).
9.1.2
General Time-Independent Multipolar Expansion
In the general case, the angular dependence of the electric potential may be complicated. Therefore, it is usual to expand in terms of spherical harmonics,
(~x) =
1 X
l
X
l=0 m= l
qlm
Ylm (, ') 4
rl+1 2l + 1
(9.12)
9.2. TIME-DEPENDENT MULTIPOLAR EXPANSION
163
where qlm are the multipole moments. In order to identify this terms, consider the
expansion of the distance modulus
1
~x0 |
|~x
= 4
1 X
l
X
l=0 m=
l
r<
1
Y (0 , '0 ) Ylm (, ')
l+1 2l + 1 lm
r
>
l
(9.13)
where r< (r> ) is the smaller (larger) between |~x| and |~x0 |. The potential is written
(~x) = 4
(~x0 )
1 X
l
X
l=0 m=
l
r<
1
Y (0 , '0 ) Ylm (, ') d3 x0
l+1 2l + 1 lm
r
l >
(9.14)
and the comparison term by term give us the identification of the coecients
qlm = (~x0 ) r l Ylm

(0 , '0 ) d3 x0
(9.15)
which contain the information about the -dependence through l and the ' dependence
through m.
The electric field is calculated as
~ =
E
which gives the components
9.2
Er (l, m)
E (l, m)
Er (l, m)
~
r
(9.16)
4 (l + 1)
Ylm (, ')
qlm
2l + 1
rl+2
4
1 @Ylm (, ')
qlm l+2
2l + 1
r
@
4
1 im
qlm l+2
Ylm (, ') .
2l + 1
r
sin
(9.18)
(9.19)
(9.20)
Time-Dependent Multipolar Expansion
Now we will consider fields that are no longer static. In the free space, the potential
4-vector must be a solution of the wave equation, so it can be written as a series of
time-harmonic terms (Fourier series) as
A (x) = A0 (~x) e
where function
1 Remember
A0
i!t
(9.21)
(~x) is a solution of the Helmholtz equation
that the gradient in spherical coordinates is

~ = @ r + 1 @ + 1 @ '.
r
@r
r @
r sin @'
(9.17)
164
where, as always,
r2 + k 2 A0 (~x) = 0
(9.22)
!2
.
(9.23)
c2
The method of solution is to separate out the angular and radial variables using
the expansion
k2 =
A0 (~x) =
Rl (r) Ylm (, ')
(9.24)
l,m
for each . Hence 2 , we obtain two equations, the angular component
1 @
@
1 @2
sin
+
Ylm = l (l + 1) Ylm
sin @
@ sin2 @'2
(9.26)
and the radial equation
1 d2
l (l + 1)
r+
R l = k 2 Rl .
r dr2
r2
9.2.1
Examples
9.2.1.1
Electric Dipole Radiation
(9.27)
Consider two tiny metal spheres separated by a distance d and connected by a fine
wire along the z direction. At time t the charge on the upper sphere is q (t) and the
charge on the lower sphere is q (t). Suppose that we drive the charge back and forth
through the wire, from one end to the other, with a constant angular frequency ! in
the form
q (t) = q0 cos (!t) .
(9.28)
The system is the oscillating electric dipole

d~ (t) = d0 cos (!t) z
(9.29)
where d0 = q0 d is the maximum value of the dipole moment. The retarded potential
(7.103) in this example becomes
1
(x) =
4
2 Remember
x0R , ~x0 3 0
d x
|~x ~x0 |
that the laplacian in spherical coordinates is
1 @
@
1
@
@
1
@2
r2 = 2
r2
+ 2
sin
+ 2
.
r @r
@r
r sin @
@
r sin2 @'2
(9.30)
(9.25)
where
h
8
<
q
cos
! t0R
0
1
(x) =
4 :
R+
and by the law of cosines

R =
R+
c
R = |~x
r2
h
q0 cos ! t0R
R
165
R
c
i 9
=
~x |
2
d
+
rd cos .
2
(9.31)
(9.32)
(9.33)
Now we will perform some approximations to describe in a simple way the dipole.
The first approximation corresponds to consider a extremely small separation distance
between the spheres, i.e. d r. To first order in d we obtain
s
2
d
d
R = r 1 +
cos
(9.34)
2r
r
d
R r 1
cos
(9.35)
2r
and therefore
1
1
d
1
cos .
R
r
2r
(9.36)
Similarly, to first order in d we write

R
r
d
cos ! t0R
cos ! t0R
1
cos
c
c
2r

R
r
!d
cos ! t0R
cos ! t0R
cos
c
c
2c
(9.37)
(9.38)
or using the well known identity,

cos ! t0R
r i
!d
cos .
sin
c
2c
(9.39)
The second approximation corresponds to the perfect dipole limit, in which we
consider d !c 3 . This gives
R
c

cos ! t0R
h
cos ! t0R
R
c
h
r i
!d
cos sin ! t0R
cos
c
2c
h
cos ! t0R
h
r i !d
cos sin ! t0R

c
2c
r i
.
c
(9.40)
3 Note that this approximation corresponds to d

where = 2c
is the wavelenght associated
!
with the frequency ! (which will correspond to the frequency of the emitted radiation).
166

Replacing this quantity back into the potential we obtain
(x)
h
h
q0
r i !d
r i 1
d
cos ! t0R
cos sin ! t0R
1+
cos
4
c
2c
c
r
2r
h
h
r i !d
r i 1
d
cos ! t0R
+
cos sin ! t0R
1
cos (9.41)
c
2c
c
r
2r
q0
(x) =
4r
(x) =
h
d
cos cos ! t0R
r
d0 cos
4r
r i
c
h
1
cos ! t0R
r
r i
c
h
!d
cos sin ! t0R
c
h
!
sin ! t0R
c
r i
c
r i
.
c
(9.42)
(9.43)
Note that this expression gives, in the static limit ! ! 0, the potential for a
stationary dipole (9.11),
d0 cos
.
(9.44)
4r2
Finally, we will consider the radiation field (far field) and therefore we will make
c 4
our third approximation, r
or equivalently 1r !c . In this region the first term
!
in the potential is negligible and then
(x) =
rad
h
d0 ! cos
sin ! t0R
4cr
(x) =
r i
.
c
(9.45)
~ we start from the current

On the other hand, to obtain the vector potential A
flowing in the wire,
dq
I~ =
z = q0 ! sin [!t] z.
dt
Thus, equation (7.104) gives the vector potential
(9.46)
~ 0 0
j xR , ~x 3 0
d x
|~x ~x0 |
q0 ! sin ! t0R Rc z 0
dz .
R
~ (x) = 1
A
4c
~ (x) = 1
A
4c
d
2
d
2
(9.47)
(9.48)
Applying the first and second approximations described above, we obtain to first
order in d the value
~ rad (x) =
A
h
1 q0 !d
sin ! t0R
4c r
r i
z
c
(9.49)
4 This approximation corresponds to consider the far region, i.e. at a large distance compared
with the wavelenght, r
.
167
h
1 !d0
r i
sin ! t0R
z
4c r
c
or
h
1 !d0
r i
~ rad (x) =
A
sin ! t0R
cos
r sin .
4c r
c
To obtain the fields we need to calculate the gradient
~ rad (x) =
A
~
r
~
r
rad
d0 !
4c
cos
rad
rad
@r
h
1
sin
! t0R
r2
r +
r i
c
rad
Likewise,
~ rad
@A
=
@tR
~ rad
@A
=
@tR
(9.52)
h
!
cos ! t0R
rc
Thus, the electric field is
h
d0 ! 2 cos
cos
! t0R
4c2 r
h
1 ! 2 d0
cos ! t0R
4c r
h
1 ! 2 d0
cos ! t0R
4c r
~ rad =
E
~ rad =
E
h
d0 ! 2 cos
cos
! t0R
4c2 r
~
r
rad
r i
r
c
(9.54)
r i
z
c
(9.55)
r i
cos
r
c
sin .
h
r i
1 ! 2 d0
r+
cos
! t0R
c
4c2 r
h
!
sin cos ! t0R
c
(9.56)
~ rad
1 @A
c @tR
(9.57)
r i
cos
r
c
h
! 2 d0 sin
r i
0
cos
!
t
.
R
4c2 r
c
To obtain the magnetic field we calculate the curl
1 @
@Ar
~
~
r Arad =
(rA )
'
r @r
@
1 !d0
4c r
h
sin
sin
! t0R
r2
(9.53)
r i
r.
c
~ rad =
E
~ A
~ rad =
r
(9.51)
1 @ rad
r @
which can be written, using the third approximation, as

~
r
(9.50)
h
r i sin
+
sin ! t0R
c
r
sin
(9.58)
(9.59)
(9.60)
r i
'.
c
(9.61)
r i
168
Using the third approximation, the second term is neglected and hence
h
! 2 d0 sin
r i
0
cos
!
t
'.
(9.62)
R
4c2 r
c
The energy radiated by the oscillating electric dipole is calculated by the Poynting
vector,
~=c E
~ rad B
~ rad
S
(9.63)
~ rad = r
~ A
~ rad =
B
h
2
4 2
~ = ! d0 sin cos2 ! t0R
S
2
2
(4) c r
r i
r
c
(9.64)
and the intensity is obtained by averaging over a complete cycle in time,

D E
2
4 2
~ = ! d0 sin r.
S
(9.65)
32 2 c r2
It is important to note that there is no radiation along the axis of the dipole (because
this axis is defined by = 0). In fact, the intensity profile takes the form of a donut,
with the maximum in the equatorial plane ( = 2 ).
Finally, the total radiated power corresponds to the integral
P=
! 4 d20
32 2 c
P=
sin2 2
r sin dd'
r2
(9.66)
! 4 d20
4
2
32 2 c 3
(9.67)
! 4 d20
.
12c
(9.68)
P=
Bibliography
[1] G. B.Arfken, H. J. Weber, F. E. Harris. Mathematical Methods for Physicists: A
Comprehensive Guide. Academic Press; 7 edition (2012)
[2] V. Bargmann, L. Michel and V. Telegdi. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2 , 435 (1959)
[3] R.
G.
Brown.
Classical
Electrodynamics.
Part
II.
ture
Notes.
Duke
Unversity
Physics
Department
http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/Class/Electrodynamics.php
Lec(2007)
[4] B. Cabrera, Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1378 (1982)

[5] R. Casalbuoni. Advanced Quantum Field Theory. Dipartimento di Fisica. Univerit di Firneze (2005)
[6] I. M. Gelfand and G. E. Shilov, G.E. Generalized functions, V. 15, Academic
Press. (1968)
[7] A. S. Goldhaber and W. P. Trower, Am. J. Phys. 58,429 (1990).
[8] O. D. Jefimenko. Electricity and Magnetism: An Introduction to the Theory of
Electric and Magnetic Fields. Sect. 15.7. Electret Scientific Co. 2nd Ed. (1990)
[9] O. D. Jefimenko. Causality, Electromagnetic Induction, and Gravitation: A Different Approach to the Theory of Electromagnetic and Gravitational Fields. Electret Scientific Co. 2nd Ed. (2000)
[10] F. Melia. Electrodynamics. The University of Chicago Press. (2001)
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(2000)
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Relativistic Classical Electrodynamics

The Relativistic Description of Classical Particles

Relativistic Electromagnetic Field Theory

4 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian Formulation

4.5.1 Spacetime Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 Lagrangian Description of the Fields

Interaction of Particles and Fields

7 Solution of the Equations of Motion

7.3.2 Advanced Greens Functions

The Relativistic Description of

The Minkowskian Space

In order to describe the special theory of relativity, we introduce a 4-dimensional

Denoting the components of the 4-vector x by x ( = 0, 1, 2, 3) and similarly for

CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY

A Lorentz Transformation is defined as a linear transformation

that leaves invariant the Minkowskian product, i.e.

The more general transformation of this kind is known as the inhomogeneus

= vc . It is straightforward to note that this is a proper orthogonal matrix, i.e.

From the definition of a Lorentz transformation, it is clear that the norm of a

1.3. COVARIANT AND CONTRAVARIANT COMPONENTS

Covariant and Contravariant Components

The inverse of the Minkowskian metric tensor is defined by the relation

From this relation we conclude that

Light Cones and Causality Relations

CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY

and it is also an invariant under Lorentz transformations.

Scalars, Vectors and Tensors

Depending on the properties of transformation when we make a coordinates change

A 4-vector (tensor of rank one), or simply vector, V is a quantity that transform as

under a Lorentz transformation L. The contravariant components of the vector,

As we already know, the 4-vector can also be represented in covariant components,

1.6. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS

A second order tensor T is a set of 16 components that transform as

The notion of tensor can be generalized to the concept of r-order tensor as an

CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY

(u) (c, ~u)

where u = |~u| is the norm of the physical velocity and

This relation shows that every 4-velocity is a time-like vector.

The acceleration 4-vector is defined by

1.6. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS

Its components can be expressed as

Doppler Eect and Aberration

Consider an electromagnetic plane wave function described by the function

where represents an electric or magnetic field or the electromagnetic potential,

CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY

The Principle of Relativity

The Lorentz transformations permit dierent observers to compare their coordinates.

Scalar, Vector and Tensor Fields

1.9. SOME USEFUL RELATIONS

Similarly, the covariant components of the vector field satisfy

It is interesting to note that the derivatives of a scalar field, denoted by

transform like a vector field,

Similarly, it is easy to probe that

(x0 ) = 11 22 ...rr F 1 2 ...r (x) .

Some Useful Relations

In last section we introduced the partial derivatives of fields. The 4-dimensional

CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY

The 4-dimensional divergence of a vector field is

where dx lies on the surface.

which is often written as

The curl of a gradient is always zero,

The divergence of the curl is not always zero,

The vanishing of the closed line integral

The 4-dimensional volume element is denoted