CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Previous Related Research Findings

In order to begin this research, it is helpful to provide a review of

nonverbal communication and paralanguage in education. The previous
related research findings are discussed as follows:
Elfatihi (2006) concluded in his study that nonverbal communication can
help improve both the teaching practice and learning process.
Kruger (2009) in his study about the use of nonverbal communication in
the foreign language study found that gestures used by the speaker assisted
the audiovisual condition participants in clarifying meanings and concepts
expressed verbally by providing additional contextual information.
Pennycook (1985) concluded in his research that much paralanguage will
be acquired if the classroom interactive structure facilitates communication.
But in this study, Pennycook defines paralanguage as something broarder than
what the researcher defines in this research. Pennycook use the term
Paralanguage to cover kinesics and proxemics while he used the term
paraverbal feature for the term Paralanguage in this research.
Butt (2011) found in is study about the role of nonverbal communication
on students learning outcomes that nonverbal communication had brought

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positive change in the learning outcomes of students. He also found that

pitch or rise and fall in the tone of teachers voice helped the students in the
proper understanding of poetry.
Oladipupo (2011) also stated in the study about the use nonverbal
communication in the teaching of English language that one of nonverbal
cues which is used as effective teaching strategies and in class management is
vary tempo.
Hong-li (2011) in his research about effects of nonverbal communication
on college English classroom teaching, related to vocal characteristic
concluded that it is not what teacher say, but how she/he says it that really
counts.
Some studies above investigated the use of nonverbal communication in
the classroom generally as a whole. Kruger limited his research about
nonverbal communication on the gestures only. Pennycook used the term
Paralanguage in his research which cover broader

aspects of nonverbal

communication. Butt who also conducted a research generally on nonverbal

communication took pitch as on of his indicator which found that it helps
students in understanding poetry while Oladipupo took tempo as one of
indicator.The last, Hong-li who also conducted the broader research about
effect of nonverbal communication took vocal charateristic as one of
parameters in his research.

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There is no research yet which investigate mainly about Paralanguage

which is also considered as one important aspect in English language
teaching. That is why the researcher will conduct this research.
B. Some Pertinent Ideas
1. The Concept of Nonverbal Communication
a. Definition of nonverbal communication
Definition of nonverbal communication is much more complex that it is
hard to define. Some experts propose different perspective about the
definition about this. Samovar, Porter, and Stefani (1998) defined it as
stimulus in communication that convey message to the conveyer or reciever
while Knapp and Hall (1997) defined it as communication effected by means
other than words (assuming words are the verbal element). Richmond and
McCroskey (2000) in Mottet and Richmond (1998) suggested that nonverbal
communication is the process of stimulating meaning in the minds of others
through nonverbal messages, or messages that are non-linguistic or nonlanguage based.
Non-verbal communication involves all those non-verbal stimuli in a
communication setting that are generated by both the source and his/her use
of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or
receiver. Some also defined it as the process by which non-verbal behaviors
are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the
exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context.
b. Function of Nonverbal Communication

12

Nonverbal communication has six primary functions. Those are

repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, accenting/moderating,
and regulating (Knapp & Hall, 2010).
Repeating means nonverbal communication can repeat what was said
verbally like pointing the direction after telling it to someone (Knap & Hall,
2010).
Conflicting means nonverbal communication can convey the contrast
message with the verbal message like someone who speak falteringly in front
of the audience while saying I am not nervous (Knapp & Hall, 2010).
Complementing means nonverbal communication can complement or
modify the verbal message (Knapp & Hall, 2010). Besides that, nonverbal
communication is also helpful in recalling the verbal message .
Substituting means nonverbal communication can also change the verbal
message like a woman can stare right ahead if she feels angry (Knapp & Hall:
2010). Without saying anything, we can know that she is angry.
Accenting means emphasizing the verbal message while moderating
means cooling it down (Knapp & Hall: 2010). It can can be by movement of
hand or head.
Regulating done by coordinating verbal and nonverbal behavior in the
production of the messages or coordinating verbal and nonverbal message
behavior with those of interaction partner (Knapp & Hall: 2010). The
example is like posture changes that may demarcate a topic change.
c.

Classification of Nonverbal Communication

13

Knapp and Hall (1997) classify nonverbal communication into seven

categories. Those are body motion and kinesics behavior, physical
characteristics, touching behavior, paralanguage, proxemic, artifacts, and
enviromnent factors.
Malandro et al. (1989) identified the specific classes of nonverbal
communication, namely (1) body types, shapes, and sizes, (2) clothing and
personal artifacts, (3) body movement and gestures, (4) facial expression and
eye behavior, (5) environment, (6) personal space, territory, and crowding, (7)
voice characteristics and qualities, (8) taste and smell, and (9) culture and
time.
Anderson

(2007)

proposed

the

classification

of

nonverbal

commmunication with different perspective: (1) physical appearance, (2)

proxemics, (3) chronemics, (4) kinesics, including some aspects of facial
expressions, body movements, gestures, and conversational regulators, (5)
haptics, (6) oculesics, (7) vocalics or paralanguage, and (8) olfactics.
A Chinese scholar, BIJi-wan (1999) classified nonverbal communication
as follow: body language, including basic posture, gesture, basic manners and
movements of any part of the body ; (2) paralanguage, referring to those
elements such as pitch, speed, volume, tone rhythm, silence, and pause; (3)
object language, consisting of smell, complexion, clothing, cosmetics,
furniture, etc.; and (4) environmental language, including time, space, colors,
city planning and any human effect of nature.

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In disscussing about nonverbal communication in the classorom, Hong-li

(2011) suggested that the classification of nonverbal communication by BI Jiwan is the most comprehensive one since the study of nonverbal
communication covers a wide range of areas and it is important to cover
every aspect of it. BI Ji-wans classification has covered most field of
nonverbal communication.
d. The Importance Nonverbal Communication in the Classroom
Radford (1990) declares that effective communication is very important
in the classroom environment. It is supported by Radford (1990) that
knowledge is transmitted through effective communication and nurtured by
skillfully sending and receiving message.
Related to the importance of nonverbal communication in the classroom
Capel, Zwozdiak-Myers, & Lawrence (2005) stated that, Much teacherpupil communication is nonverbal (e.g. your appearance, gestures, postures,
facial expressions, and mannerism).
Richmond, & McCroskey (2004) also stated

that more pervasive

nonverbal communication (~93% of all communcation) stimulates students

feelings and attitudes about the material.
2. Paralanguage
a. Definition of Paralanguage
Paralanguage is concerned on how the words are spoken. It expressed
conciously or unconciously to modify meaning and convey the emotion.

15

Poyatos (1983) defined paralanguage as the nonverbal voice qualities,

voice modifiers and independent utterances produced or conditioned in the
areas covered by supraglottal cavities (from the lips and the nares to the
pharynx), the laryngeal cavity and the infraglottal cavities (lungs and
esophagus), down to the abdominal muscles, as well as the intervening
momentary silences, which we use conciously or unconciously supporting, or
contradicting the verbal, kinesic, chemical, dermal, and thermal or proxemic
messages, either simultaneously to or alternating with them, in both
interaction and noninteraction.
Negi (2009) stated that Paralanguage is concerned with the nonverbal
audio part of speech as tone, pitch, intonation, and pause etc which come
alongside spoken language.
b. Classification of Paralanguage
Poyatos (1983) classified Paralanguage into two main categories:
nonsegmental (intonational) and segmental (a paralinguistic construct)
paralanguage.

Segmental

paralanguage

consists

of

alternants

while

nonsegmental paralanguage consists of primary qualities, qualifiers, and

differentiators.
Primary qualities is voice characteristics that differentiate individuals
(Poyatos, 1983). These primary qualities are conditioned by different factors:
biological, psychological, sociocultural, and occupational.

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Qualifiers are voice types which truly attest to its unique complexity.
This voice modifiers are determined by various factors: biological,
psychological, and emotional variables. Qualifiers consist of respiratory
control,

laryngeal

control,

esophageal

control,

pharyngeal

control,

velopharyngeal control, lingual control, libial control, mandibular control,

articulatory control, articulatory tension control, and objectual control
(Poyatos, 1983).
The last category of nonsegmental paralanguage is differentiators.
Differentiators refer to different way of how someone says something that can
be influenced by what it is said. Qualifiers can be divided into: laughter,
crying, shouting, sighing, gasping, panting, yawning, coughig, spitting,
belching, hiccuping, and sneezing.
Segmental paralanguage accompany prosodic features during the
production of an utterance. Segmental paralanguage include alternants that
consist of consonantal and vocalic silent.
3. Primary Qualities
Primary qualities of paralanguage is a basic component of everyday
speech which allow people to recognize a person without knowing what he or
she is saying. Doctorow in Poyatos (1983) stated that the walls were too
thick for the words to be heard but the pitch and timbre and intonation.
Primary qualities consist of timbre, resonance, laudness, tempo, pitch,
intonation, syllabic duration, and rhythm.

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Figure 2.1 Classification of Paralanguage (Poyatos: 1983)

a. Timbre
Timbre is determined by the length and thickness of vocal bands. Besides
that, it is also determined by geographical differences. Poyatos (1983) stated
that we assume the man with a deep voice over the telephone to be of large
build and strong because there seems to be general correlation between a
persons size and physique and the size of the larynx and vocal trace (Laver,
1972 in Poyatos, 1983).

b. Resonance
Resonance is the process by which the basic product of phonation is
enhanced in timbre and / or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which
it passess on its way to the outside air (McKinney, 1994).

18

Resonance associated to body size if the speaker is not seen. It also

suggests positive males characteristics like masculinity, energy, good health,
resourcefulness, etc (Poyatos, 1993).
c. Loudness
Loudness can be defined as intensity or volume. It depends on
articulatory muscular effort and it is along with pitch. Each of people has
biopspychologically and habitual personal conversational level related to
personal personality, status, occupation, and situational context.
d. Tempo
Tempo is the speed or slowness in delivering words, sentences and the
whole of a persons speech. Like loudness, tempo can perform certain
grammatical functions (Poyatos, 1993).
Fast tempo can indicate willingness, a care-free attitude, gaiety,
mastering of the situation, warning about something about to happen, anger,
annoyance, impatience, haste, urgency, dismissal of something said as
unimportant, unpleasant, etc.
Attitudes in either group can be conveyed differently. Besides that, tempo
also can indicate abnormal states, from a strong neuralgia or the depressive
phase of manic depressive psychosis, reflected in slow tempo, to the manic
phase, of extreme elation and hyperexcitability, with lauder and faster speech.
e. Pitch
Pitch is the most versative message-conveying feature of voice, which
accompanies all verbal and nonverbal communicative sounds with the

19

subtlest possible symbolic variations (Poyatos, 1993). Pitch can give the same
word

(e.g.,Well)

different

meanings

(surprise,

contempt,

anger,

dissappointment, etc.).
There are four aspects of pitch, those are:
-

Pitch level, the dominant tone in which a portion of speech of

whatever length is conducted. There is personal style of pitch level

that allow us to anticipate a given speakers higher or lower level.

Pitch range is the individual characteristic between lowest and highest
register, varying widely from a narrow-ranging voice in some to a

wide-ranging voice.
Pitch registers is applied to either words or paralinguistic alternants
like a shout, a moan or an expression of repugnance.

f. Intonation range
Intonation is one of the primary qualities which is identified within the
speakers permanent voice set. It is something melodious and monotonous,
based on overall impression of that combination of pitches, stresses, and
junctures (Poyatos, 1993).
Individuals intonation style does not always correspond to a similar
kinesic style. Intonation range may betray biological, psychological or
socioeconomic characteristics.
g. Syllabic duration
We conciously or unconciously control the speed or tempo of each of the
syllables that make up our speech by lengthening or shortening them wirh

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multiple functions applied to one or more words as from overclipped and

clipped to single, double, and overdrawl, and long overdrawl (Poyatos, 1993).
Drawling is superimposed to words and certain paralinguistic. Clipping,
is used for addressing someone in a harsh or impatient tone, warning against
impending danger, remembering suddenly, etc.
h. Rhythm
Rhythm is the combination of different patterns of pitches, loudness,
syllabic, duration, and speech tempo produce as we speak. It is differentiated
from very smooth to very jerky. It is also influenced by drawling and clipping
4. The Urgency of Paralanguage in EFL Classroom
Teacher creates more impression through nonverbal communication in
the classroom than the knowledge of subject matter and verbal fluency.
Actually the success of both the student and teacher depends upon the
effective communication between them in the class.
In general, it is true that nonverbal communication accounts for a large
part of meaningful human communication. Actions, such as facial display, eye
contact, body language or the way we wear our clothes, make hair style,
speak louder than words and often help others make accurate judgments about
our thoughts, feelings and intentions because they set the scene for total
communication (Mey, 1993).
Communication is essential in EFL classroom and consist of much more
than speech and/or writing (Chapman, 2008). According to ONeil (2007), up
to 70% of cummunication, face to face with others, is done through

21

paralanguage. Paralanguage is also considered as an important aspect because

it carries more important aspect than what is actually being said.
In EFL class, English used by English teacher is not only as an
instructional languge to deliver the learning material but also as role model
for the students in using the language. Richards (2002) stated that teacher
must facilitate students to be able to use language appropiately in social
interaction. It is also supported by Strander (2001) that teachers language
proficiency can be seen as contamination factor that can be transferred to the
students. By that reason, the demand of foreign language teachers who use
foreign language as medium of instruction to use the language appropriately
is higher than the teacher who use their first language as medium of
instruction.
C. Interpreting Paralanguage

D. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of this research is shown in the diagram below:

22

TEFL

Classroom
communication
Verbal
communication

Kinesics

Proxemics

Nonverbal
communication

Haptics

Oculesics

Paralanguage

Teacher

Features

Perceptio
n

Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework of the reseach

Students

Response