Part 01 Ce 769 Oe Mtech BRN Moodle

8/12/2014
CE 769
Coastal and Ocean Environment
Part-I
Dr. BALAJI Ramakrishnan
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay.
email: rbalaji@civil.iitb.ac.in
Detailed Syllabus
CE 769: Coastal and Ocean Environment
Module 1
Review of basic Fluid Mechanics - Conservation of mass - Continuity
equation - Eulers equation of motion - Bernoullis equation - Velocity
potential.
Tides; description, types, components and characteristics, analysis, levels,
prediction hydrodynamics of tidal inlets, basins and estuaries - tide
induced currents flushing and circulation processes.
Module 2
Nearshore dynamics- estimation of nearshore wave characteristics, surf zone
waves, wave setup, run-up on beaches and nearshore currents.
Sediment dynamics- characteristics, motion initiation, littoral process, crossshore transport: equilibrium beach profiles, bar formation, sediment
transport modelling- beach processes and sedimentation. Inlet sediment
dynamics- estuarine and tidal inlets sediment transport.
Dr. BALAJI Ramakrishnan, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT Bombay. email: rbalaji@civil.iitb.ac.in
8/12/2014
Detailed Syllabus
Module 3
Coastal erosion - Erosion protection measures; seawalls, revetments, groynes
and offshore detached breakwaters.
Beach nourishments - methods, borrow area, environmental effects and
performance monitoring.
Module 4
Coastal hazards- meteorological; storms and surges, hurricanes and coastal
flooding - geological; tsunamis, sea level rise and implications, landslides and
earthquakes man-made; oil and chemical spill, marine disposals.
Coastal zone management- zones, purpose, principles and CRZ.
Detailed Syllabus
References:
Coastal Engineering Manual (CEM), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer
Manual 1110-2-1100, Washington, D.C. (in 6 volumes), 2002.
Dean, R.G and Dalrymple, R.A., Water wave mechanics for engineers and
scientists, Prentice Hall Inc., 1984.
Herbich, J.B., Handbook of coastal and ocean engineering, Gulf publishing
co., 1990.
Sorensen, R.M., Basic coastal engineering, Springer, 2006.
Wiegel, R.L., Oceanographical engineering, Prentice Hall Inc., 1964.
Komar, Paul D., Beach processes and sedimentation, Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice-Hall, 1976.
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Review of Simple Maths !

Taylor Series
For a continuous function f(x, y) of two independent variables x and y, known
at, say, x = x0 then it can be approximated at another location on the x axis,
x0 + x, as;
-where the derivatives of f(x, y) are all taken at x = x0, the location for which
the function is known.
-For very small values of x, the terms involving (x)n, where n>1, are very
much smaller & can be neglected.
-Through the use of the Taylor series, it is possible to develop relationships
between fluid properties at two closely spaced locations.

Fourier Series
Is an infinite series of trigonometric function.
If a function f(x) is defined in a closed interval x0x x0+2 and is periodic with
a period of 2, then f(x) can be represented approximately by a trigonometric
series as follows;
-in which the coefficients a n and bn are obtained from the integrals;
Due to the periodicity of trigonometric functions & as the ocean waves are
periodic, Fourier series is widely used in ocean engg. applications.
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Complex Numbers
A complex number has a form x+iy.
x & y are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit, i 2=-1.
As the imaginary number can be assumed to be a ordered pair of real

numbers, it can be represented in a OXY plane.

Hyperbolic function
Analogy to circular functions,
hyperbola;
the hyperbolic functions are related to
And they are related to circular functions as;
As sinkx and coskx are solutions of the 2nd order ODE of X+k2X=0; the sinh
kx and cosh kx are solutions of;
And the solution will appear as;
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Partial differential equations
When a variable is functionally dependent on more than one variable, its
derivatives are described as partial and the relationships among the variables
are often given in terms of PDEs.
For example; the below is function of x & y. so, it will have two derivatives;
variation of z w.r.t x with y constant and .
For a equation below;
If x & y are functions of time (t) then we use chain rule as;
Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Basics
The primary aim of fluid mechanics, in the field of ocean and coastal
engineering, is to estimate the two fundamental quantities;
-Pressure (a scalar quantity)
-Velocity (a vector quantity)
These two parameters to be estimated everywhere in the fluid field and the
density is assumed to constant for incompressible fluids.
Methods of studying fluid motion
1. Lagrangian method-to answer, What occurs to a given particle of
fluid as it moves along its own path ?
2. Eulerian method-to answer, What occurs at a given point in space
occupied by a fluid in motion ?
Gives the velocity and pressure at a given point & Most frequently
used in hydrodynamics.
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Methods applied to derive the fundamental laws of fluid mechanics
Finite control volume
Applied where the natural boundaries of the
problem may be easily identified.
Arbitrary control volume
Applied for mathematical derivations because
the resulting integral equations may be
applied to any system.
Differential control volume
Is similar to the arbitrary control volume
method except that the derivations are
restricted to the coordinate system applied to
draw the infinitesimal fluid element (e.g.
rectangular Cartesian, circular cylindrical,
spherical, etc.).

Conservation of Mass (or) Principle of Continuity
-Expresses the conservation of matter, ie., fluid matter in a given space can
not be created or destroyed.
The continuity relationship is obtained by considering;
Change of fluid mass inside the
volume dx dy dz during the
time dt
difference between the rates of influx

into and efflux out of the volume
during the same time
The fluid mass at the time t = dx dy dz

After a time dt, the mass
(due to change of density)=
Hence the change of fluid mass in a time dt is;
Fig. Control volume
Eq.1
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The quantity of fluid mass entering through side
ACEG is;
Where, u is mass flux.
Now the quantity of fluid mass coming out
during same interval of time through the side
BDFH is;
Fig. Control volume
The difference in the rates of influx & efflux is;
Similarly, the difference in the rates of influx & efflux can be estimated for y
& z directions. The total change of mass within the control volume during the
time dt is;
Eq.2

Equating both the equations and dividing by dx dy dz dt yields;
Expanding the terms, as;
Negligible
Nil for
incompress
ible fluid
Leads to continuity eqn for 3-dimensional

motion of an incompressible fluid
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Momentum Equations-Euler equations
Momentum equation is obtained by equating the applied forces to the inertia
forces for a unit volume of the fluid. For x-direction;
Similarly one can get for y & z directions.
As velocity is function of time and space, u(x,y,z,t); the total differential of u is;
Applying this, the momentum equation takes the form as;
gravity
Local
inertia
Convective inertia
pressure
Inertia forces
Applied forces
Euler
equation

Momentum Equations-Navier-Stokes equations
N-S equations are obtained by introducing friction forces in Euler equations.
Inertia forces
Local
inertia
Convective
inertia
Applied forces
Pressure
gravity
friction
Bernoulli equations
-Bernoulli equations are integrated form of Euler equations of motions.
-Provides relationship between pressure field and kinematics.
-Replacing the velocity terms in Euler equations (u, v & w) by velocity
potential form (u=c /cx, v=c /cy, w=c /cz), we get;
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Bernoulli equations
Since,
and
Applying this, the equation simplifies to;
And by integrating the above equation;

Where, p*=p+gz
Similar equations can be obtained for Y and Z directions, so that the function
F is a function of time only.
The Physical Setting

Oceans & Seas
-There is only one ocean !!!.
-It is divided into three named parts by international agreement: the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian ocean (International Hydrographic Bureau, 1953).
-Seas are part of the ocean.
The Atlantic
The Atlantic Ocean extends northward
from Antarctica;
and includes all of the Arctic Sea, the
European Mediterranean, and the
American
Mediterranean
more
commonly known as the Caribbean
sea.
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Oceans & Seas
The Pacific
extends northward from Antarctica to
the Bering Strait.
The Indian
extends from Antarctica to the
continent of Asia including the Red
Sea and Persian Gulf.

Oceans & Seas
-Mediterranean Seas are mostly surrounded by land. By this definition, the
Arctic and Caribbean Seas are both Mediterranean Seas, the Arctic
Mediterranean and the Caribbean Mediterranean.
-Marginal Seas are defined by only an indentation in the coast. The Arabian
Sea and South China Sea are marginal seas.
-The ocean and seas cover 70.8% of the surface of earth, which amounts to
361,254,000 km2.
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Oceans & Seas
Schematic section through the ocean showing principal features of the sea
floor.
Note that the slope of the sea floor is greatly exaggerated in the figure.
Tidal hydrodynamics
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Tides and effects

Important of Tides
Tides have a say in our everydays language;
time and tide wait for none !
Tides are always important to engineers, because;
Tides produce strong currents in many parts of the ocean. Tidal currents
can have speeds of up to 5 m/s in coastal waters, affecting navigation
and mixing coastal waters.
Tidal currents generate internal waves over seamounts, continental slopes,
and mid-ocean ridges.
Tidal mixing helps drive the deep circulation, and it influences climate and
abrupt climate change.
Tidal currents can suspend bottom sediments, even in the deep ocean.
Greatest scientists worked for the last four centuries to understand,
calculate, and predict tides. To name a few; Galileo, Descartes, Kepler,
Newton, Euler, Bernoulli, Kant, Laplace, Airy, Lord Kelvin, Jeffreys,
Munk and many others.
Tides and effects

Important of Tides
In spite of all these research, the following question remains;
What is the amplitude &
phase of the tides at any place on the ocean or along the coast?
What is the speed &
direction of tidal currents?
What is the shape of the tides on the ocean?
Where is tidal energy dissipated?
Finding answers to these simple questions is difficult.
The first, accurate, global maps of deep-sea tides were only published in
1994 (LeProvost et al. 1994).
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Tides and effects

Important of Tides
During high tide
During low tide
Tides and effects

Theory of Tides
Tides are generated by two major systems;
Sun-Earth system &
Moon-Earth system.
Sun-Earth System:
The tide-generating forces may be developed by considering differences in
the gravitational attraction of the sun at various locations on the earth.
At the center of mass of the earth the
gravitational attraction must be a value
just necessary to keep the earth in its
orbit around the sun.
F1>F2, as it is close to sun.
F3<F2, as it is away from sun.
The differences (D) will form a symmetrical
egg-shaped distention (referred as tidal
bulge of the ocean waters).
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Tides and effects

Theory of Tides
Moon-Earth System:
The moon and the earth revolve around their common center of mass in one
month.
The mean distance between the moon and the earth is about 238,860 miles.
The center of mass of the moon-earth system is located within the earth
about 2895 miles (mean) from the center of mass of the earth, always
toward the moon.
The F & D are same pattern as sun-earth system, but magnitude varies.
Tides and effects

Theory of Tides
The earth spins counter clockwise in one solar
day. The mean solar day is the period of 24
solar hours.
Starting with the point on the equator toward the
sun, the point experiences a maximum in the
solar tide-generating force; six hours later, a
minimum; then a maximum at twelve hours; a
minimum again at eighteen hours; and finally
back to the maximum at the conclusion of the
solar day.
The lunar day is slightly longer than solar day (24.84 solar hours).
Starting with the point on the equator toward the moon, the point
experiences a maximum in the lunar tide-generating force; 6.21 solar
hours later, a minimum; then a maximum at 12.42 solar hours; a
minimum again at 18.63 hours; and finally back to the maximum at the
conclusion of the lunar day.
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Theory of Tides
Moon-Earth System:
Tides and effects

Theory of Tides
Front view
Top View
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Theory of Tides
The Sun, Earth and Moon system:
And the Newtons Law of gravitation:
Tides and effects

Theory of Tides
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Tides and effects

Theory of Tides: Spring & Neap
The range of tide, defined as the vertical difference in height between
consecutive high and low tides, varies from place to place and also varies
over time.
The combination of the solar and lunar envelopes during the synodic month
(period of moons phases) causes spring tides and neap tides.
The lunar tide is 2.16 times more influential than the solar tide, as the
moon is closer to earth than sun (although the mass of sun is huge!).
When the moon is new or full, the tide-generating forces of the sun and
moon are aligned.
The high tides of the solar envelope occur at the same time as the high tides
of the lunar. This increases the height of the composite high tides, called
as Spring tides.
Tides and effects

When the moon is in its first/third quarter, the tide generating forces of the
sun are at right angles to those of the moon.
The envelope of the tide-generating forces of the sun is shown to conflict
with the force envelope of the moon. The low tides of the solar envelope
occur at the times of the high tides of the lunar.
This reduces the height of the composite high tides, called as Neap tides.
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Tides and effects

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Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Theory of Tides: Other inequalities
Sizes of consecutive tides is
influenced
by
the
Moons orbit.
Another cycle within the

Moons
orbit
is
controlled by the earthmoon distance.
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Theory of Tides: Other inequalities
Both the Moon and the Earth revolve in elliptical orbits and the distances
from their centers of attraction vary.
Increased gravitational influences and tide-raising forces are produced when
the Moon is at position of perigee.
Though the centrifugal acceleration is the same

everywhere on the earth, but the gravitational force due
to the moon/sun varies over the surface of the earth.
Tides and effects

Types of Tides
If the Earth were a perfect sphere without large continents, all areas on the
planet would experience two equally proportioned high and low tides
every lunar day.
The large continents on the planet, however, block the westward passage of
the tidal bulges as the Earth rotates.
Unable to move freely around the globe, these tides establish complex
patterns.
Within each ocean basin that often differ greatly from tidal patterns of
adjacent ocean basins or other regions of the same ocean basin.
Most coastal areas, with some exceptions, experience two high tides and
two low tides every lunar day.
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Tides and effects

Types of Tides
The geometric relationship of moon and Sun to locations on the Earth's
surface results in creation of three different types of tides;
Diurnal tides
Semi-diurnal tides &
Mixed tides.
Diurnal tides:
Tides haves one high & one low in
tidal day.
In parts of the northern Gulf of
Mexico and Southeast Asia.
Tides and effects

Types of Tides
Semi-diurnal tides:
Tides haves two highs & two lows in tidal day.
They are common on the Atlantic coasts of the US & Europe.
Mixed tides:
Successive high-water and low-water stands differ appreciably
The tides around west coast of Canada and the US.
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Tides and effects

Types of Tides
Global distribution of the three tidal types.

Most of the world's coastlines have semidiurnal tides.
Tides and effects

Characteristics of Tides
As the gravitational forces of sun and moon are time varying, the tide is
also a time varying phenomenon.
Similar to waves, tides have;
Height, H, the vertical distance between the level of a crest and the level
of a trough (amplitude, A, is one half the height),
Length, L, the horizontal distance from one crest to the next,
Period, T, the time interval between the occurrence of two successive
crests at a fixed point, and
Speed (celerity), C, the length divided by the period, C = L / T.
Tidal waves are always shallow water waves. That is, the length of a tidal
wave is very much longer than the depth.
Therefore, the particulate motion that makes up the wave is just back and
forth.
This back and forth particulate motion in a tidal wave is called the tidal
current.
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Tides and effects

Apart from solar & lunar effects, the tide is influenced by many other
factors.
Each one of the tide-generating motions, represented by a simple harmonic
cosine curve, is known as a tidal component, tidal constituent, or
harmonic constituent.
S2 - Principal Solar semidiurnal constituent (12 hrs)
M2- Principal Lunar semidiurnal constituent (12.42 hrs)
N2 & L2- Larger Lunar Elliptic semidiurnal constituent and the Smaller
Lunar Elliptic semidiurnal constituent. These two are assumed
constituents to represent the cycle of perigee to perigee.
K1 & O1- Luni-solar Declinational diurnal constituent & the Principal
Lunar Declinational diurnal constituent. Also assumed constituents to
represent the cycle of maximum declination to maximum declination of
the moon.
Tidal Hydrodynamics
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Tides and effects

Tidal Hydrodynamics
Typical M2 tidal amplitude around the world

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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Red sea
Arabian Gulf

Tidal Hydrodynamics

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Tides and effects

Tidal datum
Tidal datum is vertical reference used as the base elevation from which
measurements of height and depth are made.
-Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT)

-Mean High Water Spring (MHWS)
-Mean High Water Neap (MHWN)
-Mean Sea Level (MSL)
-Mean Low Water Neap (MLWN)
-Mean Low Water Spring (MLWS)
-Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)
Tidal Hydrodynamics
Tidal datum
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Tidal level measurement
Typical tide measuring techniques

Tidal Hydrodynamics

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Tidal Hydrodynamics

Tidal Hydrodynamics
Typical tide measuring station

Tide stations along Indian coast
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Prediction of Tides
From the tidal level measurement (at least for 19yrs) at a particular
location, the tidal constituents can be obtained by analyzing the time
histories.
The analysis is called as harmonic analysis, as it involves extracting the
periods of various components.
From a harmonic analysis of the observed water level series, two values are
obtained for each tidal constituent.
Amplitude, the vertical distance between mean tide level and the level of the
crest is one of the values.
And the phase lag, the amount of time elapsed from the maximum
astronomic event to the first maximum of its corresponding constituent
tide, is usually expressed in degrees.
Harmonic constants are unique to the particular station location from
which they were derived.
Tidal Hydrodynamics
Prediction of Tides
Mathematically, the process of prediction involves simple addition of the
cosine curves of the tidal constituents.
This straightforward addition may be developed by;
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Prediction of Tides
Tide Predicting Machines !!

Tidal Hydrodynamics
Prediction of Tides
Tide Predicting Machines !!

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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Prediction of Tides
Softwares
Tide table
Tide prediction
Tidal Hydrodynamics
As the gravitational forces of sun and moon are time varying, the tide is
also a time varying phenomenon.
Similar to waves, tides have;
Height, H, the vertical distance between the level of a crest and the level
of a trough (amplitude, A, is one half the height),
Length, L, the horizontal distance from one crest to the next,
Period, T, the time interval between the occurrence of two successive
crests at a fixed point.
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
The water waves are classified into three categories, depending upon their
water depth to wave length ratio, (d/L);
Classification
d/L
Deep water
> 0.5
Intermediate water
0.5 0.05
Shallow water
<0.05
Where, the wavelength, L is given as;
The speed of the wave form/celerity of the tidal waves is given as;
C = L/T
And for smaller values of d, (shallow water depth)
Tidal Hydrodynamics
The horizontal component of water particle velocity under the sine waves
are give as;
surface deep water particle speed
phasing term dependent on

position in the wave and time
particle velocity variation over the vertical

water column at a given location
The displacement component of the water particle are obtained by
integrating the velocity w.r.t time;
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
d
d
L0
d
(c) shallow water, d/L<0.05

(b) Intermediate water
0.5>d/L<0.05
Tidal waves are always shallow water waves (L >> d).
(a) deep water, d/L>0.5
Therefore, the particulate motion that makes up the

wave is just back and forth, causing tidal
currents.
Water particle displacement under a wave

Tides and effects

Tides in bays, estuaries & harbours
Estuaries/creek are formed
when rivers meet the sea.
Generally, an estuary is a
semi-enclosed river mouth
or
bay
where
salty
seawater is diluted by
freshwater from rivers and
creeks.
The
components
of
an
estuary includes; tidal
marshes, tidal flats, and
open water channels.
Estuaries are is flooded by
the tides during high tide.
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Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Arabian sea
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Tides and effects

Tides can be described in terms of waves. For a tidal wave, the crest is a
high tide and the trough is a low tide. The height of a tidal wave is the
range (or tidal range) and the mean of the high and the low tides is
called mean tide level.
In most gulfs and estuaries of the world, the tidal waves behave as either a
progressive wave or a standing wave.
The horizontal component of the particulate motion under the high tide
area is going in the same direction as the tidal wave form and is known as
the flood tidal current (or flood tide). Its maximum is directly under a high
tide.
The particulate motion under the low
tide area is going in the opposite
direction as the tidal wave form and is
known as the ebb tidal current (or ebb
tide). Its maximum is directly under a
low tide.
Tides and effects

An estuary during ebb tide
An estuary during flood tide
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Tides and effects

Open water
channel
Tidal flat
Tidal marsh
Tides and effects

When a progressive tidal wave encounters a barrier such as a coast,
embayment, head of an estuary, etc., it reflects upon itself to form a
standing wave.
Tide entering an
estuary
Tide moving out

of the estuary
Resulting tide in
the estuary
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Tides and effects

The tide inside the estuary experiences bottom and internal friction and get
attenuated. Its reflection continues to dampen as it moves seaward.
Hence, a perfect standing wave never produced.
Depending upon the estuarys length and depth, if a node of the estuary
wave happens to be near the entrance, the range of the estuarine tide
will be greatly amplified.
Where as if an antinode is near,
there will be no significant
increase from this effect.
The tides in Gulf of Khambat is
an example of this process. The
tidal range is 9m.
The highest tide is experienced
in Bay of Fundy, North America.
The tidal range is 16m !!.
Tides and effects

The average tidal ranges in Bay of

Fundy
The average tidal ranges in Gulf of

Khambhat
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
During high tide
During low tide
Typical tidal variation in Bay of Fundy

Tidal Hydrodynamics
During high tide
During low tide
Typical tidal variation elsewhere

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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Tidal inlets provide both man and nature with a means of access between
the ocean and a bay.
Commercial and recreational vessels need a navigable channel for safe
transit to interior harbors.
The flow of currents into and out of a bay through an inlet provides natural
flushing to maintain good water quality and reasonable salinity levels.
The migration of fish, fish larvae, and other sea life through the inlet
conduit is also an important function of an inlet.
Successful engineering of inlets requires knowledge of water and sediment
movement in and adjacent to the inlet.
Tidal Hydrodynamics
Flood & ebb tidal currents at inlet

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Tides and effects

Tidal bores:
The tidal bore is a tidal wave that propagates up a relatively shallow and
sloping estuary or river in a solitary wave form.
The leading edge presents an abrupt rise in level, frequently with
continuous breaking and often immediately followed by several
undulations.
Tidal bore is usually associated with very large ranges in tide as well as
wedge shaped and rapidly shoaling entrances.
Tidal bores tend to occur in river estuaries where
funneling in the entrance topography helps to
increase the range and the river flow tends to
retard, and therefore build up, the wave.
Tidal bores occur in several river estuaries
throughout the world. In India, tidal bores
occur at Hooghly River, West Bengal.
Tides and effects

Tidal bores
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Tides and effects

Tide induced currents
The horizontal movement of water particle under the tide causes tidal
current.
Speed/velocity of the tidal current affect navigation of ships and can cause
pollution.
On the other hand, with large tidal current, one can tap tidal power.
Tidal amplitude around the world

Tides and effects

Time series of tidal current & rose diagram
Water level
Tide current rose
Current
velocity
Direction distribution
Current
direction
Current profile
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Tidal Hydrodynamics
Another common way to illustrate how tidal
currents vary in space, either horizontally or
with depth, is to use tidal ellipses.
The red lines indicate the direction at which the
current is pointing at a given time. Bluecounterclockwise; Green-clockwise rotation.
Typical tidal current trajectory (showing

direction and speed @ every hour) over 15
days. Note the non-repeating complex
nature of current pattern.
Tidal Hydrodynamics
Tide induced currents-Measurements
Acoustic doppler current profiler

(ADCP)
Drifter & tidal current trajectory

Tidal current measurement
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Next
Near-shore & sediment dynamics.
43

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8/12/2014

Review of Simple Maths !

Review of Simple Maths !

Review of Simple Maths !

As the imaginary number can be assumed to be a ordered pair of real

Review of Simple Maths !

the hyperbolic functions are related to

And they are related to circular functions as;

And the solution will appear as;

Review of Simple Maths !

For a equation below;

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

difference between the rates of influx

The fluid mass at the time t = dx dy dz

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

The difference in the rates of influx & efflux is;

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Expanding the terms, as;

Leads to continuity eqn for 3-dimensional

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Applying this, the momentum equation takes the form as;

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Applying this, the equation simplifies to;

And by integrating the above equation;

The Physical Setting

The Physical Setting

The Physical Setting

The Physical Setting

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

During low tide

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

And the Newtons Law of gravitation:

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Another cycle within the

Though the centrifugal acceleration is the same

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Global distribution of the three tidal types.

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Tides and effects

Typical M2 tidal amplitude around the world

Typical M2 tidal amplitude around the world

Typical M2 tidal amplitude around the world

Tides and effects

-Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT)

Typical tide measuring techniques

Typical tide measuring techniques