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1
Brief Overview of Fluid Power

1.1

Introduction

In 1906, oil began to replace water as the pressurized fluid in hydraulic systems, and the modern era of fluid power began. Electrical control of fluid
power began to enter the commercial sector with the development of servo
valves in World War II. Today, the fluid power industry is a multibillion dollar industry.
Most mobile machines in the extraction industries (mining, logging, farming, and fishing) have fluid power circuits, thus fluid power is a major factor
in the collection of raw materials for the international economy. Fluid power
is an important part of most vehicles in the transportation industry. In manufacturing, the application of fluid power has continuously increased the
productivity of workers and thus has had direct impact on the standard of
living. Today, fluid power is a part of every product we use and service we
enjoy.

1.2

Concept of Fluid Power

This text leads the reader through several levels of complexity beginning
with simple circuits with a simple function and concluding with an introduction to the use of servo valves to control heavy loads moving at high speed.
As we proceed along this journey, the reader will be periodically reminded
that the fundamental concept of fluid power is quite simple. Fluid power
technology is the conversion of mechanical energy to fluid energy, delivery
of this energy to a utilization point, and then its conversion back to mechanical energy. A fluid power circuit has all three features: conversion from
mechanical energy to fluid energy, delivery, and conversion from fluid
energy back to mechanical energy. An electrical circuit also has all three features, but often the designer focuses only for the final conversion stepelec1
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Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

trical-to-mechanical. Generation of the electrical energy and its delivery are

external to the design problem.

1.2.1

Basic Circuits

Many people have an intuitive understanding of a basic cylinder circuit and

a basic motor circuit. The block diagram shown in Fig. 1.1 gives the concept
for a motor circuit. Two parameters, torque (T) and shaft speed (N), are converted to two different parameters, pressure (P) and flow (Q), using a pump.
The two new parameters, P and Q, are converted back to T and N using a
motor. The principal reason for converting to fluid power is the convenience
in transferring energy to a new location. The pressurized fluid, defined by the
P and Q parameters, easily flows around corners and along irregular pathways before reaching the point where it is converted back to T and N.
Fluid power is used on many agricultural machines because of the need to
transfer power to a remote location. Suppose a conveyor must be driven on
the opposite side of a machine from the prime mover. (On mobile machines,
the prime mover is typically an internal combustion engine, and on stationary machines, it typically is an electric motor.) Power could be mechanically
transmitted using a right-angle gearbox, shafts, bearings, roller chains, or
belts. Using fluid power, the task is accomplished with a hydraulic pump
mounted at the prime mover, two hydraulic hoses, and a hydraulic motor at
the conveyor. Often, machine weight is reduced, and reliability increased, by
using fluid power. In addition, overload protection is provided by simply
installing a relief valve.
1.2.1.1

Brief Review of Mechanics

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or work per unit time. Work is
defined as force times distance. Suppose a force acts through a moment arm to

Mechanical

Hydraulic

Mechanical

Energy

Energy

Energy

T
Prime
Mover
N

Hydraulic
Motor
Q

FIGURE 1.1
Concept of fluid power illustrated with basic motor circuit.

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P
Hydraulic
Pump

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Brief Overview of Fluid Power

produce a torque. If the shaft is rotating at a given speed (N), the distance
traveled in one minute is
x = 2rN

(1.1)

where x = distance traveled (in)

r = moment arm (in)
N = rotational speed (rpm)
Work done in a one-minute interval is
Work = Force Distance
= F 2rN
= 2TN

(1.2)

where T = F r
Since power is the rate of doing work, the work done in one minute, Eq. (1.2),
is
P = Work/t = 2TN/1

(1.3)

where P = power (lbf-in)/min.

One horsepower is 33,000 lbf-ft/min, therefore,
( P/12 )
hp = -----------------33, 000
If torque is expressed in lbf-in and N is shaft speed in rpm, then power in hp
is given by
2 ( T/12 )N
hp = ----------------------------33000
TN
= --------------63025

(1.4)

Mechanical power is proportional to the product of T and N. Is hydraulic

power proportional to the product of P and Q?
1.2.1.2

Basic Concept of Hydraulic Cylinder

Suppose a flow of fluid is delivered to a hydraulic cylinder, causing it to

extend. The cylinder has a cross-sectional area A and delivers a force F while
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Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

moving a distance x (Fig. 1.2). The distance moved is related to the fluid volume delivered to the cylinder.
x = V/A

(1.5)

where x = distance (in)

V = volume (in3)
A = area (in2)
The force is related to the pressure developed at the cap end.
F = PA

(1.6)

where F = force (lbf)

P = pressure (lbf/in2)
A = area (in2)
(Throughout this text, pressure in lbf/in2 is expressed as psi.)
Work done is given by
Work = Fx
V
= ( PA ) ---- = PV
A

(1.7)

Power is work per unit time,

(1.8)

Power = PV/t

FIGURE 1.2
Hydraulic cylinder being extended a distance x against a force F.

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Brief Overview of Fluid Power

Flow is defined as volume per unit time, Q = V/t; therefore,
Power = PQ

(1.9)

Mechanical power is the product of T and N and hydraulic power is the product of P and Q.
The relationship in Eq. (1.9) is the fundamental concept for our study of
fluid power. The units used for pressure are typically lbf/in2, or psi, and the
units for flow are gal/min, or GPM. To obtain hydraulic power with units of
lbf-ft/min, the following conversions are needed.
P hyd = PQ ( 231/12 )

(1.10)

where P hyd = hydraulic power (lbf-ft/min)

P = pressure (psi)
Q = flow (GPM)
To obtain hydraulic horsepower,
PQ ( 231/12 )
P hyd = ------------------------------33000
PQ
= -----------1714

(1.11)

It is useful to memorize this formula, as it will give a quick frame of reference when beginning a design. For example, if a pump delivers 5 GPM at
2,000 psi pressure drop, how much power is required?
2000 ( 5 )
P hyd = -------------------- = 5.8hp
1714
1.2.1.3

Basic Concept of a Hydraulic Motor

A flow of fluid is delivered to a hydraulic motor having displacement Vm.

(The displacement of a hydraulic motor is the volume of fluid required to
produce one revolution. Typical units are in3/rev.) When a flow Q is delivered to this motor, it rotates at N rpm.
N = Q/V m
where N = rotational speed (rpm)
Q = flow (in3/min)
V m = displacement (in3/rev)
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(1.12)

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Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

The derivation of an expression for torque produced by a hydraulic motor

is straightforward but really not intuitive. We begin with the definition for
mechanical horsepower.
2TN
P mech = --------------33000

(1.13)

where P mech = mechanical power (hp)

T = torque (lbf-ft)
N = rotational speed (rpm)
Substituting for N from Eq. (1.12),
2T ( Q/V m )
P mech = ----------------------------33000

(1.14)

If the units for flow are GPM, and the units for torque are lbf-in, then the
expression becomes
2T/12 ( 231Q/V m )
P mech = ----------------------------------------------33000
2TQ/V
= ------------------------m1714

(1.15)

It has already been shown [Eq. (1.11)] that hydraulic horsepower is proportional to the product of pressure drop and flow. Equating Eqs. (1.11) and
(1.15),
2TQ/V
PQ
hp = ------------ = ------------------------m1714
1714
Solving for torque, we find that
PV
T = --------------m2
where

(1.16)

T = torque (lbf-in)
P = pressure drop across motor (psi)
Vm = displacement (in3/rev)

The relationship in Eq. (1.16) should be committed to memory. Torque that is

delivered by a hydraulic motor is a function of the pressure drop across the
motor and the displacement.
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Brief Overview of Fluid Power

The derivation of Eq. (1.16) assumes that all the hydraulic power delivered
to the motor is converted to mechanical power. This conversion is not 100%
efficient; there are losses. Analysis of the losses is presented in Chapter 5. The
formula in Eq. (1.16) is widely used and is a very useful approximation. It is
important to remember that the actual torque available at the motor shaft is
always less than that computed with Eq. (1.16).
1.2.2

Basic Circuit Analysis

The fluid power circuit shown in Fig. 1.3 has four components. The functions
of these components are described below.
1. Pump. The pump develops a flow of fluid through the circuit. The
pump shown in Fig. 1.3 is a fixed-displacement pump, which
means that it delivers a fixed volume of fluid each revolution.
2. Relief valve. The relief valve protects the circuit. If the pressure
rises high enough to offset the spring force keeping the valve
closed, the valve opens, and flow returns to the reservoir, thus
limiting the maximum circuit pressure.
3. Directional control valve (DCV). The directional control valve
directs the flow of fluid based on its position. The valve in Fig. 1.3
is a three-position valve. In the center position, flow passes through
the valve back to the reservoir. In the bottom position, flow is
delivered to the cap end of the cylinder, causing it to extend. Simultaneously, fluid from the rod end flows to the reservoir. To retract
the cylinder, the DCV is shifted to the top position, which reverses
flow to the cylinder.
4. Cylinder. Another name for a cylinder is a linear actuator. The
cylinder converts hydraulic energy into a force acting over some
distance, known as the stroke.

Directional Control
Valve

Cylinder

(symbol for reservoir or tank)

Pump

FIGURE 1.3
Basic circuit to extend cylinder.

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Relief
Valve

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Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

The functional objective of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.3 is to lift a 5,000 lbf
weight. Suppose the cap-end area is 7.07 in2, what pressure must the pump
build to lift the weight?
P = F/A
= 5000/7.07 = 707 psi
This solution neglects an important aspect of circuit analysis. (Circuit analysis is basically the determination of flow and pressure at various points
around the circuit.) Some pressure drop occurs as fluid flows through a section of hose, fitting, valve, or actuator. These individual pressure drops must
be summed to calculate the total pressure required to achieve the functional
objective.
In addition to the pressure drops around the circuit, the cylinder friction
force must also be considered. When a cylinder extends, the cap-end seals
slide along the inside of the cylinder, and the rod-end seals slide along the
rod. The resulting friction force for the cylinder shown in Fig. 1.3 was measured and found to be 87 lbf. This friction force opposes the motion of the cylinder, thus it increases the pressure to lift the load.
It is helpful to work a specific example. Pressure drops shown in Fig. 1.4 are
defined as follows:
Pline 1 = Pressure drop between pump and DCV
PDCV = Pressure drop across DCV
Pline 2 = Pressure drop between DCV and cylinder cap end
Pline 3 = Pressure drop between cylinder rod end and DCV
Pline 4 = Pressure drop between DCV and reservoir
The cylinder shown in Fig. 1.4 has a 3-in. bore and 1.25-in. rod. The cap-end
area is then
2

(3 )
2
A c = ------------- = 7.07 in
4
The rod-end area is
2

( 3 ) ( 1.25 )
2
A r = ------------- --------------------- = 5.84 in
4
4
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Brief Overview of Fluid Power

FL =5000

DCV

P line1

Ff = 87
Pr

Pline3
Pc

Pline4
Pline2

P
P
P

line1

DCV

line2

45 psi
35 psi

P
P

line3

line4

20 psi
10 psi

15 psi

FIGURE 1.4
Pressure drops around a circuit measured during cylinder extension.

During the extension, the total pressure at the rod-end port of the cylinder is
P r = P line3 + P DCV + P line4
= 20 + 35 + 10
= 65 psi
Summing forces on the cylinder gives
Pc Ac = Pr Ar + F f + FL
or
P c = ( P r A r + F f + F L )/A c
= [ 65 ( 5.84 ) + 87 + 5000 ]/7.07
= 773 psi
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10

Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

The total pressure that must be developed at the pump is

P = P c + P line2 + P DCV + P line1
= 773 + 15 + 35 + 45
= 868 psi
The actual pressure that the pump must develop is 868 psi, or 23% higher
than the 707 psi calculated by ignoring the pressure drops and the cylinder
friction force.

1.2.3

Efficiency

We have just learned that the actual pressure required to accomplish the functional objective of the circuit in Fig. 1.3 is 23% higher than the pressure
required for the mechanical work done. It is intuitive that some energy has
been lost, meaning that some of the input mechanical energy was not delivered as output mechanical energy.
In Fig. 1.1, mechanical energy at one location is delivered to a second location. If this transfer could be done with a gearbox, typical efficiencies would
be
Single reduction gearbox

9899%

Double reduction gearbox

9697%

Triple reduction gearbox

95%

Typical efficiency for a hydraulic pump to convert mechanical energy to

hydraulic energy is 85%. A typical motor efficiency in converting hydraulic
energy back to mechanical efficiency is 85%. Overall efficiency for the circuit
in Fig. 1.1, not considering pressure drops, is then
0.85 0.85 = 0.72
This result means that only 72% of the input mechanical energy is delivered
as output mechanical energy.
Efficiency is an issue in almost all circuit designs. The input mechanical
energy that is not delivered as output mechanical energy is converted to heat.
Oil temperature increases in a hydraulic circuit until the rate of heat loss
equals the rate of heat generation.
The operating temperature of a hydraulic circuit should not exceed 140F.
High temperatures reduce the clearance between moving parts and reduce
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Brief Overview of Fluid Power

11

oil viscosity. Both of these factors reduce lubrication; thus, the life of pumps
and motors is shortened when operated at high temperatures.
The need for temperature control is mentioned to cause the reader to
begin to think about the several factors that interrelate in the design of a
fluid power circuit. The interaction of these factors should become clear as
we proceed.

1.3

Summary

A design engineer, faced with the task of delivering mechanical energy to

accomplish some functional objective, must consider the advantages and disadvantages for the several options available: mechanical, electrical, or fluid
(hydraulic or pneumatic). Key advantages of fluid power are:
1. High power density (high power output per unit mass of system)
2. Control (speed of actuators easily controlled)
3. Not damaged when overloaded (relief valve opens to protect system)
The key disadvantage is the inefficiency. A fluid power option should not be
used unless the advantages offset the inefficiency.
The basic concept of fluid power is simple; mechanical energy is converted
to fluid energy, which is then converted back to mechanical energy. In the
case of a pump-motor circuit, torque and rpm are converted to pressure and
flow by the pump, and the motor converts the pressure and flow back into
torque and rpm.
1. Pressure is required to obtain torque from a motor or force from a
cylinder.
2. Flow is required to generate rotary motion with a motor or linear
motion with a cylinder.
Accounting for the pressure drops around a circuit is a key factor in circuit
analysis. Anytime a pressure drop occurs and no mechanical work is delivered, fluid energy is converted to heat energy. Efficiency is increased when
these pressure drops are minimized.
The analyses in this chapter were done to illustrate the key concepts and
were, by design, simplistic. More in-depth analysis will be done in subsequent chapters. The reader is reminded of the "cant see the forest for the
trees" analogy. As we examine the individual "trees" in subsequent chapters,
use the basic concept of fluid power as a framework and fit the details into
place as you learn them.
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Fluid Power Circuits and Controls

Problems
1.1 The pressure drop across a pump is 1500 psi, and the pump output
flow is 15 GPM. Assuming the pump is 100% efficient, what input
power (hp) is required to drive this pump?
1.2 A simple circuit is shown in Fig. 1.5. During no-load extension, the
pressure measurements were
P 1 = 150 psi
P 2 = 120 psi
The cylinder bore is 1.5 in., and the rod diameter is 0.625 in. Find
the friction force (lbf) for this cylinder. The friction force is defined
as the force required to overcome the friction due to the piston
seals sliding along the inside of the cylinder and the rod seals
sliding on the rod.
1.3 Sometimes pump flow rate is unknown, and a flowmeter is not
available to insert in the line and measure flow. An unloaded
cylinder can be used to get an approximate flow reading. This
procedure is illustrated as follows.
The cylinder in Fig. 1.5 has an 8-in. stroke. Total time for extension was 2.4 s. Find the flow rate (GPM) to the cylinder.
1.4 A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 0.915 in3/rev, and the
pressure drop across the motor is 1740 psi.
a. How much torque (lbf-in) is this motor delivering?
b. If the speed is 820 rpm, what output power (hp) is it delivering?
P

FIGURE 1.5
Circuit for Problem 1.2.

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13

Brief Overview of Fluid Power

1.5 The circuit shown in Fig. 1.6 has the following pressure drops:
P line1 = Pressure drop from pump to DCV
= 35 psi
P DCV = Pressure drop across DCV (We assume this is the same
for flow in both directions through the valve.)
= 30 psi
P line2 = Pressure drop between DCV and motor
= 5 psi
P m

= Pressure drop across motor

P line3 = Pressure drop between motor and DCV

= 10 psi
P line4 = Pressure drop between DCV and reservoir
= 15 psi
The relief valve is connected immediately downstream from the
pump outlet so that it sees the maximum pressure developed in
the circuit. The motor has a displacement of 2.3 in3/rev and is
delivering 823 lbf-in torque.
a. What is the pressure developed at the relief valve?
b. It is good practice to set the relief valve cracking pressure at 500
psi above the maximum pressure needed to achieve the functional objective of the circuit. This setting ensures that flow will not
leak across the relief valve when the maximum pressure is
developed. What cracking pressure should be set for this circuit?

DCV

line 1

line 2

line 4

line 3

FIGURE 1.6
Circuit for Problem 1.5.

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