Causes of the 1977 Military coup in Pakistan

Dawn News, Pakistans oldest English Newspapers front page (Dated 6 th July, 1977) bears the news of
the military coup and the subsequent imposition of Martial Law (Source: Dawn Archives)

To what extent did the 1977 elections in Pakistan play a role in

causing Operation Fair Play?
Bilal Akbar (Candidate Number: XXXX)
Qatar Academy (School Code: 001368)
(3996 Words)

Page 2

Abstract:
This essay investigates the question To what extent did the 1977 elections in Pakistan play a
role in causing Operation Fair Play?

This investigation makes use of a wide variety of primary and secondary sources. Around seven
books have been used in this investigation. One main book being used is that of historian Stanley
Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan, which contains the finest compilation of primary sources on
the area of investigation. The second main book is written by Ian Talbot, which explains how
Bhuttos social, economic and political policies angered the Pakistanis, resulting in the PNA1
movement. A wide variety of articles written by both international and Pakistani newspapers
have been used throughout the investigation. Televised interviews with opposition politicians
such as Hasil Bizenjo and primary sources such as witness accounts during the PNA movement
have also been used.

The analysis is divided into six sections, the first four analyze and present the long-term causes
of the coup whereas the last two analyze and present the short-term causes of the coup. The longterm causes include the Social and economic policies of Bhutto, the authoritarianism of Bhutto
and the Armys Dilemma, a general analysis of the motivation that would have caused the army
to stage the coup. Then, the short-term causes that include the 1977 elections and the PNA
movement are analyzed in full detail to allow us to answer the research question. Finally, a
conclusion is reached.

Pakistan National Alliance; main opposition alliance to the Bhutto regime, see page 9 for more details

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The conclusion reached in this essay is that the 1977 elections played a crucial role in causing
the operation, in that they acted as a trigger to the series of events that led to the event. However,
the investigation also concludes that its role, as a trigger to the coup was only made possible by
the long-term causes of Operation Fairplay.

(300 Words)

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Contents
Abstract.Page 2

Introduction...Page 5

Investigation..Page 7

Economic Policies......Page 7

Authoritarianism........Page 10

Social Policies........Page 11

Armys Dilemma................Page 13

1977 Elections.......Page 14

PNA Movement......Page 18

Conclusion....Page 21

Page 5

Bibliography.....Page 23
Introduction:

This investigation will be answering the question To what extent did the 1977 general
elections in Pakistan play a role in causing Operation Fair Play?

The 1977 coup in Pakistan is significant as it ended the first democratic phase in the countrys
history that lasted from 1971-19772 and brought about a military Junta that ruled Pakistan for
eleven years. The coup is also of relevance as it paved the path for the on-going phase in
Pakistans political History, that is the division of the Pakistani electorate along the lines of proBhutto voters (who vote for the PPP3) and anti-Bhutto sentiment (who vote for the PML-N4).5
Since the end of the military Junta in 1988, two parties, the PPP and the PML-N, have dominated
Pakistans political scene. The PPP is the party of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and retains its considerable
support whereas the PML-N is a party comprised of the conservative centre-right politicians who
were brought to the national stage and united by the Military Junta that deposed Mr. Bhutto to
neutralize the support of the PPP in the 80s. Both the aforementioned parties have won three
general elections since the coup in 1977.6 Since the coup influences Pakistani politics to this day,
2 Benazir Bhutto, Daughter of Destiny: An Autobiography. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989) 25+. Print. Source
Evaluation: Author is daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and thus, the book is extremely biased towards Bhuttos
opponents. Only used here throughout the investigation. The fact it has been used for is an established fact found
elsewhere as well.

PPP (Pakistan Peoples Party) was formed in 1967 and led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto until his hanging in 1979.
http://www.ppp.org.pk/

PML-N (Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz) is led by Nawaz Sharif, a protg of Gen. Zia-Ul-Haq, the Military ruler
of Pakistan from 1977-1988; http://www.pmln.org/pakistan-resolution/

For a Timeline of Pakistans History, see Appendix A. This timeline doesnt cover all events in Pakistans history,
but has been placed here as it depicts events during Bhuttos rule and depicts his legacys effect on Pakistans
history thereon (through his daughter, Benazir Bhutto)

6 The First 10 General Elections of Pakistan. PILDAT, May 2013.

http://www.pildat.org/Publications/publication/elections/First10GeneralElectionsofPakistan.pdf/

Page 6

the question of what was the cause of the coup remains one intensely debated even today. Some
people argue that the coup would have occurred regardless of whether the elections happened or
not. Some claim that the PNAs agitation following the alleged rigging was solely responsible for
the coup that disrupted democracy in Pakistan yet some believe that the army was simply hungry
for power as it was used to ruling Pakistan. There are countless other theories which give more
importance to one cause or the other for causing the coup. However, one commonly agreed
theory is that the 1977 election played the most important role in causing the election. Therefore,
this investigation seeks to analyze all the causes that caused the coup and then reach a conclusion
as to what role the 1977 elections play in causing the coup also known as Operation Fair Play.

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Investigation:

Economic Policies:

After his election victory in 1970(7)(8), Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, who has been
described as a socialist,9 began his nationalization program that included the nationalization of
over thirty-one industrial units that fell under ten categories, these included iron, steel,
petrochemical and cement industries amongst numerous others.10 Around a billion rupees worth
of industries were brought under direct state control. 11 This was seen by many as a move to
break the hold of the tiny elite class, the twenty-two families as they were know then, over the
majority of the industry and the banks. Furthermore, these families were banned from travelling
abroad to prevent any transfer of capital out of Pakistan.12 These families became one of the
many opponents of Bhuttos rule from thereon.

Craig Baxter "Pakistan Votes - 1970." Asian Survey, Mar. 1970: 211. Web. <http://cprid.com/history/5-Baxter
%20Election%201970.pdf>

See Appendix B for detailed results. Source: Ibid. Note that East Pakistan became Bangladesh consequently.
West Pakistan thus became Pakistan where Bhutto had a majority.

9 Salman Taseer, Bhutto, a Political Biography (New Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1980) 83. Source Evaluation: The
author, Salman Taseer (1944-2011), is a former PPP-governor and a man renowned political Analyst Yasmeen
Manzoor described as a man of principles (Tonight With Yasmeen Manzoor, Samaa TV, 5 January 2011). Salman
Taseer wrote this biography during Bhuttos rule and thus this source might be too pro-Bhutto. However, just like
many other sources used in this investigation that might not be unbiased, this source was only used for facts, and
not views, that have already been established elsewhere. Thus, only biographical information has been taken from
this book.

10

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Address to the Nation announcing Nationalization of ten categories of Industry, 12 January
1972, Speeches and Statements (20 December 1971 31 March 1972) (Karachi: 1972) 33.

11

Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 190. Stanley
Wolpert is an Indologist and often considered one of the most learned and respectable authors who have written
books regarding Pakistans and Indias History. This book has very little bias and has been based on interviews with
105 notable people (politicians, friends of Bhutto, Bhuttos opponents etc.) who lived during the Bhutto rule and
provide valuable insight into Bhuttos rule and policies. Furthermore, this book is also based on and contains
extremely valuable and rare primary sources. Therefore, this book has been used as a main source for this
investigation.

12

J. Henry Korson, Contemporary Problems of Pakistan (Boulder: Westview, 1993) 82. Print. An unbiased book,
but doesnt contain a lot of primary sources and description regarding Bhuttos policies.

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On November 10th, 1975, Bhutto announced that small landowners would not have to pay any
taxes whatsoever. Zamindars13 owned much of Pakistans land at the time and the decision to
spare the smaller landowners to pay taxes came at the expense of doubling the taxes on the large
landowners. Bhutto was a wealthy landowner14 himself, and his decision to lay higher burden at
the rich landowners earned him a tag of traitor by the rich landowners.15 Furthermore, he soon
announced more land reforms in that he re-distributed thousands of acres of lands that had been
bought by civil servants in the 1960s at rock bottom prices through misuse of power. These
decisions positively affected almost 80% of Pakistans landowners, which had a profound effect
on the entire country whose economy was predominantly agriculture-based. Bhutto was
consequently awarded the title of Quaid-e-Awam (Leader of the masses).16 Though these reforms
were popular, they also earned Bhutto the anger of former bureaucrats who still had a lot of
power along with the landowners who also had enormous power and like the industrialists,
became yet another group of people hostile to Bhuttos rule.

Bhutto introduced a set of labour reforms a short time after the nationalization of major
industries. The reform gave unprecedented powers to labour unions, established labour councils
and courts.17 Pensions were increased and the children of the labors were promised free
education. Workers share of industrial profits from the nationalized industry was increased to
around 5%. Bhutto introduced these radical reforms to garner support from the worker class.18
The opposite happened. Mismanagement and corruption in the nationalized industry forced those
13 Zamindar simply means landowner, but it is often used for large landowners in the Indian subcontinent.
14 Salman Taseer, Bhutto, a Political Biography (New Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1980) 9.
15 Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 278.
16 Quaid-e-Awam means Leader of the masses in Urdu.
17 Ibid. 347
18 Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 365.

Page 9

industries to backtrack on many of the promised reforms. Disillusioned by the failed reforms
they were promised, labour unions went on hartaal (labour union strike)19 that resulted in poor
production levels in the nationalized industry. On several locations, the army was called in to
crack down on the protestors. This was the start of the alienation of mass sections, rather than
small sections of the society being alienated whose anger the PNA movement would channel.

In July 1976, Bhutto announced the nationalization of The processing units of the cotton
ginning, rice husking and flour mills. This was a move to eliminate the middle man, who
used to buy these commodities from the producers and used to sell it to the consumers at much
higher prices, thus, garnering excessive profits.20 However, the reform proved extremely
unpopular and its expected failure due to mismanagement lost Bhutto immense support amongst
the smaller entrepreneurs and even the consumers of these commodities whose livelihood were
threatened. This is yet another cause of the coup as the support of this alienated group would also
help the PNA movement and lost Bhutto considerable support, as Talbot states.21

19
20

In this context, hartaal means labour union strike

Sayed Rasul Raza, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto: Architect of New Pakistan (1976) 31. A biased, highly apologetic book on
Zulfiqar Ali Bhuttos reforms and policies. Only used as a source for already established facts, the point of view of
the Bhutto government and not used for other purposes or arguments whatsoever. The Book was written during
Zulfiqar Ali Bhuttos rule and thus, the author must have been influenced in some manner to not criticize Zulfiqar Ali
Bhuttos policies, as is seen in the book.

21

Ian Talbot, Pakistan, a Modern History (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) 233. A main source and also completely
unbiased. The books details valuable information on Bhuttos policies, contains interviews, provides extreme detail
and primary sources from Bhuttos rule. An important aspect of the book is that it details how Bhuttos policies were
received amongst the public (which most other sources on the subject lack) and provides a detailed account of the
events of 1977 that are too crucial to this investigation. The book received extremely positive reviews from the
Pakistani media for its unbiased approach to documenting Pakistans history. This source has been used throughout
the investigation.

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Authoritarianism:

Bhutto ruled Pakistan with an Iron fist. He was utterly intolerant of any opposition and ruthless
whenever it did occur. The provincial governments of the Frontier province and the Baluchistan
province were a coalition comprised of the opposition parties NAP (National Awami Party) and
JUI (Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Islam)22. When Wali Khan, the leader of the NAP and leader of the
opposition in the National Assembly revealed massive corruption in the nationalized industry to
the Parliament, their governments in these provinces were swept aside, their ministers dismissed
and Governor rule was imposed.23 The leaders and members of the two parties along with
several other opposition parties were imprisoned on numerous charges. A senator from
Balochistan Mir Hasil Bizenjo stated that Bhutto from the very first day couldnt have tolerated
the fact that he lost to the NAP and JUI in these provincesHis ego was immense, he wanted to
be the only power in Pakistan, including those provinces24

The remaining members of the opposition were occasionally harassed, which included tactics
like constant spying of peoples houses, following of the people etc. Those who still opposed
Bhuttos were often threatened that their wives and children would be kidnapped. There were
reports of inhumane torture of political prisoners. It was during his rule that twenty-four
prominent members of the opposition were murdered.25 According to Amnesty International, the
minimal estimate for political prisoners in Pakistan was 2,000, excluding the 20,000 that would
22

For a map of Pakistan, see Appendix C. Note that the PPP won elections in Punjab and Sindh, but lost in
Baluchistan and the Frontier (See Appendix B).

23
24
25

Ian Talbot, Pakistan, a Modern History (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) 276
Interview on News One Pakistan (July 19, 2012). Translated from Urdu.

TortureclaimsinIndiaandPakistan,FarEasternEconomicReview,(June13,1977).

Page 11

be taken during the PNA movement.26 Media laws imposed strict censorship on all news media
and newspapers. Furthermore, the role of the judiciary was also criticized and whatever power
the judiciary had was curtailed by numerous constitutional amendments.27 Bhutto had always
suspected a military coup and thus, he formed this paramilitary force in order to not only handle
his opposition, but also to provide himself security, the Federal Security Force. FSF had 15,000
personnel, armed with the latest weapons and transportation capabilities such as Jeeps which
were denied to even the Army. An example of its role to suppress opposition was when it was
accused of the murder of Dr. Nazir Ahmed, a Jamaat-e-Islami leader, a Member of Parliament
and a staunch criticizer of Bhutto.28 These authoritarian policies not only angered the opposition,
but more importantly the people of Pakistan who had trusted Bhuttos word that he was a
democrat and would establish a true democracy after a decade of dictatorship.

Social Policies:

His opponents often attacked Bhuttos social policies. Pakistan was traditionally a conservative
society as the ideological foundation of Pakistan was Islam. Numerous MPs of the opposition
came from religious parties. Bhutto was targeted by these parties on his failure to prevent open
sale of alcohol, spread of obscenity and promotion of mixing of sexes such as co-education.29
Examples of such policies included the fact that bars and pubs were not placed under any
restriction, magazines with pictures considered outrageous were sold publicly and the

26
27
28

Ibid

29

J. Henry Korson, Contemporary Problems of Pakistan (Boulder: Westview, 1993) 89.

KhalidBinSayeed,HowRadicalisPakistanPeoplesParty,PacificAffairs(January1974).

"A Leaf from History: FSF-the dreaded organization." Dawn News, 29 July 2012.
http://beta.dawn.com/news/737999/a-leaf-from-history-fsf-the-dreaded-organisation

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government did not pay any attention to banning alcohol30. Mullahs31 often targeted him for
trying to create a western society in which Islam played no role32

Political analyst Zaid Hamid states, Obscenity was at its height during the 70s...alcohol was
sold in public markets, movies with explicit sexual scenes werent banned and women who wore
unacceptable clothes were appreciated by the society...he wasnt able to end the shameful
cultural practices of the time.33 Hamids statement reflects the general view at the time as a vast
amount of the populace was angered at these social policies as can be seen in Historian Javed
Chaudhrys statement. Chaudhry links these social policies to the coup of 1977,The Army was
growing religious by the 70s. Not only was Zia34 an extremely pious man, the majority of the
army was in support of the religious parties A rather peculiar set of pamphlets were found in
Army barracks throughout Pakistan, written by the JUI leader that called for an Army
revolution

These policies would become the central opposition cry during the PNA movement that led to
the coup and many historians, like Chaudhry, believe that his piousness was one of the factors
that led Zia to stage the coup, as Zia would, after seizing power, launch a relentless policy of
Islamisization.

Armys Dilemma:
30

"Also Pakistan" Dawn News. N.p., 9 Feb. 2012. Web. <http://www.beta.dawn.com/news/694239/also-pakistan-2>. See this for some
examples of the cultural practices of the time. Though some of these dont seem obscene to many, these were extremely outrageous in a country
as conservative and religious as Pakistan.

31
32
33
34

Term for Muslim Religious Clerics

Ian Talbot, Pakistan, a Modern History (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) 233.
Interview at political show Capital Talk, Geo News (November 13, 2011). Interview translated from Urdu

General Zia-Ul-Haq was the Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan (Head of the Military) and was the person who
toppled Bhutto and ruled Pakistan for eleven years

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The Army has always been the most prestigious institution of Pakistan. This prestige was most
hurt when in 1971, the army suffered a terrible defeat at the hands of the Indian Army and thus,
had to surrender. The trauma of the surrender of the Army and the separation of East Pakistan left
a deep psychological impact on the Pakistani nation but also finished the prestige of the Armed
forces of Pakistan.35 When Bhutto came to power, he was faced with an insurgency in
Baluchistan where tribal leaders, who had for centuries made their own decisions, were forced to
obey the governments decision of accepting Urdu, not Balochi, as there official language. After
the insurgency grew into a civil war, Bhutto called in the Army and imposed Governor Rule. 36
Thousands of tribal fighters were murdered and the image of the army was severely
compromised37

When one considers what may have been the motivation behind the coup, the most obvious
answer that emerges is that the Pakistan army wanted to restore its image of a savior. It is evident
that the army had no intentions to stage a coup during the PNA movement as one of the leaders
of PNA, Asghar Khan, himself demanded the army to impose Martial Law.38 Despite their ability
to do so, the army rejected such demands and stayed loyal to the government. This is proven by
the fact that at the height of the crisis, the army released a statement confirming their support to
Bhuttos government.39 After the PNA movement began, the army was on several occasions
called on to crackdown on the opposition protests.40 Army officers in the streets were often faced
35

For a detailed explanation of these events, see Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose. War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of
Bangladesh (Berkeley: University of California, 1990)

36

Governor Rule is the removal of the provincial government and the order to allow the governor of a province
(appointed by the President) to rule by decree

37
38
39
40

Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 236-251

ThePakistanTimes,May5.1977
ThePakistanTimes,April28,1977
See Section PNA Movement

Page 14

with crowds taunting, abusing and ridiculing them for supporting what they perceived was an
illegitimate government.41 The image of the army was thus, further tarnished due its support of
an unpopular government, another long term cause which contributed to the armys decision of
toppling the Bhutto regime.

1977 elections:

On 7th January 1977, Bhutto, confident that he could win fresh elections as the opposition parties
were deeply divided, announced that general elections would be held in March 1977.

On 11th January 1977, nine major opposition parties decided to form an alliance known as the
PNA. These parties were extremely diverse in their ideologies ranging from the leftist NAP to
the far-right JUI.42 However, they shared a common trait and that was there opposition to Bhutto.
These opposition parties had suffered at the regimes heavy-handed approach to ruling. For
example, the NAP had been banned in 1975 for opposing the rule of Bhutto and its leader Wali
Khan was behind bars even during the elections of 1977.

41 ThePakistanTimes,July6,1977.
42 The PNA Comprised of:

Muslim League
Pakistan Democratic Party
Jamiat-i-Ulama-i-Islam
Jamiat-i-Ulema-i-Pakistan
Jamaat-i-Islami
National Democratic Party
Tehrik-i-Istiqlal-i-Pakistan
The Khaksars
All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference

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The PNA was extremely successful at channeling the frustration of the populace with Bhuttos
authoritarianism and economic and social policies. The opposition rallied people by its promise
to implement Nizam-E-Mustafa,43 which proved to be popular in an increasingly conservative
Pakistan. The movement promised Islamization in which alcohol, co-education and obscenity
would be banned. Though there manifesto was vague, the Alliances targeting of government on
issues such as nationalization, high inflation, unemployment and corruption on its own proved
enough to rally mass support. Unlike the late 60s and the early 70s, PPP rallies were marked by
low attendance, whereas the PNA rallies astonishingly attracted large crowds, especially in urban
areas of Sind and Punjab. Although the PNA demonstrated its popularity through mass rallies,
most analysts and people still believed that Bhutto enjoyed support in rural Sindh and Punjab,
and would thus win the elections with a narrow majority.44

The Election Commission of Pakistan had set the deadline for nominating papers to be filed for
19th January. The Police arrested many PNA members from Sindh who attempted to file
nomination papers. In some rare cases, many PNA members were reported to go missing for
weeks. Consequently, Bhutto and a few other PPP stalwarts from Sindh were declared winners
unopposed. This was said to be an attempt to make an impact on the PNA and to demoralize
them.45

43
44
45

Urdu for System of the Prophet; a rather vague term for Islamic Law.
Source: The Pakistan Times (23 February, 1977)
Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 298-311.

Page 16

On March 7th, 1977, the elections were held and the results were surprising.46 Bhutto won the
election with a massive landslide.47 American Ambassador to Pakistan at the time would later
recall a meeting with Bhutto on Election night, "He [Bhutto] was losing in Karachi. He was
losing in Peshawar. Then the Punjab numbers started coming in and guys who were absolute
thugs won by 99 percentThen, he became absolutely quiet and started drinking heavily, calling
Lahore, and he said, 'What are you guys doing?'... I saw Bhutto at 8 the next morning, and he
wasn't himself. He hadn't had any sleep, obviously drinking. He was just sad." Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto had recently asked his Punjab Chief Minister Qureshi to shift the election campaign in
Punjab to top gear. 48

The PNA reacted with immediate claims that the elections were rigged and a farce. The PNA
boycotted the Provincial elections three days later claiming that there results would also be
manipulated like the National elections. It is evident that electoral fraud did occur at a large scale
in many constituencies, which affected the results of around forty constituencies according to
some estimates, with an overwhelming majority of them in Punjab where PPP candidates won
with unrealistic margins.49 Although the PPP maintained the elections were fair, foreign
correspondents started reporting mass irregularities in numerous constituencies. Furthermore, it
would only be later discovered that system of electoral malpractice was well planned and
systematic in that the entire government apparatus including the bureaucracy and the secret
services were put to the job of ensuring a PPP victory. On election day, all kinds of manipulative
46

For results of these elections, see Appendix D. Note the huge difference in the PPPs achievement in 1970
and these elections, despite the fact that the PPP was much more unpopular in 1977 than in 1970 for the reasons
given in the investigation.

47

The PPP won 155 seats and 58.1% of the popular vote whereas the PNA only won 36 seats and 35.4% of the
popular vote.

48

Husain Haqani, Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 2005) 121. Source only used for the quote.

49

Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 348.

Page 17

methods were used including voter intimidation, ballot stuffing and harassing of PNA
supporters.50 It was even reported by The Guardian that polling agents of the PNA were locked
up until it was ensured the PPP candidates had won.51

However, the question arises as to why such a mass electoral fraud was carried out. Rafi Raza,
Bhuttos election campaign head stated that the PPP Punjab politicians were essentially feudal
and unacquainted with the realities of politics and thus resorted to mass electoral malpractices in
order to satisfy Bhutto with sweeping victories in their constituencies. Many analysts also argue
that Bhutto wanted to amend the 1973 constitution in order to install a Presidential system
instead of the parliamentary system already in place, in order to get more powers for himself.
But, for amending the constitution, he needed a two-thirds majority in the parliament 52

After examining the electoral conduct in several constituencies, the Chief Election commissioner
at the time Sajjad Ahmed Jan and admitted that massive cheating had occurred by making
several public statements53. Convinced that the elections were rigged beyond fixing, he suggested
re-election54. However, he was fired and sent into exile when he declared election results in
several constituencies null and void and was about to do so for another 80 constituencies.

PNA Movement:

50
51
52
53
54

HasanMuktar,TheDramaof7thMarchrevealed,WeeklyIslamiJamhuriya(Lahore,March16th,1977)
WalterSchwarz,WhyBhuttospoweriscrumbling?TheGuardian,London,May1,1977.
Ian Talbot, Pakistan, a Modern History (New York: St. Martin's, 1998) 240-241

DailyMillat,Karachi,June13,1977.
ThePakistanTimes,June23,1977.

Page 18

The PNA started its agitation that is often referred to as the PNA movement. Like the early 70s
when the students and small businessmen had supported Bhutto, these groups of people were
now supporting PNA. The agitation had started in Urban Sindh and Punjab, where the PNA had
performed strongly in the elections. However, after a violent crackdown by the police on a
demonstration in Lahore on 9th April, 1977, the agitation spread across rural Punjab. It is
estimated that police firing in these demonstrations killed at least 300 people and around 20,000
people were arrested55. The violent crackdowns led to even more protests that resulted in Martial
Law being imposed on 20th April in all major cities of Pakistan. Despite this step, the agitation
continued vigorously: people were asked to not pay taxes and withdraw their money from the
nationalized banks, tires and buses were burnt, the railway system was shut down, factories were
closed and the entire economy had completely shutdown. This resulted in the proclamation of
emergency law and announcement by the government to suspend civil liberties. Bhutto had
already laid the foundations of a military coup by granting the military extra-constitutional
powers.56

Bhutto agreed that there were some electoral malpractices. However, he denied any direct
involvement in it, stating that individual candidates might have manipulated the elections in their
own capacities without the knowledge or involvement of the Federal Government.57 He also
offered several concessions to the opposition in that he offered re-polling for the provincial
elections, a referendum on whether the electorate wanted him as Prime Minister or not, ban on
alcohol and closure of all night clubs and a promise to impose Shariah law with in six months.
55 Markham, James M. "Military Men Who Helped Bhutto Gain Power Warn That He Is Leading Toward Civil War." The New York Times Apr.
1977

56
57

SalamatAli,BhuttoWeathersStorm,FarEasternEconomicReview,May6,1977.

ThePakistanTimes,April9,1977.BhuttoalsodefendedhimselfbysayingIdontwanttogodowninhistoryasariggerofthe
elections,whichIamnot.If1havereelections,IwouldbeconcedingtheirfalsechargethatIamamanipulatorandriggerofelections...What
thehellisofficeofPrimeMinister?Iammoreconcernedaboutmyplaceinhistory

Page 19

He also offered re-election in the event he lost the provincial elections.58 Despite the fact that the
concessions were what the PNA wanted, they refused to accept it, stating that they wanted
Bhutto to resign immediately.

Nevertheless, the PNA agreed to hold talks with Bhutto, which were set up by foreign nations
with Saudi Arabia playing a major role. The talks officially began on June 3, 1977. As the talks
began, both sides began to soften their stance. The PNA gave up on its demand of the resignation
of Mr. Bhutto as Prime Minister whereas Bhutto agreed to hold fresh elections. Agreements were
also reached on the dissolution of all assemblies and the appointments of provincial governors as
well as the election commission staff in which the PNA was to be consulted. In addition,
agreement was reached to form an implementation committee that would aid the election
commission in carrying out free and fair elections. A two-member sub-committee was created in
which a PNA and a PPP representative would decide how the elections were carried out.59 This
agreement was officially reached on June 16, 1977.

Even when it seemed the two parties had reached an agreement, the two parties continued
targeting and pressurizing each other. Bhutto immediately announced a weeklong tour to the
Middle East, a tactic to show that he was still in-charge and would not be impacted by the PNAs
pressure whatsoever. Similarly, the party members of each party started threatening each other at
the constituency-level, which resulted in several skirmishes that left hundreds injured. During all
this, the two-member subcommittee was struggling to finalize what powers were to be granted to
the implementation committee. The PNA wanted to give it the powers of removing and
58
59

ThePakistanTimes(May1977monthlyissue)
ThePakistanTimes,June16,1977

Page 20

appointing the election staff whereas the PPP attempted to restrict its role to just that of advising
the election commission. Bhutto and the PNA yet again started accusation against each other
until a final agreement was reached on the 3rd of July.60 Peace was hardly restored before the
PNAs member-council refused to accept the agreement and presented even more demands to the
PPP government. Bhutto retorted back stating that the PNA was violating the very agreement it
had signed a few days ago.61 By now, it appeared that the Army had run out of patience. The
country had suffered an economic loss of $730 million,62 the political conflict had gone on for
months and there were no chances of a political solution in sight and the violence was only
escalating. Ensured that it was the only solution to the fragile situation of the country, the army
took over on the 5th of July 1977, and deposed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, ending his rule.63 General
Zia-ul-Haq, Chief of Army Staff of the Army, became the Martial Law Administrator and in
effect, ruled Pakistan until his death in 1988.64

Conclusion:

This investigation has sought to answer the question to what extent did the 1977 general
elections play a role in causing Operation Fair Play, the military coup that was staged
60
61
62
63
64

The PakistanTimes,July3,1977.

Dawn,July5,1977.ThiswasBhuttoslastpressconferenceever.
KeesingsContemporaryArchives,pg.283016.
Dawn(July5,1977)
Stanley A. Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times (New York: Oxford UP, 1993) 354.

Page 21

successfully on 5th of July, 1977 in Pakistan and resulted in the removal of the Bhutto
administration. The answer to this question is that the 1977 elections did indeed play a crucial
role in causing the coup. One could argue that it was the trigger to a series of swift events that
followed it and led to the overthrow of Bhutto.

There have been numerous coup attempts in Pakistans history. However, the only four coups
that have been successful occur at times where the government in office has lost its legitimacy,
according to Ian Talbot.65 In 1977, the Bhutto administration had lost its legitimacy due to
several reasons. The loss of legitimacy began not in 1977, but since Bhutto had taken office. The
political, social and economic policies adopted by Bhutto devastated the economy and frustrated
and alienated both the upper and middle-class of his country which resulted in Bhuttos loss of
legitimacy. Although considerable amount of his legitimacy was lost already due to the situation
the country was in, the final nail in the coffin came when the elections of 1977 were
manipulated. This resulted in Bhuttos complete loss of legitimacy amongst the populace and
thus, this loss of legitimacy was translated into the PNA movement that was launched
consequently. It is also important to point out that the PNA movement played an equally
important role in that it successfully united all those who were frustrated with Bhutto. Many
election results have been challenged throughout history with no such agitation following, so the
role of the PNA was just as important as that of the 1977 elections.

65

The coup of 1997 occurred at a time when the Prime Minister at that time, Nawaz Sharif, much like Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto, had lost all his legitimacy and support. For more on this topic, read Ian Talbots Pakistan: a Modern
History, mentioned in the bibliography. The theory that a coups success in Pakistan depends on the legitimacy of
the government that the coup is attempted against is widely accepted amongst Pakistans intelligentsia, historians
and political analysts.

Page 22

The credibility of Zulfiqar Ali Bhuttos government was further challenged when the government
failed to contain the law and order situation in the country as well as meeting the oppositions
demands. The 1977 election allowed all the causes to come together in the form of the PNA
movement. So, although all the causes studied in this investigation played a role in leading up to
the coup, the 1977 election was the most crucial cause.

The investigation does show that there are several questions that might never be answered. The
first one is that who exactly was responsible for rigging the 1977 elections. Furthermore, there
are numerous conspiracy theories regarding the events that might never be confirmed. It is very
hard to find an unbiased source regarding this topic as Historian Stanley Wolpert states, which
would prevent researchers from reaching a definite conclusion regarding the research question.

Bibliography:

Page 23

Books:

Wolpert, Stanley A. Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan: His Life and times. New York: Oxford UP,
1993.

Taseer, Salmaan. Bhutto, a Political Biography. New Delhi: Vikas Pub. House, 1980. 83.
Print.

Talbot, Ian. Pakistan, a Modern History. New York: St. Martin's, 1998. Print.

Korson, J. Henry. Contemporary Problems of Pakistan. Boulder: Westview, 1993.

Bhutto, Benazir. Daughter of Destiny: An Autobiography. New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1989.

Haqqani, Husain. Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, 2005. Print.

Sisson, Richard, and Leo E. Rose. War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation
of Bangladesh. Berkeley: University of California, 1990.

Articles:

Page 24

"Address to the Nation by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Broadcast and Telecast on
November 10, 1975." Bhutto. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2013.
<http://www.bhutto.org/1976_speech15.php>.

Baxter, Craig. "Pakistan Votes - 1970." Asian Survey, Mar. 1970. Web.
<http://cprid.com/history/5-Baxter%20Election%201970.pdf>.

"A Leaf from History: Pledges for a New Pakistan." Dawn.com. N.p., 27 June 2012. Web.
27 Aug. 2013.

Markham, James M. "Military Men Who Helped Leader Gain Power Warn That He Is
Leading Toward Civil War." The New York Times Apr. 1977

Ali, Salamat. "Bhutto Weathers Storm." Far Eastern Economic Review 6 May 1977: n.
pag. Print.

Schwarz, Walter. "Why Bhutto's Power Is Crumbling?" The Guardian [London] 1 May
1977: n. pag. Print.

"A Leaf from History: FSF-the dreaded organization." Dawn News, 29 July 2012.
http://beta.dawn.com/news/737999/a-leaf-from-history-fsf-the-dreaded-organisation

Mukhtar, Hassan. "The Drama of 7th March Revealed." Weekly Islami Jamhuriya
[Lahore] 16 Mar. 1977: n. pag. Print.

Page 25

"Torture Claims in India and Pakistan." Far Eastern Economic Review 13 June 1977: n.
pag. Print.

Sayed, Khalid Bin. "How Radical Is the Pakistan People's Party." Pacific Affairs Jan.
1974: n. pag. Print.

Newspaper Archives:

The Pakistan Times (archives from 1970-1977 kept in Quaid-e-Azam Library, Lahore)

Dawn (Archives from 1968-1979 kept in Quaid-e-Azam Library, Lahore)

Daily Millat (Archives from 1976-1977 kept at Punjab University, Lahore)

APPENDIX A:

Page 26

APPENDIX B:

Page 27

APPENDIX C:

Page 28

Source: Dawn News

Note: N.W.F.P is more commonly known as the Frontier province, as it is referred to in this
investigation

APPENDIX D:

Page 29

Source: Hasan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan (Delhi, 1988) 219.