IEEE AFRICON 2009

23 - 25 September 2009, Nairobi, Kenya

Harmonic distortion and measurement principles

based on Digital Fault recorder (DFR) analysis

K. Musasa, W.M.Siti

J.A. Jordaan

Department of Electrical Engineering

Tshwane University of Technology
Pretoria, South Africa
kabeyamusasa@yahoo.fr

Department of Electrical Engineering

Tshwane University of Technology
EMalahleni, South Africa

Abstract each type of device causing harmonics has a particular

shape of harmonic current and voltage (amplitude and phase
displacement). This work provides a methodology for analyzing
the distortion from the data record of digital fault recorders in
order to quantify the distortion in current and voltage. This can
be done by decomposing the signal into its constituent
components in the frequency domain, because of the fact that it is
not practical to obtain and represent all the system detail for
analysis. It can lead to inaccurate estimation of distortion in
voltages and currents. A simple but realistic approach for
resonance analysis is presented.
Keywords- Harmonic; Resonance; Digital fault recorder

I.

INTRODUCTION

Only ten years ago, harmonics were not yet considered a

real problem because their effects on distribution networks
were generally minor. However, the massive introduction of
power electronics in equipment has made the phenomenon far
more serious in all sectors of economic activity. Harmonics
flowing in distribution networks downgrade the quality of
electrical power. This can have a number of negative effects:
overloads on distribution networks due to the increase in RMS
current, distortion of the supply voltage that can disturb
sensitive loads, disturbances in communication networks and
so on [8]. There is a need for more accurate model and analysis
of power system components in order to accurately predict
harmonic distortion resulting from the installation of waveform
distorting loads. In particular, the power system planners are
concerned with the determination of resonant frequencies. It is
important that efficient tools and analysis methods are
available to meet this requirement. One difficulty in calculating
harmonic voltages and currents throughout a transmission
system is the need for an adequate equivalent to represent the
distribution system and consumers loads fed from each bus bar.
It has become evident that the use of equivalents without a
comprehensive check on the effect of all impedances actually
present can lead to inaccurate estimation of harmonic voltages
and currents in the system.
During the last decade or so, interest has been increasing for
solving the reverse harmonic problem. R.A. Alammanri [1]
provides an application of the constrained least absolute value

algorithm to identify the type of harmonic loads on a complex

bus and their harmonics contribution. Dr. R. Sreerama Kumar
[2] provides a detailed analysis of distribution systems loads
and other linear systems. Gursoy-Ekrem [3] proposed the idea
of blind source separation and independent component analysis
for harmonics sources identification. Ashwani Kumar [4] also
presented an attempt by using a least square state estimation
technique and the concept of Euclidean norm, from which the
exact location of harmonic sources is determined. In [5] and
[10] state estimation and transient state estimation has been
proposed again to solve the harmonic problem. However, in all
above approaches, some a priori knowledge of analysis and
classification of harmonic components has been assumed. It is
thus of great importance, when conducting harmonic studies,
that system components are correctly modeled to ensure
accurate harmonic distortion results. These values, notably the
amplitude for each harmonic order, are essential for analysis.
In order to address the identified problem, a detailed analysis
of the continuous distorted harmonic current/voltage waveform
collected from digital fault recorders is proposed.
Underlying information in deterministic signals is often hidden
and need to be revealed, and this could be done by
decomposing the signal into its constituent components in an
appropriate domain. Information not revealed in the time
domain is often seen by transforming the signal into a different
domain. The Fourier series is used to decompose a signal into
its time domain components at different frequencies. This is
done in order to quantify different harmonic contents in the
deterministic signal from the DFR.
The DFR is a system built up on the integrated substation
control system (ISCS) is a highly effective tool for analyzing
substation events.
Resonance study is discussed and a simple but more realistic
approach is adopted.
II.

HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Mathematically any periodic waveform can be

described as summation of a series of sinusoids, which is

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IEEE AFRICON 2009

23 - 25 September 2009, Nairobi, Kenya

known as a Fourier series. The sinusoids are integer multiples

of the fundamental frequency [6].
Signals are represented as functions of time, and frequency.

Uh
,
U1
I
ih (%) = 100 h ,
I1

u h (%) = 100

v(t ) = Vh cos( 2ht / T + h ).

h =1

(1)

(6)

(7)

i (t ) = I h cos( 2ht / T + h )
h =1

D. Harmonic spectrum
By representing the amplitude of each harmonic order with
respect to its frequency, it is possible to obtain the graph
called the harmonic spectrum.
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 respectively show the harmonic spectrum
for the digital signal of Fig. 1 and 2.

(2)

hw0 = 2h / T :
Is called the domain of the signal.

Vh , I h :
The constant amplitude terms.

v(t ), i (t ) :
Voltage/Current Time domain.

1
I1

magnitude

magnitude
magnitude
0

0.005

0.01 0.015
(c)

-2

0.02

magnitude

0.005

0.01 0.015
(e)

-2

0.02

0.01 0.015
(f)

0.02

0.005

Fig.1: Typical harmonic voltage waveform.

12-pulse converter

6-pulse 3phase diode rectifier

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

0
-0.5

-1

-1

h th harmonic as a percentage of the fundamental (individual

-1.5

-1.5

-2

0.005
t

Another closely related term is Distortion Factor (DF),

which is essentially the same as THD.

0.01 0.015
(d)

0.02

0.005

-0.5

distortion).

0.01 0.015
(b)

0.02

V1 , I 1 represent the fundamental peak voltage and

current, respectively, and Vh , I h are the magnitudes of the

where

0.005

h= 2

-2

0.02

(4)

(5)

h =2

I h2 ,

0.015

0
-2

Vh2 ,

0.01
(a)

I,pu

THDI =

1
V1

0.005

I,pu

THDV =

-2

B. Voltage and current distortion factors.

A common term that is used in relation to harmonics is
THD or Total Harmonic Distortion. THD can be used to
describe voltage or current distortion and is calculated as
follows:

0
-2

magnitude

A. Record of the deterministic signals.

This is a signal whose physical description is
completely known either in terms of a mathematical function
or graphically. Hence there is not uncertainly about the value
of the signal, the process now consist of calculating the
magnitudes of the fundamental and higher order harmonics.
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show respectively the deterministic voltage
and current signal collect from the record generate by the DFR
at one instance of time.

magnitude

0.01 0.015
(a)

0.02

-2

0.005
t

0.01 0.015
(b)

0.02

Fig.2: Typical harmonic current waveform.

C. Individual harmonic distortion (or harmonic distortion of

order h).
The individual harmonic distortion is defined as the
percentage of harmonics for order h with respect to the
fundamental.

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IEEE AFRICON 2009

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E. RMS value
The RMS value of the voltage and current can be
calculated as a function of the RMS value of the various
harmonic orders.

I rms =

2
h

h =1

(8)

U rms =

2
h

h =1

(9)

The individual voltage and current harmonic distortion for

each harmonic order and the THD are presented in Table 1
and Table 2 respectively. The corresponding voltage and
current waveforms are shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.

fundamental,5th and 7th

Magnitude

20
0

200
400
600
800
frequence,Hz
(a)
fundamental,5th,7th and 11th
Magnitude

40
20
0

40

200
400
600
800
frequence,Hz
(b)
fundamental,5th,7th,11th and 13th
40
20

200
400
frequence,Hz

600
(e)

800

20
0

200
400
frequence,Hz

600
(f)

800

Fig. 3: Harmonic voltage spectrum

12-pulse converter

6-pulse 3phase diode rectifier switched-mode power supply

110

100

100

90

90

80

80

70

70

60

60

I,pu

I,pu

110

50

40

30

30

20

20

10

10
0

200

400
t

600
(a)

800

Ih (Fig. 4b)
100
73.5
51
17
9
8
5
0.92

RESONANCE STUDIES AND MODELLING OF SYSTEM

COMPONENTS.

III.1. Modeling
The difficulty of accurate harmonic monitoring, particularly
on high voltage transmission networks has led to the
development of software models for the calculation of
harmonic impedances at any specific location required. Bus
admittance matrix and linear transformation techniques are
used to interconnect various power plant components of a
network represented by their equivalent circuits. The modeling
of various system components for harmonic analysis is
discussed in [2].
A. Transformer
Three winding transformers are modeled using equivalent
star connections between the windings. At any other
frequency, the impedance is given by

50

40

0.2864

Vhf
100
23.5
14.7
5.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
0.2866

Vha, Vhb ,Vhc, Vhd, Vhe, Vhf represent the voltage spectrum for
each harmonic of Fig. 3.
III.

0
200
400
600
800
0
200
400
600
800
frequence,Hz
(c)
frequence,Hz
(d)
fundamental,5th,7th,11th,13th and 17th fundamental,5th,7th,11th,13th,17th and 19th
40
40
20

Table. 2: Harmonic current spectrum

H
Ih (Fig. 4a)
1
100
5
7
11
7
13
5
17
19
THD
0.09

Vhe
100
23.5
14.7
5.9
2.9
2.9

20

Magnitude

Magnitude

Magnitude

Magnitude

fundamental and 5th

40

Table. 1: Harmonic voltage spectrum

H
Vha
Vhb
Vhc
Vhd
1
100
100
100
100
5
23.5
23.5
23.5
23.5
7
14.7
14.7
14.7
11
5.9
5.9
13
2.9
17
19
THD
0.23
0.28
0.283 0.286

Z ( h) = Rt ( a0 + a1h b + a2 h 2 ) + jX t h. ,

(10)

where: Rt is a transformer`s short-circuit resistance and X t is

the transformer short-circuit reactance. Typical values of
parameters a and b are:
0

Fig. 4: Harmonic current spectrum

200

400
t

600
(b)

800

a0 = 0.75 0.80, a1 = 0.10 0.13, a2 = 0.1 0.13

b = 0.9 1.4
And
under
the
condition
a0 + a1 + a2 = 1.0 .

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IEEE AFRICON 2009

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Load model E
B. Transmission lines
A line/cable is modeled using equivalent 3-phase circuit. For each harmonic order, the following data is
required: 3x3 complex series impedance, 3x3 complex shunt
admittance matrix. Skin effects can be incorporated into the
line model by a frequency dependent resistance model [13].
2

0.646 h
),
192 + 0.518h 2
Z (h) = Rl (h) + j (hX l X c / h) ,
Rl ( h) = R(1 +

Where:

(11)
(12)

Rl is a total resistance of the line, R is the resistance

at fundamental frequency and h the harmonic order.

C. Generator

R (h) = R h

III.2.

X ( h) = hX

(18)

Resonance

The simultaneous use of capacitive and inductive devices

in distribution networks result in parallel or series resonance
manifested by very high or very low impedance values
respectively as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. The variations in
impedance modify the current and voltage in the distribution
network. Parallel resonance phenomena are the most common
[10].
The following simplified equivalent diagram (Fig. 8)
representing an installation made up of: a supply, resistive
loads, inductive loads, electronic load drawing harmonic
currents and power factor correction capacitors.

''

Usually a generator sub-transient reactance X d is

considered for harmonic study [3]. Impedance of the generator
at frequencies other than the fundamental frequency is
modelled as

Z g (h) = R h + jhX d''

(13)

D. Converters
Converters and other similar harmonic generating
equipment are represented as current sources at each harmonic
frequency; the harmonic currents of converters are computed
as in Fig. 2.

The equivalent impedance is found by adding the

impedances for elements in series (and inverting the result to
get the admittance Y), while adding the admittances for
elements in parallel (and inverting the result to get the
impedance Z). A sharp increase in the impedance value
implies parallel resonance. Network analysis is done for every
harmonic as follows:

Add Z`s for elements in series and invert to get Y

1
1
R jhX
=
= 2
Z h R + jhX
R + ( hX ) 2
R
Gh = 2
R + (hX ) 2
hX
Bh = hB = 2
R + (hX ) 2

Yh = G h + jB h =

E. Load
For various loads models, the impedance can be obtained
from the fundamental frequency, active power, reactive power
and voltages.
Load model A

R ( h) =

V2
P

X ( h) = h

V2
Q

Add Y`s for elements in parallel and invert to get Z

Rh =

(14)

Load model B
2

R ( h) =

V
(0.1h + 0.9) P

X ( h) =

V2
(0.1h + 0.9)Q (15)

Load model C

R (h) =

V2
P

X (h) =

V2
Q

X s (h) = 0.073hR (h)

hR (h)
X ( h) =
(6.7(Q P ) 0.74)
p

X h = hX =

hB
G + (hB ) 2
2

To find bus voltages

Vh = V x + jV y = Z h .I h = ( Rh + jX h )( I x + jI y )
(16)

Vh = V x2 + V y2

(17)

h = tan 1

Load model D

V2
R ( h) =
P

G
G + (hB ) 2
2

Vy
Vx

To find branch currents

978-1-4244-3919-5/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE

IEEE AFRICON 2009

23 - 25 September 2009, Nairobi, Kenya

I h = I x + jI y = Yh .Vh = (Gh + jBh )(V x + jV y )

I h = I x2 + I y2

h = tan 1

Iy
Ix

Voltages and currents are then found in the time

domain
parallel resonance
14

12

Fig. 8: Equivalent circuit for impedance study.

10

Z(h)

IV.

CONCLUSION

10

15

20

25
h

30

35

40

45

Fig. 6: Parallel resonance.

serie resonance
3.5

2.5

Z(h)

1.5

0.5

10

15

Fig. 7: Series resonance

20

25
h

30

35

40

45

Consequences regarding system prediction, wrong

indication of excessive high harmonic distortion, utilization of
sophisticated harmonic penetration programs with inaccurate
basic information, and or inadequate modeling are a waste of
money, and the consequences of the interpretation of the
results might cost even more. The accuracy of any calculation
cannot be better than the data on which it is based. That is the
reason why the main focus of this paper is based on the
observation and measurement methods, which include:
Observations using Digital Fault Recorder:
A signal can be obtained by viewing the current or
the voltage on a monitor recorder.
Analogue spectral analysers: Analyzer operation and
data processing - the analogue signals are converted
into a series of numerical values. Using this data, an
algorithm implementing the Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) calculates the amplitudes and the phase of the
harmonics.
A simple approach of resonance analysis is included in this
proposed method. Furthermore, an accurate method is required
for the harmonic identification based on digital fault recorder
analysis.

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analysis.
Ekrem Gursoy; Independent component analysis for harmonic source
identification in electrical power system.

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IEEE AFRICON 2009

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978-1-4244-3919-5/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE