LECTURE 3(a)

Agenda
Recap and definitions
LoS and highway capacity
Factors affecting transportation:
Physiological and psychological behaviour of road
users
Vehicles

Highway capacity and level of service

Capacity and Level of service are two related terms.
HOW??

Highway capacity and level of service

The capacity of highways may be described as its ability to accommodate

traffic.

Highway capacity itself is limited by the physical features of the highway,

which do not change unless the geometric design of the highway changes.

Highway capacity and level of service

Design flows for all-purpose dual/single carriageway roads
(Peak hourly flow( veh/hour/carriageway ))
Road type

Standard

Maximum

Dual: 2-lane

2400

3200

Dual: 3-lane

3600

4800

Single: 10m
wide

1900

2300

Single: 7.3m
wide

1200

1600

Highway capacity and level of service

Factors affecting capacity:
Lane width:

Alignment:

Gradient:

Traffic composition:
Allowed for by converting to passenger car equivalents.

Highway capacity and level of service

A term closely related to capacity and often confused
with it is service volume.
When capacity gives a quantitative measure of traffic,
level of service or LOS tries to give a qualitative
measure.

Highway capacity and level of service

Highway capacity and level of service

Highway capacity and level of service

Highway capacity and level of service

Factors affecting transportation

The success of transportation engineering depends upon
the co-ordination between the three primary elements,
namely the vehicles, the roadways, and the road users.

Their characteristics affect the performance of the

transportation system and the transportation engineer
should have fairly good understanding about them.

Factors affecting transportation

Components of Traffic System

Primary components of the traffic system:

The general environment has an impact on traffic

operations but it is difficult to assess.

Traffic engineering would be great if these components

had uniform characteristics

Road Users

Very important as all transportation facilities have to be

eventually used efficiently and safely by Humans.

The study of human behaviour and the limitations of

human performance in the varied circumstances of the
road environment.

Driver (user) response is a major component of planning

and design of transportation systems.

Human beings have a wide range of characteristics that

influence the driving task.

Road Users
Two of the important constituents of transportation
system are drivers and users/passengers.

Understanding of certain human characteristics like

perception - reaction time and visual acuity and their
variability are to be considered by Traffic Engineer.

Because of the variability in characteristics, the 85th

percentile values of the human characteristics are used
as standards for design of traffic facilities.

Road Users

A major task is to find ways to provide drivers with

information in a clear, effective, manner that induces
safe and proper responses.
Two important driver characteristics are

Q: Define the driving task and list the factors affecting a

road user.

Road Users
Perception:
Intellect:
Emotion:

Volition:

Road Users
The factors affecting a road user in the driving task can
be divided into 3 main categories:
Physiological factors
Psychological factors
Modifying factors

Physiological factors include:

Visual

Intake of information of drivers and pedestrians

visual acuity: data stored to be used afterwards and in

near future
Stereoscopy

Road Users
Adaptation of the eye to varying illumination and
impaired night vision
Colour blindness
Posture and operating conditions leading to fatigue and
impaired performance
hearing

Psychological factors include:

Aggression
Risk taking
Exhibitionism
Lack of concentration

Modifying factors include:

Age, injury and disease
Fatigue

Road Users

Alcohol and drugs

Illness
Weather
Posture
Motivation
Environmental influences
Education
Conditioning

Road Users
Visual acuity
relates to the field of clearest vision. The most acute vision is within
a cone of 3 to 5 degrees, fairly clear vision within 10 to 12 degrees
and the peripheral vision will be within 120 to 180 degrees.
This is important when traffic signs and signals are placed, but other
factors like dynamic visual acuity, depth perception etc. should also
be considered for accurate design.

Road Users
Perception-reaction time
Four distinct processes:

- Detection: recognition that something requiring

response is present
- Identification: driver acquires sufficient information
concerning the object or condition to allow the
consideration of a proper response
- Decision: analyse the information and make a
decision about how to respond

Road Users
Perception-reaction time
-

Response: physical response that result from the

decision

Perception-reaction time depends on many factors:

age, gender, medical condition, alcohol and drug use,
fatigue, sleep deprivation, emotional condition, type of
vehicle, experience and knowledge, etc.

Road Users (contd.)

Perception-reaction time
- The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) recommends 2.5
sec for design value.
- For signal timing, the Institute of Transportation
Engineers (ITE) recommends 1.0 sec.
- For specific situations, a longer time may be
recommended.
- ORN 6- 2.0 sec

Road Users
Perception-reaction time
- Reaction distance: distance the vehicle travels while
the driver goes through the process of perception
reaction time

Road Users
Pedestrians

A critical safety problem in the street and highway

system involves the interactions of vehicles and
pedestrians.
For pedestrians, it has to be considered:
- Walking speed for signalized intersections
- Gap acceptance for unsignalized intersections-

Vehicles

For purpose of geometric design, motor vehicles into

main categories (ORN 40- Table 1):
- Passenger cars
-Motorcycles
- Small/ Large Buses
- Light/ Medium/ heavy goods
- Others: Tractors, road rollers

Critical vehicles properties that need to be considered:

Vehicles
The vehicle has less variable characteristics than the
road users, and these factors can be legislatively
controlled within defined limits.
Legislation can impose limits on the overall performance,
weight, size, as well as specifying the minimum
requirements for individual items of equipment such as
brakes, lighting and indicators.

Operation and performance of vehicle

Vehicles
Turning Characteristics of vehicles
- Low speed turns ( 10 mph) (50 mph is equivalent to 80
km/h)

Limited by the characteristics of the vehicle (minimum

radius allowed). AASHTO specifies minimum design
radii for each of the design vehicles
- High speed turns ( 10 mph)

Limited by the dynamics of side friction between the

roadway and the tyres, and by the superelevation of
the roadway.
Acceleration performance of vehicles

Passenger cars high acceleration rates

Heavy vehicles lower rates of acceleration

Vehicles
Braking performance

Most
critical
performance.

The time and distance required to stop

Primary consideration in virtually every aspect of traffic

system design and operation.

Factors: vehicles braking system, type & condition of tyres

performance

characteristics:

braking