MANUAL ON WATER SUPPLY

AN'D TREATMENT
THIRD EDITION - REVISED AND UPDATED

Prepared by
THE EXPERT COMMITTEE

Constituted by
THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

- CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH

AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ORGANISATION

MINISTRY Of URBAN DEVELOPMENT, NEW DELHI

MAY, 1999

cD .AII rights noserve!!.

No portion of this document may
the prior
permission cfllle

f{)f iXJirntlli)!cliil pUfl)miC

Mini"rn

\vithD'i.'tt

eitJp)((elli (,overlllneni d

[nili,

dl'inkling water 10 tbe

Watel' is II basic need,

bUi'g'ClIlling

U!'OIIll

of

pOpuhltioil

dl'inldng water could

('<'11111';.1

Public Heallh

Ministry had

hr~'lIgll1l 0111

MIII'ell, 1991

II

on
developments

Wilier SIIIPpily 1I0rrls, waleI' conservatioll, m"'6""j""

A two member F""I',rl Committee was set

illio

to

I'REFACE

"lv1.anual on
Supply and Treatment" brought out by the
IndIa in 1962 was revised and updated in the late seventies.
I
to provide the field enf,>1neers with information about the
latest development in this fteld during the intervening period, the then Ministry
Urban Development, Government of India constituted an Expert
Committee towards the end of 1()85 to further update the Manual. The
composition of the Committee was:
Shft V. Venugopalan
Adviser(PHEE),Central Public lIealth
& l~nvjronmental Engineering Organisation,
Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi

Chairman

2.

Shri M.R. Parthasarathy,

Deputy Adviser(PHT9,Central Public
Health E':nvironmental l':ngineering
Orf:,'3nisatioll, Ministry of Urban Development,
New Delhi

Member

3.

Shri S.D. Mundra

Direetor, Geo~Miller & Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi

Member

4.

Shr! B.l'.c. Sinha,

Chief I Iydrogeoloh>1st & M.ember,
Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi

Member

Alternate
Shri A.R. Bakshi,
Scientist, Central Ground Water Board,
New Delhi
5.

Shri C. Raman
Director(Civil Engineering),
Bureau oflndian Standards, New Delhi

Member

9.

Member

7.

19.

The Committee held 11

under the Ch,urmanship
Venugopalan between April 1986
has drawn
all available literature, in fimtlismg
j\hnual..
wishes to
l' nion Mimstry () f
the help needed
successfully
Comlnitt(:c also wishes to thank L ",H.H H 'dl j,'.nvlt'nr,mr'n
Institute, thgpur and the Mahata:;htra \X/atcr Supply
arrangements made
the
of
Committee outslllc Deihi,

Shu V.

The Committee wishes to

on record their deep sense of
appreciation for the unsparing and diligen t e CfOTtS 0 f Sh ri M. R.
and Dr. S.R. Shukla who ensured that
were held
to
enable the Committee to eomnlcte
() f their
r
duties. The Comrnittee also
on record
appreciation of the servICes
rendered by thC\anOUi officers and
of Central
! lcalth
Environmental En~~neenng Organlsatv'n and Public ! lealth
coopcratmll
Section of the I\!inistr{ without
enormous task assigned to the
could not
been accotTlplished.
A Sub~Cornmittee
the draft tVlanual was constituted
comprising of the Members Dr. I.e. Agarwal, Shri M.R. Parthasarathy and Dr.
the editing
the draft Manual in
D.M. i\1ohan, The Sub Committee
four sittint,'S b(:twcen September and December, 19R9.
Committee
wishes to thank the Members of the Ediling Sub Committee for the devoted
and sincere work without which the final draft of the l\!anual would not have
been completed.

The 3,d edition of the rVlanual was

out by the cpr II J
!11
March, 1991 for the benefit of Public Hcrllth Lngineers, Consultants, \Vater
Supply Departments/Boards, 1,(leal Bodies, ! ':ducational Jnstltutions.
However, subsequent to the publlCation of the said Manual, a few sUY,J.'i;<;stions,
observations and comments have been received from V,n1()US product
manufacturers, field engineers, consultants, etc. for n~vlsing and updating
certain aspects, such as, water quality guidelines, per-capita water supply nonl1S,
water conservation measures, metering, availability of various pipes, selection
of pipes under different field conditions, etc.

(IV)

Committee,

of

tn

had cOlnoiietl:d
'Ara~ UI.,,\U:'YCU

successful COlmr,lcll0r

IS

The servi.ees
"Mav:,,~

Shri Pankaj

is duly

&

not the

Hc:m.cu cooperation of

In

. S.R uHI"..,.!."',
Advi"", (PHEE)
C,P,H.KRO.
Ministry of Urban Development
Govemmt,nt of uuua

Dated: May, 1999

New Ddhi

(v)

CONTENTS
1

1. IN1'RODUCTION

PLANNING

4
4
,j

Quantity

1, l. Water Conservation
,2 Increalsinlg The Water Availability

Supply & Demand Management

6

,Mechanization
SerV1Cf'

Building

6
6

Other Utilities

Desi2'n Period

Population Forecast

1 General Considerations

Final Forccas t
A SUPPLY
1 Basic Needs

7
9
9

L"G,O,,(.

Factors Affecting Consumption

10

LL"O,:l

Recommendations

10

Quality Standards

13

3, PROJECT REPORT

19

:),1

ENERAL

19

Reports

19

3,2 IDENTIFICATION REPORT

20

PRE,FEASIBIIJ'TV REPOKf

21

3JJ

33, J Contents

3,3, L 1 Executive Summary

22
22

L2 Introduction

22

L3 'J'he Project Area And The Need For The Project

23

L4 Long Term Plan For \Vater Supply

26

(vi)

1,5 Pn)J)osed Water Supply

pw,;,,,~,

U)
"'1

.1.:1

14

37
].,,'1

1 POI,,; 1S 01 i\!

1/

4.2

,1.2,1.

1.1.

ofl
I

1.1

L1

ell'S

Probe A.feth"d
C(

U1TS

44

1.1 VC11IIIri
4,).1.2 (
'1.11.1 PitcH '!'ubes
lA

4.4 SPI;:(] AI, METl !ODS

1 C;eneral

47

4.4,2 Dilution

47

49

5. SOURCES OF SUPPI,Y
5.1 KJ"DS OF WATER SOURCE:S\"n
5. J. 1 Water

fl.m

M:Tl

Precipitation

5.1.2 Surface \Voters

:,. L3 Croundwatcr

),

S;l11llc IntnlslOll

5,1.5 Sanitary Survey

5
51

(vii)

Potential

57

),

h'n','p"

,nn

Or \ ,nile" I f lead Of DepressiOn

87

10

RClnetlml Measures

11

12
,

"]

,2

6.1
6Jl
CL2 C

104

1.3

UJ

104

(viii)

6.2.1 Formulae
6.2.2 Coefficient Of Roughness

111

6.2.3 Hazen\Xlilliams Formula

6.2.:3.1 Discussion On Various !ot1nLllae

Estimation Of .Frictional

III

6.2.4 Modified HazenWilliams Formula

112

6.2.5 Effect of Temperatm:e on

113

6.2.6 Expcnmental Est!ITmtio!1 of C:R Values

6.2.7 Reduction in Carrying Capacity of
6.2.8 Design Recommendations for use

113

'Vic)(1tI:.tcc1 !fazenWilliams Fomlula

1I

6.2.9 Resistance due to Specials

lI')

6.2.10 Guidelines for cost effective Geslgn

116

6.3 PIPE MA.TERU\.U;

6.3.1 Choice Of Pipe Materials

11

6.3.2 CHECK LIST FOR SPECIFICATIONS

LAYING,jOINTING,
6.3.2.1 General
6.3.3 CHECK LILST FOR

SUPPLY,

LAYING,jOINTLNG, TESTING A
IRON PIPES

6.4

6. ,I, 1 General

6.4.2 Laying And JOIuting

6.4.2.1 L:xcavatlc.n And Preparation
6.4.2.2 Handling Of Pipes
6.4.2.3 Detection Of

I n Pipes

6.4.2.4 Lowenng 0 f Pipes And I"ittmgs

6.4.2.5 Cleaning Of Pipes And Fittings
6.4.3 Joints
6.4.3.1 Categories Of Joints
6.4.4 Testing of the Pipeline

6.4.4.1 General

6.4.4.2 Testing Of Pressnre Pipes

6.4.4.3 Testing Of NonPressure Conduits

6.S STEEL PIPES

6.5.1 General

65.2 Protection Against Corrosion

128

And Jointing

129

IRON P[Pl':S

129
130

FlItings

130

.10m!,

Jomting

130

lJttctllc Iron PipelInes

130

nndTPIPES

13G

6.7.1.

130

131
L,ctVUlL<

131

And jointing

131

n,,,,,"re 'Testlllg

6.

132

PIPES

132

132
133

joinling

134
PIPES

134
134

6.9.2 Laymg

136

Join ting

136
Cylinder Concrete Pressnre Pipes

136

1 General

610

Manufacture

136

Jom!s

136

PIPES

137

6 10.1

6.

137

Pipes

137
J.j andlmg

6I

136

and

138

Jointing Procedures

138

6.

Preparation

138

6.1

And Jointing

138

Pre Fabricated Connections

139

Standard Threaded Connectl011S

140

6.1

(x)

(,.11

Polyethylene (

6..11.1 Medium I

1'1

PlPIiS!{

P.P1P1

(,.12.1
(,.13

6.1).1
6.1

I"

, 'j)

6.13.3
()i)1

Ie

6. 4 1,(

[>, (

'c(

(llli \

11

() 14.)

6. 1[7
(d) c(

)Sj

6.16 A

i50

('.]6,1 Ji"e

(Ll (,J

6,16,1.2

1') 1

(i1611

(,. I (, 1

.\ nd Cone

(,.1

(,

() 1
(,.1

6.1

11
T

Plate Check Valves

lSi)

6.16.8 Pressure .. Reducing Valves

6.16.9 Pressure Sustaining Valves
6.16.10 Ball Valves Or Ball Float \/ .>1",."
6.16.11 Automatic Shut-Off Valves

6.16.12 Automatic Burst Control

6.16.13 Venturimeters

158

6.16.14 Spacing Of Valves And Interconnections

158

6.16.15 Manholes

6.16.16 Insulation JOlllts

6.16.17 Expansion Joints

6.16.18 Ancllorages
6.17 WAT.ER HAMMER

161

6.17.1 Occnrence

161

6.17.2 Computations

163

6.17.3 Control Measures

164

6.17.3.1 Causes Of Water Hammer j\ud RemedtalMeasures

165

6.17 3.2 Rapid Closure Of Valves

165

6.17.3.3 Remedial Measures For Sudden Shut Ofr Of Pumps

6.17.4 Air Vessels

6.17 A.l Design Of Air Vesse!

177

6.17.4.2 In-Line Rel1ux Valves

6.17 .4.3 Release Valves
6.17 .4.4. Shut-Off Effects On Suction Line

6.17.4.5 Reciprocating Pumps Or Hydraulic

6.18 SPECIAL DEVICES FOR CONTROL OF

IIAMlv1ER

6.18.1 Zero Velocity Valve

6.18.2 Air Cushion Valve

6.18.3 Opposed Poppet Valve

184

6.19 WORKING OF THE SPECIAL DEVICES l\S A SYSTEM

6.19.1 Choice Of Protective Device

WATER TREATMENT
71MFTHODS e)F TREATMENT .AND FLO\\? SIlEI,:TS

7.2 i\ERATTON

188

7.2.1 Limitations of Aeration

188

(xii)
2962

UA&E!97~-2A

7
7.
7.

I \

7
7.

1.1

12
13
73.1.4

"7

7
7.

7.4. U

\j,aglll:W

UU'''}(t

L2

13
14 CO:lgu!ant

7 3

220
Suspensions

221
223
226

7.

226
226
7.

230
230
231
7.5.11 PfI'.",c1!im"'l! taltOn

233
233
233
231
234
234
7

In '\

l'ijter

235

rll~tructl()Xl

7
7

Of

246

(xiv)

7.6.3.8 Preparation Of Filter Sand

246

7.6.3.9 Filter Bottoms And Strainer Systems

247

7.6.3.10 Filter Grave

249

7.6.3.11 Wash Water Gutters

249

7.6.3.12 High Rate Backwash

250

7.6.3.13 Surface Wash

250

7.6.3.14 Operation Of Filters

251

7.6.3.15 Hydraulics Of Filtration

252

7.6.3.16 Hydraulics Of Backwashing

253

7.6.3.17 Optimum Backwashing

255

7.6.3.18 Appurtenances

256

7.6.3.19 Pipe Gallery

258

7.6.3.20 Limitations Of Rapid Sand Filters

258

7.6.4 Rapid Gravity Dual Media Filters

259

7.6.4.1 Constructional Features

259

7.6.4.2 Filtration Media

259

7.6.4.3Design Of Media Depth And Media Sizes

260

7.6.4.4 Filtration Rates And Filtrate Quality

261

7.6.5 Multimedia Filters

261

7.6.6 PRESSURE FILTERS

261

7.6.6.1 General

261

7.6.6.2 Disadvantages

262

7.6.7 DIATOtvlACEOUS EARTH FILTERS

262

7.6.8 Additional Modifications of Conventional Rapid Gravity Filters

263

7.6.8.1 Constant And Declining Rate Filtration

263

7.6.9 UP-Flow Filters

265

7.6.10 Grid Or Immedium Type Filters

265

7.6.11 Hi-flow Filters

266

7.6.12 Submeq:,>ed Filters

266

7.6.13 Radial How Filters

266

7.6.14 Automatic Valveless Gravity Filters

266

7.7 DISPOSAL OF W}\STES FROM WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

267

DISPOSAL METHODS

267

7.8 PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES

267

(xv)

7,8,1 Slow Sand Filters

267

7,8,2 Rapid Sand Filters

268

8. DISINFECTION

269

8,1 INTRODUCTION

269

8,2 CRITERIA FOR A GOOD DISINFECTANT

269

8.3 MECHANISMS OF DISINFECTION

270

8.4 FACrORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF DISINFECTION

270

8.4,IType, Condition and Concentration of Organisms to be Destroyed

270

8.4,2 Type and Concentration of Disinfectant

271

8.4.3 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Water to be Treated

271

8.4.4 Time of Contact Available for Disinfection'

271

8.4.5 Temperature of the Water

271

8,5
MATHEMATICAL
VARIABLES

RELATIONSHIPS

GOVERNING

DISINFECTION
271

8.5,1 Contact Time

272

8.5,2, Concentration of Disinfectant

272

8.5.3 Temperature Of Water

273

8,6 CHLORINATION

273

8,6,1 Chlorine and its Properties

273

8,6,2, Chlorine-Water-Reactions

274

8,6,2,1 Free Available Chlorine

273

8,6,22 Combined Available Qliorine

274

8.6,2.3 Chlorine Demand

275

8,6,2.4 Estimation Of Chlorine

275

8,6,3 Chlorination Practices

8,6.3,1 Free Residual And Combined Residual Chlorination

277
277

8,6,4 Chlorine Residual

280

8.7 APPLICATION OF CHLORINE

280

8,7,1 Safe Handling Practices

281

8,7,1,1 Storing Shipping Containers

281

8,7,1.2 Emptyping Containers

281

8,7,1.3 Connecting And Disconnecting Containers

282

Chlorinators
8,7.2.1 Types Of Feeders

282

8,7,3 Engineering Control of Hazards

283

(XVl)

8.

1
lll[iLUli

()f Cylinders

Or L(lUtamers

8.7.4

1.': vaporators
.6

8 "7

\{achincs

8.7

Protection

8.

Detectors

8.

Changeover .''''cu.
Considerations

8.7.7

8."1.8

lL.mergencies

8.7.9 Personnel Training

CIILORINE COMPOUNDS
8.9

MKIHODS

8.9.1
8.9.2

Disinf(Lctanis

HLLH;C.',U

8.9.2. j I Jalogens Other Than

Potassium Permanlo'ana Ie

Ions
8.9.2.5 Acids And Bases
8.9.3 Radiation

8.9.3.1

lU,C"'JiCI

RadiatIon

9.1 I

)"iTROL OF ALGAE

9.2
1

9.2.2 ',,,,,o.u,,
9.2.2.1

Growth
trlcnts In \X1ater

9.

9.2.25

laractclisti.es 0 f

ClIU

12

313

3
3

4
I
:>

Removal

To

To

315

'I'D
To
lXl'U'UlUU

Of Colour

By

astc:;

) :>

31S

;\cI1Ivat,ci

9.5.1
F

1.

Sin1,nll' Techniques

31

Communities

9.7

9.

l Cathodic

329
331

354

(xix)

9.6.6.2 Protection By Sacrificial Anode

9.9.6.3 Control Of Internal Corrosioll
10. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

355
356
359

10.1 GENERAL

359

10.2 BASIC REQUIRFJvfENTS

359

10.2.1

359

COllt111UOUS

Versus Intennittcnt System of Supply

10.2.2 System Pattern

359

10.2.3 Zoning

360

10.2A System of Supply

360

10.2.5 Location of Service Reservoirs

360

10.3 GENERAL D.ESIGN GUIDE LINES

360

10.3.1 Peak Factor

360

10.3.2 Fire Demand

361

10.3.3 Residual Pressure

361

10.:'1.4 Minimum Pipe Sizes

361

Hl.3.S Layollt

361

10.3.6 Elevation of Reservoir

361

10.17 Boostlllg

362

10.3.8 Location of.Maills

362

10.3.9 Valves

362

10.4 SEJWICI': RI':SERVOIRS

362

10.4.1 r'unction

362

10.4.2 Capacity

363

10.4.3 Structure

363

10.4.4 Inlets and Outlets

363

10.5 l)l\LANCING RESERVOIRS

364

106 HYDRAULIC NETWORK ANALYSIS

364

10.6.1 Pnnclples

364

10.6.2 Methods of Balancing

365

10.7 DESIGN OF PIPE NEIWORKS

372

10.7.1 Approximate Methods

372

10.7.2 Equiva1.cnt Pipe Method

372

10.7.3 Pipe Network Cost Minimization Problems

373

10.7.3.1 Formulation Of The Objective Function

374

(xx)

10.

1.0.

10.9

,z)nncctlt)llS

IOJO

1
1
"n"'tH

and

VctCCiI:!(Hl

10.
10.1.1 PROfECT.!

lOlL 1. I l"cm".,~1
11.2

10.1 1.:) LJ llusualIJ)'Il(1l![!on

10.12 PROTECTION AGl\INST

11.

PUl~P]NG

ILl REQUI

TS

1 L 1.1 Selection
111.2 ' j ' , .."

....

11.1

Pmups

and Consln
Types Based

11.1.2.2 Pump Types

T

11.1
11.1

Pump TY1)CS Based

111

Pumps

liD

Selection

lUI

the
Pump

111.5

""".Hun.'" of the Suction 1

lU

111.

STA1'IONS

input

397

404
or

40S

.1

408
409

409

.1

416

4 6

.7
g

11.8.1 Periodic inspection and Test

421'

11.8.2 Daily Observations

421

11.8.3 Semi Annual Inspection

421

11.8.4 Annual Inspection

422

11.8.5 Facilities for Maintenance and Repairs

423

11.8.5.1 Consumables And Lubricants

423

11.8.5.2 Replacement Spares

423

11.8.5.3 Replrir Work-Shop

423

11.9 TROUBLE SHOOTING

423

11.10 SELEC110N OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

429

11.10.1 General

429

11.10.2 Selection Criteria

429

11.10.2.1 Constructional Features OfInduction Motors

429

11.10.2.2 Method Of Starting

429

11.10.2.3 Voltage Ratings

429

11.10.2.4 Type Of Enclosures (fable 11.11)

430

11.10.2.5 Class Of Duty

430

11.1 0.2.6 Insulation

431

11.1 0.2.7 Selection Of Motor Rating

431

11.11 STARTERS

431

11.11.1 TYPES

431

11.11.2 STARTERS FOR SQUIRREL CAGE MOTORS

431

11.11.2.1 Selection Of The Tapping Of Auto Transformer Type Starter

432

11.12 PANELS

432

11.12.1 Regulations

432

11.12.2 Various Functions

432

11.12.3 Improvement of Power Factor

433

11.12.3.1 Selection Of Capacitors

433

11.12.3.2 Installation Of Capacitors

433

11.12.3.3 Operation And Maintenance Of Capacitors

437

11.13 CABLES
11.14 TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION

438

1 U 4.1 Essential Feanlres

438

11.14.2 Duplicate transformer may Be provided, where installation so demands

439

(xxii!)

11.15 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF ELECTRlCAL EQUIPMENT

439

11.15.1 Consumables

4;39

11.15.2 Replacement Spares

439

11.15.3 Tools and Test Equipments

439

11.15.4 Preventive maintenance

439

11.15.4.1 Daily

439

11.15.4.2 Monthly

439

11.15.4.3 Quarterly

440

11.15.4.4 Semi-Annual

440

11.15.4.5 Annual

441

11.15.4.6 Bi-Annual

441

11.16 TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

441

11.16.1 Motor gets Overheated

441

11.16.2 Motor gets Over loaded: (drawing more than the rated current at the rated voltllge)
441
11.16.3 Starter/Breaker trips

442

11.16.4 Vibration in Motor

442

11.16.5 Cables Get Over-heated

442

12. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS IN WATER TREATMENT

PLANT
443
12.1 INTRODUCTION

443

12.2 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE

443

12.2.1 Instruments & Control Systems

443

12.3 SYSTEMS AVAILABLE

444

12.3.1 Mechanical

444

12.3.2 Pneumatic

444

12.3.3 Electric

444

12.3.4 Electropneumatic

444

12.3.5 Hydropneumatic

444

12.3.6 Method of Control

445

12.3.6.1 Manual

445

12.3.6.2 Semi Automatic

445

12.3.6.3 Automatic

445

12.4 DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

445

12.5 LEVEL MEASURENIENT

445
(xxiv)

Flow iVlc:aSl1reiillent

1271

12.8
1
1210

12.11

.S

1211
7,

11
114

12..115

12.11.6
12.1

,I'

1.

12,13

3.1

Schedule of
Schedule of lspcctlon of

i(c(:on.ls of

1:1.3.6

of

/\
1
2 .Maintenance

Dams

I
\V

467

1 51

2
.J')

117

.I

3.10 T I : eX

P.\TTJ

476

1
Ii 1

14.1 1

1 1
II.U I

Ism.\!

)11

1 VI

ceo I.

il

481
481

.~G

eX

DUU"

481

14.6 INSERVICE TRAINING

482

14.7 LONGTERM PLANNIING

483

14.8 PUBLIC RELATIONS

484

15. LABORATORY TESTS AND PROCEDURES

485

15.1 GENERAL

485

15.2 TYPES OF EXAMINATIONS

485

15.3 SAMPLING

486

15.3.1 Sampling for Physical and Chemical Analysis

486

15.3.2 Sampling for Bacteriological Analysis

487

15.3.2.1 Sampling Bottles

487

15.3.2.2 Dechlorination

487

15.3.2.3 Sample Collection

487

(a) Sampling from Taps

487

(b) Sampling Direct from a Source

488

15.3.2.4 Size Of The Sample

488

15.3.2.5 Preservation And Storage

489

15.3.3 Sampling for Biological Analysis

489

15.3.4 Frequency of sampling

489

15.4 STANDARD TESTS

490

15.4.1 Physical Examination

490

15.4.2 Chemical Examination

490

15.4.3 Bacteriological E,:xaminatiotl

491

15.4.4 Schedule of Tests

491

15.5METIIODS OF EXAMINATION

491

15.5.1 Reporting of Results

491

15.6 LABORA'TORY EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

492

15.6.1 Recommended Minimum Tests and Equipment

492

15.6.2 Facilities

493

15.6.3 Equipment

493

15.7 RECORDS

493

15.8 LABORATORY PEILSONNEL

494

16. COMPUTER AIDED OPTIMAL DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT

SYSTEM
495
16.1 GENERAL

495

(xxvii)

16.2 DYNAtv1!C PROGRAJ,1.MING

16.2J
163 APPLICATION 'ro WATrm

SYSfEM DESIGN

497

16.4 PERFORMANCE MODELS

497

16.4.1 Rapid MIx Unit

497

16.4.2 Slow lV1iX (Flocculation Unit)

498

16.4. 3 Seduncatation Unit

500

16.4.4 Rapid Sand Filtration

i(,.4.5 Disinfection

503

165 COST .MODELS

503

16.6 PROBLEM l'ORMULATION

503

17. FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS

508
17.1 WATER SUPPLY FINANCING

508

17.1.1 Scope

S08

17.2 CA1'1T;\1.

509

DRE.VEN1JE

509

17.3 SOURCES FOR RJ\JSING CAPITAL

1 /\ uthority Responsible.

510

The Relative Merits .of the Varions Methods

17.4

nULl

511

OF RAHSING REVENUE

511

17.4<1 Water Tax

17.4.2 Water Rates

SUPPLY.MANAGE.MENT
17.5.1 Scope

17.5.2 Tasks
17.6 FINANCIAL APPRAISAL OF \X1ATER

513
'ppl.Y PROJECTS

17.6.1 Introdnction

514

17.6.2 Project Cycle

515

17.6.3 FinanClal Appraisal

17.6.4 Financml. Analysis Statements

17.7 STATUTORY W fUER AND SANIT

BOARDS

17,8 CONCLUSION

18. LEGAL ASPECTS

18.1

GEN.L~",ju,

2fl62 UA&E!97--3A

526
526

18.2 SYSTEM OF ACQUISITION

\V AT,ER USE RIGHTS

526

18,2,1 Riparian Rights System

527
527

18,2,1, I NMural Flow Doctrine

18.2,1.2 Reasonablee

526

Doctrine

528

18,2,1.3 Loss Of Riparian Rights

528

18,2,2 Prior ,\ppropriation Syw,m

18,2,2,1 F.lemcnts Of ,\n :\ppropriation

528

18,2,2,2 Beneficial Uses

529

18.22,3 Quantity Of \Vater

529

18,22.4 Place ()f Usc

529

18,2,2,') Preferences

529

18,2,:U) Changes In ;\ ppropriation

530

530

7 Tramfers Of i\ppropriation

18.2,2,g

IllSS

Of Appropriation

530

18,2,3 System of ;\dministrative Disposition

530

183 SURF\CF, WAfER

53l

18.:>.1 Power of J,egislation Regarding \Vater

531

t-.: atlonal

1g,

\'(',ltel' Pol!C\'

18,:; PRF F

fRO), 01, POll lTION

APPENDICES
A

ABBr~EVIAT!oNS

C{

\FRSl<

AND SYM
537

C UST

ST\NDARD Rr:LI

21

TO \VATER Sl.'PPLY

559

OF FUTURE POPl)]

3,1 CPM

NETW()I~K

DIAGRl\M
MENTATION SCHEME

TYPICAL WATER SUPPLY

564

5, I MASS

FOE' IMPOUNDING STORAGE

:),2 GROUND

RESOUI~C

C~:LLASSrFICATION

5.4 VALUES OF
VALUE OF

'rYPE

541

AND IRRIGATION POTENTIAL

OF SOIL

578
583

E: WELL FUNerlON F(U) FOR VARIOUS

584
586
(xxix)

5.6 YIELD TESTS FOR WELLS

587

5.7 RADIAL COLLECTOR WELL

594

5.8 DISINI"ECTION OF NEW OR RENOVATED WELLS,TUBEWELLS AND

PIPELINES
595

6.1 Hazen-Williams Chart

599

6.2 Mannings Chart

600

6.3 Modified Hazen's William Chart

601

6.4 [IYDROSTXIIC TEST PRE:SSURI':S FOR PIPES

602

6.5 DESIGN FOR ECONOMIC SIZE OF PUMPING MAIN]

604

6.6 DESIGN OF THRUST BLOCKS

609

6.7 DESIGN OF AIR VESSEL

612

7.1 DESIGN OF SPRAY TYPE AERATOR

616

7.2 DESIGN OF MECHANICAL RAPID MIX UNIT

621

7.3 DESIGN OF CLARIFLOCCULATOR

623

7.4 DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR PLAIN SEDIMENTATION TANK

626

7.5 DESIGN FOR RADIAL CIRCULAR SETTLING TANK

630

7.6 DESIGN FOR TUBE SETTLERS

632

7.7 DESIGN FOR RAPID GRAVITY FILTER

634

7.8 PREPAI<ATION OF FILTER SAND FROM STOCK SAND

639

7.9 INFORMATION TO BE INCLUDED IN THE TENDER SPECIFICATIONS

FOR WATER TREATMENT PLANT
640
7.10 COMMON CHEMICALS USED IN WATER

TREATMENT

644

9.1 COMPUIATION OF CHI:MIC\L DOSAGES IN WATER SOFfENING

9.2 TYPE DESIGN OF IRON REMOVAL PLANT

655

9.3 DESIGN OF IRON REMOVAL UNITS

656

9.4 SOLAR RADIATION

661

10.1 CAI,-CULATION OF CAPACITY OF SERVICE RESERVOIR

665

10.2 DETAILS OF BELL MOUTH FOR OUTLET CONNECTIONS IN

SERVICE RESERVOIRS

669

10.3 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM ON HARDY CROSS METHOD OF

BALANCING HEAD LOSSES BY CORRECTING ASSUMED FLOWS
670
11.1

Df<~SIGN

CALCULATIONS FOR A PUMPING PLANT

673
(xxx)

13.1 I<ECOMMENDED MENIUM

STAFF PATTERN SUHAFACE
(UPTO 5 MLD SYSTEM)
13.2 RECOMMENDED MENIUM
STAFF PATTERN SURAFACF
(FOR 5 TO 25 MLD SYSTEM)
TREATMENTS

AND MAINTENANCE
TYPICAL
PATTERN
TREATMENTS
AND MAINTENANCE
TYPICAL STAFF PATTERN
I CONVENTIONAL
684

13.3 I'<ECOMMENDED MENIUM

AND MAINTENANCE
STAFF PATTEf'<N SURAFACE
. TYPICAL STAFF PATTEI<N
(FOR 25 TO 50 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL
TREATMENTS
686

13.4 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPEF<ATION AND MAINTENANCE

s'rAFF PATfERN SURAFACE SOURCE: TYPICAL STAFF fWnERN
(FOF< 50 TO 75 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL
TREATMENTS
688
13.5 F<ECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
STAFf" PATrERN ABOVE 75
1
M
690

13.6 FzECOMMENDED MENIUM

FOl'<
AND MAINTENANCE SOUf<CE: BA'ITERY AND
BOl<EWELLSjTUBEWELLS, OPENWELLS (EACH WELL YI",,,,,,,.,
5000 GPB MAXIMUM)

OPJ:<~F~ATION

1 7 M ENDED MENIUM

p/\'rfr<:R.N FOR

ELL

13.8
14.1
LAKHS

14.2

WATgR WORKS

15.1

700

15.2

v vr''''.J

15.3

FORM FOI<
EXAMINATION

15.4
1.5.5

C.'D1H

TO

FORM FOI'<

FOR

PHYSICAL,

ICAL AND
EXAMINATION

708

BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

SPECIMEN FORM FOf-(

OF WATER

709

1 7 MINIMUM EQUIPMENTS N

I:-j'L,U

FOR PHYSICAL AND

'710

CHEMICAL

ENT
BACTERIOLOGICAL M

TEST

BACI'ERIOLOGlCAL EXAMINATION

711

BE DOl'lE

WORKS

INC.REMENT

LABORTORIES

PER 1000 LITEf-(S

712

713

17,2 N

PRf;;SEN1' WORTH AND ElENEFlT COST RATIO OF TIlE

AT
r;:ATB: 8.5% AND INTERNAL RATE OF
RETURN
714

17.3 ASSUMf-'TIONS

716

FINANCIAL FORECASTS

4 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE STATEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY

AND SEWERAGE/SANITATION PROeJECT
718

725

1 5

17.6

PI~O,JECT SOURCES AND APPLICA'TION

FLAW) STATEMENT

17.7 INTEREST ADDED TO

For~

FOUNDS (CASH
726

DUI~ING

MORATOf-(lUM

730

pgHIOD

17.8 CALCULATION
Cr\

ANNUITY

OF

PROJ
BALANCE
sT
ON 31 MARCH
BIBLIOGRAPHY'

& 1

UITY

731

SUPPLY & SANITATION) AS

732
739

(xxxii)

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
_~

_ _ _ _ _"_ _ _ _ _ _ _- - - i

Water constitutes one of the important physical environments of man and has a direct
bearing on his health. There is no gainsaying that contamination of water leads to health
hazards. Water is precions to man and therefore \VHO refers to "contt'Ol of Water Supplies
to ensure that they are pure and wholesome as one of the primary objectives of
environmental sanitation". Water may be polluted by physical, chemical and bacterial agents.
Therefore, pt'Otected water supply is a sine qua non of public health of a community.
The population of India is likely to be around a thousand million by the end of the
century. The urban population would be around four hundred million by that time. This
means a very large demand on the civic amenities includ1l1g water supply for domestic
purposes and in addition more water would be needed for purposes such as irrigation,
industry, etc., which have to keep pace with the increasing demands of rising population.
Therefore, identification of sources of water supply, their conservation and optimal
utilization is of utmost importance. Even the present scale of water supply to urban and mral
population is grossly inadequate and not all communities arc provided with safe water
supply, let alone piped water system; hardly any metropolitan city has a continuous water
supply; and very few cities could boast of providing adequate water supply to meet their
growing demands at adequate pressure.
Many facets are involved in tackling the problem of providing protected water supply to
all communities at the minimum cost and in the shortest possible time. Emphasis has to be
laid on both the aspects of the system namely, planning and management technical and
financiaL At present a number of decisions, both at policy and technical levels, are being
based on empirical considerations and divergent practices arc in vogue in the country in so
far as designing the system itself is concerned. 'I'hc Manual would have to attempt at the
unification of these practices and help to inculcate rationale to policy and managerial
decisions apart from giving guidance to the public health engineers in achieving the tars>et of
providing safe water to all communities economically and expeditiously.
Obviously, it would be in the interest of public health engineers t.o have a standard
manual in public health engineering and a code of practice which could serve as a guide in
their day to day practice. This Manual would discuss the basic principles such as planning,
identification of source of supply, development and transmission, water treatment,
distribution system, testing and other related administrative aspects and also explain in detail
the proper approach to each problem.
This Revised Manual has taken into account the recent technical advances and trends in
the development of protected water supply systems, some of the major changes and
additions as highlighted in the following areas:
1

 Ground water potential and its development in hard rock regions;

.. Well development, failure of wells and remedial measures;

Ground water abstraction through radial weils;

+
+

Metsurement of flow;
Minimum requirements for domestic, non-domestic, institutional, frre fighting and industrial

,. .Minimum residual pressure and quality standards includirlg virological aspects,

operations;
Chemical handling and feeding;

Recent concepts

coagulation and flocculation;

fIltration;

Operation and maintenance problems in Vll.rious nnit operations involved 1"1 water supply,
from source development to the actual supply;

Pumping stations and equipment;

Hydraulic network analysis, direct design of networks and computer programming;

Ptl:vl:nl::ive maintenance including detection and prevention of wastage;

.. Protection against pollution and freezing;

'" Corrosion and its prevention;
,. Water hammer problems;
.. House service connections;

Optimal design of water treatulent systems;

Instmmcnta110n & controls in water treatment plants;

,. Financing and management;

Legal aspects;

Laboratory tests and procedures with special reference to the c1assif'katioll of the \Vllter
works laboratories.

In keeping with the changeover to the metric system, the various units of measurements,
operarional parameters and design criteria have all been confined to the metric system only,
with deliberate omission of equivalents in the British System generally furnished alongside.
This has been felt necE,ssary, since there is, still an apathy on the part of the field engineer to
break away from the conventional, in which he feels at home, since tradition dies hard.
2

mt'ever. a
of the parameters by conversion to

appended to "",LIll"'"
is accustomed to,

aPl)efldlL:es furmshing use fill mforrnatIOn W::lpUJJ

This Manual
contains a set
pnlcticing engineer is likely to cncounter,
solving day to day problems
'f'k'VTI1'lCe In
Useful rdcrenc{,s
out WhM:h
problems
sep,arate appendix,
for 11:':7,en Wrlharns
Bureau of
are frequently used, arc pn;sentc,d
system in separate al?IJtmdices,
A companion Manual on S''''VPr:LO,P
SC'w:lt!C Treatment
ers!\vhile Union
of IX!",,,,,"
iOflSII:,p;=cntral Public
Engineering
recommendations
Pollution) Act, 1
totlo'Ji'txl wherever applicable.

U""j,T,

PLANNING

is to supply
and
water
as possible.
planning
be
or fot the state or region or community.
orglmizatiO!lS
of planning of water supply
have to function within the
taking into consideration) the areas to
CCllm'0l11iclti way of doing it, keepmg in vIew the
Q",niv

111

V<U'Ut"

,,!cn"1n

formulated
\'ari005 state authorities and local bodies at
essential
and when projects atc aSliCiiSC(l
for
for institutlOnaI or
funding, they arc not amenable
Also,
guidelines and notms arc adopted by the
as:;urnr,t!(ll1S reg,uding per capita water supply, """1',"
rneasurC1nent
water trcatn1(:nt,
etc Therefore, there is a
to
appropriate standards, planmng, and
(jeSl~!:n cnteria to
empirical approach,

2.2 BASIC LJ1j2,'JIL'vl'< CONSIDERATIONS

Erlg111Ct:rll'lg dCClSlC>ns arc

to

area and population to

capita rate of water supply,
water needs in the area,
nature
and location of
to be provided, the
of centralized or multiple points
treatment facilities and point, of water supply mtakc and waste water disposal, pf())ccts
to be identified
prepared in adequate
in order to enable timely
implementation. Optimization may call for planning for a number of phases rdating to plant
capacity and the degree of treatment to be provided
determining the capacities for Sf!':e1'al
units, working out capital cost required, interest
period of repayment of loan, water
tax and water rate. Uncertainties in such
arc many, such as the diftlculties in
anticipating new technolo!,')' and changes in
investment pattern, the latter being
characterized by increasing financing costs,

2.2.1 WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY

'1'hc waters to be handled may
treatment required, seasonally, monthly, daily

cn,rineer may use his ingenuity to mitigate

quality and in the degree

SOlmetm1cs even hourly, The public

vanatiom in quantity by

of <tn,rele,,'
4

upon uurmg
the introduction of slIitable

which
provIsion

1n
~nv, ,,'0

111

can
mat mg(Xl by
the water treatment

2.2.1.1 Water Conservation

](15111.11 demand for watcr in
and i'fldustrJlal .1nm"I~~H" '1: and
on
water resources 1S
chemically ''''''',n''n

)ul"ll0n tncrcase, comlnc10al

imnrrWPrrlC'fi

\l/,lter
\vaste\:vatcrs~

treatment nr,occs"cs
integrated o~,~nv,
\1\/" '""

conSf:rvatlofl

use of aVlutablc \vater resources;

prevention and control of ,w",""",'

2.2.1.2 Increasing The Water Availability

Management

Supply&

'rhe measures fe'.lulleu to increase the water avail,"biJitj

of water
<"'mlCi' ~",+u" stlWtge is usually
resources
storing rainwater on
(Jf
lakes or artiflcially cn:atcld depresslc)t1s,
contemplated either in
ponds. reservOIrs
ponds,
reserV01rs or
water rs effected by
\vater In
constructing subsurface dykes, artificial rC1:it:lrr:c
rocky areas, several techniques have
Bore Blast Tcch!1lc]ues, Fractnrc
C:emc:nt,ltiC)!1 etc
to Improve porosity, storage volume as well as intp,n',mH'('lnn/1!
fractures/ fissures
and other types of pores. ArtifiCial re(:narge
\vater tnay
tell1cdated ltl some
areas.
the supply by
105'Ic5 and
\Vater supply management aims at
wastage and unaccounted for \V<itcr (UF\\') in
transmission mams
distribution system
(Reference rnay also be made to sectionlO,
The unaccounted
constitutes a
significantly bigber fmction of total water
m poorly
water transmission
and distribution systems. Measures like
control and prevention of leakage,
metering of water supply, installation of properly designed waste .. not,taps and prompt action
to repair and maintain distribution system components should be adopted,
Water demand management involves measures which aim at
water demand hI'
optimal utilization of water supplies for all esscntial and deSirable
It focuses on
identification of all practices and uses of water 111 excess of functional rcqmrcment.
of
plumbing fixtures, sucb as low volume and dnal flusbing cisterns 111 place of conventional
12.5 litre capacity cisterns which conserve water may
encouraged. Practices like reuse and
recycling 0 f treated wastewater may be promoted for which references may be made to

ctJal:)ter 19

ate
account in planmng

au.l u,[n,atlun

to

2.2.4
UY'ISltelcra.!ellC

attention

SC!VlCC

bJ.utdmg

rC'I'um;u at

climates ol;,er.1tll1g stmctures

over a

ttl1riv~

are involved

tle,o(ls, ICC,

followmg deslgh

jJ"Mgn

period

ill

15
15

trealment units

connectIOn to

,Jl

due
area in

"7

Demographic Method o/Population IJrllfe!;tilJ'"

gain) (ii) by
ways (i) by births
Population change can occur only in
(population loss or
depending on whether
deaths (population loss) or (iii)
be considered
movement out or movement m occurs 111 eXCeiS). Annexation of an area
as it special form of migration. Population
are frequently obtained
preparing and
summing up of
related Of'O",ctl,orIS
natural increases
net migration and
is expressed as below.
on population is termed natural mcrcase

The net effect of bIrths and

decrease, if deaths exceed births).

Migration also
the number of
net tmgmtlon are prcparcld before projections
This method thus

deaths in an area and so, projl:lctiol1S of

natural increase.

into account the prevailing and anticipated birth rates and death
for the period under consideration. ;\n estimate is also made of
immigration to the
gn)\vth of
area wise, and the 'net:
all
by arithmetical

increase:

11!crea15e Method
'Ihis method is

applicable to

and old cities. 111 this method the average

metease
population per decade is calculated
the past
and added to the
ntcst:nt population to find out population in
next decade. This "" w:", gives a low value

wdlsctded and

c) Incremental II/crease Method

In this tnethod
increment in
increase is determined from the past decades
and
of that increment IS added to the
Itlcreasc. This method incf(;ascs
the
obtained by the arithmctiml increase method.

d) Geometrical

,",'1'''11.<1'

Method

In this method
the percentage increases is used to
much higher
mostly

IS

"'111'11'11 to be
tate of growth and the average of
out future increment in population, Ihis method
for t,'1:owing 10w113 and cities having vast

for

e) Decreasing

Growth Mietli'od

I n this method it is a"mInt:u that rate

percentage increase decreases and the average
decrease in
growth IS
Then the percentage increase is modified by
deducting the dccrtt;'"" in rate of
method is applicable
in such cases where
the rate
population
a downward trend.

j) Graphiml Met.lle,a
In
and in

arc

one, only the city m question is considered

into account.

(i) Graphical Method

On ;,mgu,

I n this method the population curve

the city (Le. the Population vs. Past uC~''''''') IS
smoothly extclnded
future value.
extension has to be
it
reqll1n:s vast expenence and
judgement. The line of best fit may
method of
squares.

Similar Growth Pattern

(ii) Graphical Method Based On Cities

]n this method the city in question is com!:l<ued with other

which
undergone
same phases of development
the Ctty in question is likely to ~"~"'h"
and based on thIS comparison, a graph
population and lle'CaileS IS pl()ttI8ei.
g)

Logistic Method

[he
from

shaped logistic curve

to saturation limit of popuJac!on

complete trend
tht: city.

,,,,,,,veh of the city

"

h) A1ethod of nl~nsity
sector of a city is

approach, trend nte of Lle]:t!!ll}

out
population
1S
/\ckl1tlOn of sector~wisc population gives

2.2.7.2 Final Forecast

While
!()f{!cast of the pn)Sj)C(lt1\'e V','FWdUUU
a projected area at any gIVen time
during the period () f design can be cle"lvc,d
onc of
foregoing methods appropriate
to
case, tbe density and distribution
population within the several areas, zones
or
will again have to be
with a discerning judgement on the relative
probabilitres
within
zone or district. according to 1ts nature
onrm'''' and
on
COI!ltcn11Jlateej town planning reb'lliations,
population
other appropriate authorities ate
should take mtn account tbeir
,";ornc
tnethods arc

2.2.8 PER

master plans prepared by town planning or

decision regarding the dcsi b'11 population
\!,,~t",,,l out examples for
of tbe future
m
2.1.

SUPPLY

water supplies for commut1!tics

',II\')UI'U

provide adequately for the following as

DomestIC needs such as

cooking, bathing, washing, Hushing of
toilets, gardening and individual air conditioning

Q)

Institutional needs

(c)

Public purp'DS'" such as street """llng or street watering, flushing

public parks

Cd)

Industria] and commercial uses including central air conditioning

(e)

Fire hglltI!1ig

(f)

ReallJtiln,ent for livestock;

2.1)

permissible

(g)
hHitOl:'S

,flIJ:te<:lling

Consu,mption

a/City
consumption.

S1ZC, ffi()tC

Characteristics ofPopulatioll and Statldt71'dLiIJing

residential area of
or in 11 suburban CO!nl11Ltmty
In
consumption is high.
areas
large
have low pcr capita consumption. A person
staying in an independent DUllgiillUW consumes more water compared to a person staying in a
flat Habit
affects
type of bath i.e. tub bath Of otherwise and
caJlIm consumptIOn.
number

different
retail

consumpnon. Commercial
houses and 0 [fiee buildinb'S'

d) Climatic COtldlitic'?I
[n hot weather, the Cn!1S11m.ntt.on

1$

compared to that during cold weather.

Metering
of water
water charges arc on
rate basis.
':''.0.':>

is less compared to

when the

Recommendations

EnvimnmentalHygiene nt""',,elp[, Stllsf2.c:stc,d rerlain optimum service levels for

on populat'lon ,m.'UDS.
of Basic
Water
as the National Building
a
resldence:s nrcn.,(I((\ with full Hushing
excreta
Though
on
Treatmc,nt
rCl,nrnnWflds a
150 lpcd Wrtet,i,V/,r ,,;wenlge is existing/contemplated, with a view
to conserve
a ml!1lrnnf!1
1
recommended.
It

well

that

other
water requirements for domestic
pUI,mc water
Other needs for water
tnduding industries etc,
SU1)plemlenlcd from other
depending upon
aV:lll~lbjlltv
and the: proximity of water
sources ml'V1Tl!' "'JC'"IU;UC uuanl!',tr""
which can
economically uttillse<.!
IS

e,Sientta! beneficial uses should he met

full

access to

IN""""; drinking water in 'lU;;UlIJlHCO tl:C(irnmtimJled to meet

Iollmv1!ilg n~cc)mm(;mhtl()j1S are made:

10

2..1

purpCISCS arc.
HI.lL.I' 2.1

LEVELS FOR m;:SI(;Nl

Classification

51.

Supply
70

water SU1)P]:Y

1.

rm:Wlcil'(i with piped water sU17ply

2.

Le:n:."

IS

3.

Note:
water is

through Dllhhr standposts,

should
to 1

() f water
commerCIal,
supply to sLlch cst" I)h ,hm,:n
' ' ' ' ,,r

Institutional Needs

11'1

SI,No.

Justification.

9.

10.

Junction Stations and intermediate

where mail or express '1""'0' (b:)tl~
,:1.
I ' and bus s'Minr,,)is
Terminal stations
Intermediate stations (excluding tlI,,;: 'nd
express stops)

1.),

Day schools / colleges

Offices
Factories

14.

Cinema, concert halls and theatre

........ 11.

........ 12

70

45
45
(could be reduced to 25 w hptp
bathing facilities are not
I:d)
45

45

...

c)

Litres per head per day

Institutions

SI.No.

45
(could be reduced to 30 where
no bathrooms are
.: .1,1\
15

Fghting Demand
I t is usual to provide for fire fighting

as a coincident draft on the distribution

system along with the normal supply to the consumers as assumed, A provision
in blohttcs
day based on the formula of 100';-1> where, p = population in. thousands
may
adopted for communities larger than 50,000. It is desirable that one third of
fire
requirements form part of the
storage. The balance requirement may
at
may be
distributed in
high
should
water supply dl1;t:t1bvltK)U
as indicated In
d)

include

each
ca,'l'hlllv

attract such

\\"atcr

conu:nunity. As

(:;111

im;cstiglltcd, so
to the
quantities
\vater
as cost and
waste
pr'")Clcss'es involved. individual STU.em" of
made for each location, the
conkxt of reme
water in sr"Jer"1
lellUc;eu considerably.

Industry

200-250
1

814
e) Pressure ReaUiireJ~lei'Lts

Piped water
should
on contlm.IOllS
basis to distribute water
to consumers at
pressure at all points. Intermittent supplies arc neither desirable
from the public
point of view nor
towns wherc
buildings are common and for supply to
ground level storage tanks in multistoreyed
buildings,
residual
at
should
7m for direct supply.
Where
buildings are common, it may be 12m and where three-storeyed
buildings are
1 m or as stipulated by
byelaws. The pressure required for
boosted by the fire en);;tnl2S
fighting

22.9 QVAUn: STANDARDS

Wnrl" ]\,1alJa.(en1Cllt is to ensure that
warer supplied
from pathogenic organisms, clear, palatable and
from undesmlble t<lste and
reasonable
corrOSlve nor
forming and

1S

of

could
public water supply is
yardstick ,vithin

qUiall!:V form

are
potential problems.
with a wate,r supply
Moreover
afJnr;aisal
which
method
pinpointing possible problems
and rn,,, 'r.~"
Important
epidemics
errors

,vnlrl>

water

are
out at
the kno\V'ic(ilyc ne,:cSS>1t,v to dct.ect
lHUc<,ucUI. m of good quality water is eHoc,lce"

problems

public water supplies has to take

seveml regions of the country,
)1nmc;ncied that the objective of a public
water
to supply watet
from risks of transmitting
,"",cC""', is pleasing to
senses and is
culinal), and laundel~ng purposes" and
added that "freedom from risks is
more; important than physical appearance or
that
15 an o\:,hg,at()ry sta,nch:wd and physical and chemical qualities are
,vllhin a
ale
m the development of a coun"
pt()jcctc:l1 water
SV':ll',rr" for c01nmunitirs big and small, making
Hi'rcr,j regions, with a wide variation in their
,"'UI:,")'" water resources in
aesthetic cjualities,
communities in due course
of their
resources,
is for minimum standards,
consistent
of public water SUI)pl!es Considering the standards
1!1
and hlrthcr l1e';et()pn1Cn
and the
The

country,

the following gUIG!,:ar1CS arc

Cn,e:m:ical Quality
1(:01nn1(,11(\(.:<1 gU!(.lelmciS

Vt'llltrmJ(

quality of
presented in

tinnk'll1

rC"Or11l1ne:tldcd,

Water
water should

with

III actlordar

2.2
GUInEUNES

Jt

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAJ\1ETERS

./

/'

7. () to

-'
6.
'~"

1.0

15

14

content can
sulphates at
rate
1

Jell"'''''.l to a maximum of
2.5
of

sulphates

13.
14.
15
16.
17.

(as Fe) (mg/I)

(as Mn)
Copper
Cu) (mg/l)
Alumimum (as /\1) (mg/l)
(mg/l)

18.
19

Residual

(as 7u) (mg/I)

Phenolic compounds (as
(mg/l)
Anionic delel'lI)!''' (mg/I)

M131\S)
Mineral ()il (mg/l)

/\s) (mg/I)
Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/I)
(:hromium
hexavalent

11.01

0.01

0.05

(mg/l)
Cyanides
(as Pb)
Selenium (as
(mg/l)
(total as
Polynudear tlrornatic

15
(1(11
(lO(J1

O. 2

O. 2

t,o,lieS (total,

to
''ll.alcl!ncs for
lHllnliP water

Vol L
199',

umllll.!

RADIO

the
Witter is "CrlCGlllv acc:ent<lhlf to
those

0.1

0.1

In

1.0
arc

which

conStUnCfS.

water nut
15

acceptable, but still may be loler-;,t/',

column
source but upto the limits mdicated
which the sources will
to be rejcc!c!l,
sc)tne 1TI1t1C
cases It IS nc:ceSS;lrv
)th(;r"lisc for
acceptability

PUDllC

'-iu.au,) ale

in Table

TABLE 23

DHINKlNG WATER'

BACTERIOLOGICAL

"'''flUII''

for <lflnKmg
not

not
f\~\lst

)::coli or

Hi

lOOml

not

del:ecl:abJle

!t1

any 100ml

not

detct:table

in

any

100~ml

in

any

100~ml

supplies,

not he pn'scnt m
throughout

Source: \'\ I ! () guidelines

VoU

~5%

of

any

12

1~93.

Jmmcdiatc .
action must
either
or total cohfoml bacteria
are
'rhe minimum action in the case of total colit(:mn
IS repeat sampling; if
these bactena arc detected in the repeat sample,
cause mllst be determined by immediate
further invcstigat10n,
h
Although
15 the more
indicator of faecal pollution, the COllnt of
thermotolerant colii()nn bacteria is an acceptable alternative, If necessary, proper
confinnatory test must
earned out "I'otal colifmm bactena are not acceptable indicators
of the sanitary quality
rural water supplies, particularly in tropical areas where many
bacteria of no
significance occlIr in ahnost all untreated supplies.

16

It is recognized that, in the great majority of rural water supplies in developing

countries, faecal contamination is widespread, Under these conditions, the national
surveillance agency should set medium term targets for progressive improvement of water
supplies, as recommended in volume 3 of WJT (), ,g?llaeiineJfor drinki'~~-Jvater quality I 993,
c) Virological Quality

Drinking water must essentially be free of human enteroviruscs to ensure negligible risk
of transmitting viral infection. Any drinking-water supply subject to LlCeal contamination
presents a risk of a viral disease to consumers.
approacbes can be used to ensure that
the risk of viral infection is kept to a mmimllm: providing drinking water from a source
verified free of faecal contamination, or adequately treating faecally contammated water to
reduce enteroviruscs to a negligible level,
Virological studies have shown that drinking water treatment can considerably reduce the
levels of viruses but may not eliminate them completely from very large volumes of water.
VirologlCal, epidemiolOgical, and
arc providing important mformation, although
del~ving quantitative
direct virological criteria, Such criteria can
it is still insufficient
not be recommended for routine use because of the cmt, complexity, and lengthy nature of
virological analysis, and the fact that they can not detect the most relevant viruses.
The t,'tlidcline criteria shown in 'Table 2,4 arc based upon the likely viral contcnt of source
waters and the degree of treatment necessary to ensure that even very large volumes of
drinking watt:r have negligible risk of containing viruses.
C3round water obtamed ffOm a protected source and documented to be frcc {rom faecal
contamination from its zone of influence, the well, pumps, and delivery system can be
assumed to be virus-free. However, when such water is distl~buted, it is desirable that it is
disinfected, and that a residual level of disinfectant IS maintained in the distribution system
to guard against contamination,
TABLE 2,4
RECOMMENDED TREATMENT FOR DIFFERENT WATER SOURCES TO PRODUCE
WATER WITH NEGLIGIBLE VIRUS RISK"

Type of Source
Ground water
Protected, deep wells; essentiaHv
free of faecal contam111at10n
'
Unprotected, shanow wells; faecally
contaminated

Recommended TH:atment

Disinfection"
Filtration and disrnfection

Surface water
Protected, impounded upland water;
essentially free
faecal
contammation
Unprotected impounded water or
upland river;. faecal contamination

Disinfection
Filtration and disirJection

17

of SourCt~

Recommended Treatment
disin fec1:lOn
heavy

f'n.;~dllS1nt<:ctl0n or """d.~,C,
add.lllol1al treatment
rl1,(mle(:t1,)tl

recommended for

U'H"'dllf',

water supply
netolT tern1.1nal (.1i51n fection tnust not
must not Cl(:eee! 5
m
sample.
rnose produce a

mmutcs of contact

5
in

water at pil

8.0, or must

entcnrYifUS

or rapid filtration (sand,

LCUULllU'H

bltratlon or
demonstrated to be
can also be
The degtttc 0 hims r('r.m'CHell! must be

shOWfJ to

an

9999"'i.l).
or mixed
or floatation).
vIrus
with

ina}'
cntCt'()VlrUS

if

.1993.

18

PROJF:crr

arc:

..

ofa

of

"
+

sanction
(

I)f facilitieS

to be exammcd.
rco'ort: (i!) pre lCaSll)tl1ty
preparation of
takmg investment dec!s;tons
llnplementatio!l phase of
include detailed
adopted.
is cJuite
normally
through three
taken whether to proceed to the next pli11l1llf!)J;
and financial resources for the next stage.

actlvltlC:; can

!f standard
and time

end of

arc not
out during
conventent to
dr;1W11"'S can

should
should be

tanc table and cost estimate for

next stage
schedule
for all future
project developrncnt,
mto constderation time required for
review and approval of the report, providing fundmg for the next
mobilising personnd
or lixing agency (for the next stage of project pn:paratlOn), data
surveys,
site investigations etc.
19

The basic desIgn of a project is influenced by the authorities/orgamzations who arc

involved in approving, implementing and operating and mamtaining the project. Therefore,
the institutional arrangements through
project will be brought into operation, must
be: considered at the project preparation
responsibility
project preparation
change at various stages,
should
of project prc1)aration, Sometimes more
may
a project
vanous st;U1l':S
It} be responslble
overall
prcparatlPn, I t is desIrable

REPORT
l dcntificatioll "",,,,,t is basically ;(
existing infrHlnat10tL It can

carried out tdymg primarily on

who are
is essentially meant
which would meet the

the project area and

project
cstablisll1ng
f(lf a project, in,Jicating
tcqum:mcnts, It
an idea of
facilitate bringmg
project in the
obtaining sanctlOn to incur expenditure
preparation, The report should be brief and'
I denti ficatJon

a
to
(Jut a case
project

project: arca

Commercial, industn'll, ed.ucatiottal,

in and around the project arca
defence or
of national'

and religious
out special

""lsn,rw population, Its physical dj.ql'ih"il

Present water supply arrangements

out dcficlCl1cies, if any, 111 quality, ,m',1n"IH'

and SOcIo cconotnic ana1ysis

serVice tn

\Vatcr rcql11rements during planning PCtlC)lI

nrni,"'!

area, pointing

delivery system

Population projection for

,,1(ml"">O f,etiol.l, according to
use plans, or master plans, if
,.

and
or establishment like

im,nr,rt:"1f'f'

d()n~estic,

{"Y"tinn

and fnture land

mdustr;al, commercial and

any other uses

..

Establish the need for

a
in the light of CXlstlllg and future
deficiencies III water supply serVices, p01tlting oul: adverse Impacts
non,implementation of the project, on a time scale

Bring out, how the project would tit in with the national/ regional/ sectoral strategies
and with the general overall development in
prc'Iect area

t of water supply services in the

Identify a strategic plan for long term
project area, in the context
rc,:,'ional development plans, water resources
studics and such other reports, indicating phases of development

20

.,

the objective:; of
term project under consideration, in tcnmi of
population to be serveu, other consumern, if any, service standard to be provlded,
the impact of the project
clearly indicate the design period
aitc:r:mlllv,cs if

facjltties and

, both

of
supporting act:ivities,
out

mst1t:utiom
operation and maintenance
Parishad,
Body,
Suppiiy

DOal:U')

prcparmg the project

Indicate organrsation responsible
report,
cost estImates
prcpanng
preparat1Clll of project [enlx!s

strength '~'l'W'~"
particular/peculiar difficulties
encountered for implementing

'rhe l{ecomlnend actionsbeto enclosed

(a)

b'llrc;cn

Zilla

of the

table for
out
project might be
..

annUil!

sources of funds

pn:J1CCt,

and the earliest

1!nplc:!11<ent:atton of the

indicate if

or other nature afC likely to be

how these could be resolved

to nnlel'C'!

An index plan to a scale of 1 cm 2

showing the
proposed worh, location of community / township or

(b) A schematic diagram showing the salient

pnljc<:t

area, existing works,

to
served,

of project components,

3.3 PRE-FEASIBIUTY REPORT

After clearance is received, on the basis
identification report from the concerned
authority and/or owner of the project, and commitments are made to finance further studies,
the work of preparation of prc,fcasibility report should be undertaken by an appropriate
agency, which may be a central planning and dcsit,'11ing cell of a Water Supply Department!
Board, Local
Body, or profeSSIOnal
consultants working m the water
supply-sanitation-environmental areas. In the latter case, terms of references for the study
and its scope should be carefully set out Prc,feasibility study may be a separate and discrete
stage of project preparation or it may be the first stage of a comprehensive feasibility study.
In either case it is necessary that it proceeds with taking up ora feasibility study because the
pre-feasibility study is essentially carried out for screening and ranking of all project
altcmatives,and to select an appropriate, alternative for carrying out detailed feasibility studr
The pre-feasibility study helps in selecting a shotHcml project which will fit in the long term
21

stra'tegy for imrlrO\'ltl

the project area,

context

S(.TV1CCS in

structure

"""u"uny terxrrt can

water

bU1Jjl'}'

annexes,

EXt'CU1:ive Smnm"n' at the

s h'at',,"v

the

be!~m'1ing

111

!e11m L

(a) Project Gellesis

terrn sector
devc'in,nn1f'11i etc

(b) How Was Tile Study

..
..

(c)

0'ii~alliised

responsible
prepal'mg the

'Ult:nUt"

carrv'm,r out

And Status Of
How

pre-feasibility repon

In

process

limitation,

22

'''f)l11''

if

mtlcmled to

Project
nnHcc:L

n?n"erf

It should cover.

'(JtEH)U)

area with rclen:nc:c

culture, rCllgllCll
deSlPl1. imf)lcnlCnl at1cl11 and op,:ration

In

aSI.lccts of

m,Jlcattng the source

WIU.II"

elc

or

growth rates and causes

different meltH)(.]'
population '~"mljh ,,,,nil,

rates

Dt::)j(lC(

1110St

area, with those

entIre

to

rates
parts
IwenlT

years
area

on

of
lncorne

or other'

S()C10""CC()11 (HI'll C

SOClo-cconOHllC

Show

on

23

Provide data on education, literacy

unemploY1Ylent by

sex

,.

Provide data and make projection on housing st2111clards,

occupancy m various parts of the project area

,.

Describe public health status within the project area, with

diseases related to water and sanitary conditions; provide data on
infant mortality
and life eXl)Cctatlcy

Discuss the status of health care

in the area, as
as
which have bearing on improvements in environmental sanitation,

(d) Sector Institutiolls

,.

Identify the '

(Government, Semi-Government, Non-Gmernm(Cnt) which
are involved m
of the stages
water supply and sanitation project d,'ve!o,)nlerlT
it!
(planning, preparing projects, financing, llnplcmentation,
and
and evaluation),
COl'nment on

or others)

(I'11I5
(e)

lM,yh""

Resources
ground water

reSOUfces~ actual

Indicate "UIUlI,' carried out or

sources, and
findings
Men!lOn
patterns
domestic etc.), comment on supply
usc of
at present

usc by all sectors (irng:atlIOfl, industrial cnc.!'jgy,

SUq.JIU' or
conflicts over
and

Comment in pollution
\vater resources.

() f agc;nclcs I
allocattliln and quality

)es;ctllbe each of the

dctari.s as uno!ex
WIHCll.

lHltll<'14'"lS \\!:{1ter resources,

"(H'It/I,1

sv:;tems rn

m'OiC',-t area, indicating the

quantity
111 vanous scasons 1 c()mnO'1lCin
W(,rKS. transrrl1ss10n 1n:ains, putnping St2Itl()1li;,
reliability of
seasons

Pnv"ite water supply "f'1'V"~""

ventlor's

etc
of the following

to water supply

Number

.,

bores, water

Urlpt'otcCl:ed sources

soun::es

rivers, lakes, ponds, etc

rain water st()fa,,,,: Janks

Piped

water

Number of

one.
rnore
bathing,

Con1fncnJ on
n1easures to fl",,,lvp

2,OUfCC,

hours

supply, waiting

note.

sources\ and
reasons for their

<::1'<:,

exibting svstctns Ilnd possib1c

expected improvement
p(I"""latio'?/ served

not

pnl)pose(! project
!)f()vlCilnlt a single service i,e, wah;~r supplv and
details of the
eX'tSllng :anitation arl'angcrncnts Sfi()U1U be d:ISCf',h:"d
waste disposal w:;reins m
project arca, and the
of people
on
system on drinking water quality
l,:tlV'jrOnrnerlt,

UlS'LUSSlOn

should be

"tmm water (lratfla/,;e and solid waste collection and

terms
their impact on water supply and

(i)

cannot satisfy the existing and

to p[)'pl.!lat;
to be
and the desired serVice
u('!mI!1lIS like com!tTl(;rclal
Describe the consecjucnces of not
(which
3Ui?:ITlt;t:la't!O!1 of
existing system
a new system), Utc)le"HC
to Improvement of existing system,
supply
usc, industrial and
use; assc;\s:rncnt
ucatlon 111 hV!>I('n!'! and comments
on uf14crtcy of "",,,'!'t prellal'aUO!)

25

(a)
term

long terrn
development
to 3()
it

costs,

neartenn can

seguenccs, a priority
It lS this project

(b)

serViCe

mlls for

conSUfllCl."S

to

1louse

would
[t

must

noted

scrV!Cf'

scrvtcc

through dialogue

arc
CClrf,h

J1

analys1s

'\i3t10US serVice

mnil 'ct area.

of \\latcr can

SCf'\/iCC

,vater
to

art'

to
serVices.

26

(e)

It must be noted that availability of funds is one of the prime factors which will
ultimately decide the scope and scalc of a feasible project.

if) Selection of a Strategic Plan

Each of the alternative development sequences, which can overcome the existmg
deficiencies and meet the present and future needs, consists of a series of improvements and
expansions to be implemented over the planned period. Since all needs cannot be satisfied in
Immediate future, it is necessary to carefully determine priorities of target groups for
improvement in services and stages of developrnent and thus restrict the number of
~kernatives.

(g) Planning For System Requirement Includes Consideration Of The Following

(h)

.,

Possibilities of rehabilitating and/or debottlenecking the existing systems

Reduction in water losses which can be justified economically, by deferring

development of new sources

Alternative water sources, surface and ground water with particular emphasis on
maximising the use of all existing water sources

..

Alternative transmission and treatment systems and pumping schemes

Distribution system including pumping station and balancing reservoirs

Providing alternative service standards in future, including upgrading of existing

facilities and system expansion

Need Assessment For Supporting Activities

rt may also be necessary to ascertain if supporting activities like health education, staff
training and institutional improvements etc. are necessary to be included as essential
components of the project. All the physical and supporting input need to be carefully costed
(capital and operating) after preparing preliminary designs of all facilities identified for each
of the alternative development sequences. These alternatives may then be evaluated for least
cost solution by net present value method; which involves
..

Expressing all costs (capital and operating) for each year in economic terms;

Discounting future costs to present value;

..

Selecting the seguence with the lowest present value.

(i) Costings And Their Expressions

As stated above, costs are 'to be expressed in economic terms and not in terms of their
financial costs. This is because the various alternatives should reflect resource cost to the
economy as a whole at different future dates. Costing of the selected project may however,
be done in terms of financial costs, duly considering inflation during project implementation.

27
2962 UA&E!97--5A

Proposed Water Supply Project

(a) Details Of The Project
The project to be selected are those components 0 f dle least cost alternative of
development sequence, which can be implemented during the next 3-4 years. Components of
the selected project may be as follows:

Rehabilitation and de-bottlenecking of the existing facilities

Construction of new facilities for improvement and expansion of existing systems

Support activities like training, consumer education, public motivation etc.

Equipment and other measures necessary for operation and maintenance of the
eXIsting and expanded systems

Consultancy services needed (if any)

conducting feasibility study, detailed
engineering, C01l5truction supervision, socio-cconomic studies, studies for reducing
watet losses, tariff-studies, studies fOf improving accounts support activities

(0) Support Documents Required

All project components should be thoroughly described, duly supported by docUl'l'cnts
such as:

Location maps

Technical mfonnation fOf each physical component, and economic analysis where
neceSSa1.'\l,

Preliminaty en&>1neering designs and drawings in respect of each physical

component, such as head works, transmission mains, pumping stations, treatment
plants, balancing f<:servoirs, distribution lines

(c) Implementation Schedule

A realistic implementation schedule should be presented, taking into consideration time
required fOf aU further steps to be taken, such as conducting feasibility study, appraisal of the
proj1:ct, sanction to the project, fund mobilisation, implementation, trial runs and
commissioning. In preparing this schedule, due consideration should be given to all
authorities / groups whose inputs and decisions can affect the project and its timing
(ti) Cost Estimates

Cost estimates of each component of the project should be prepared and annual
requirement of funds for each year should be worked out, taking into consideration the likely
allowance shonld be made for physical
annual progress of each component.
contingencies and annual inflation. This exercise will result in arriving at total funds required
annuaUy for implementation of the project.

(e) Em1ironment And Social Impact

'The pre-feasibility report should bring out any major environment and social impact the
project is likely to cause and if these aspects will affect its feasibility.

28

(j) Institutiotlal Resl,onsibilities

The prt:~feasibility report should identify the va!~ous organisations/ departments I
agencies who would be responsibl.e for further planning and project prt'paration, approval,
sanction, funding, implementation and operation and maintenance of the project and
indicate also the strength of personf1ei needed to implement and later operate and maintain
the project. It should also discuss special problems likely to be encountered during operation
and maintenance, in respect of availability of skilled and technical staff, funds, transport,
chemicals, communication, power;
parts etc. Quantitative estimates of all these
resources should be made and included in the
report.

(g) Fillallcial Aspects

'rhe capital cost of a project is a sum of all expenditure required to be incurred to
complete design and detailed enginct:ring of the project, construction of all its components
including SUppott activities and conductin!! ~pccial studies. After estimating component~wise
costs, they may also be worked out on annual basis, throughout the implementation period,
taking into consideration construction schedule and allowances for physical contingencies
and inflation. Basic item costs to be
should be of the current year. Annual cost
should be suitably increased to cover escalation cosU during the construction period. Total
of such escalated annual costs determines the final cost estimate of the project. Financing
plan for the project should then be prepared, identifying all the sources from which funds
can be obtained, and likely annual contribution from each source, until the project is
completed. The possible sources of funds 1I1dudc:

Cash reserves available with the project authority

..

Cash generated by the project ~\lH1(Jrity from sale of water from the existing facilities

..

C;rant~in-aid

..

Loans from government

..

Loans from financing institutions like

etc.

..

Open market borrowmgs

..

Loans/grants from bilateral/international Ilgencies

Capital contribution from voluntary organisations or from consumers

from gnvernment

Insurance Corporation, Banks, HUDCO

(h) If the lending authority agrees, interest payable during implementation period can be
capitalised and loan amount increased accordingly.

(i)

The next step 1S to prepare recurrent annual costs of the project for the next few
years (say 10 years) covering operating and maintenance expenditure of the entire
system (existing and proposed). This would include expenditure on staff, chemicals,
energy, spare parts and other materials for system operation, transp01tation, up-keep
of the systems and administration.

29

The annual financial burden imposed by a project comprises the annual recurring cost
and payment towards loan and interest (debt servicing). This has to be met from the
operational revenue, which can be realised from sale of water. The present and future tariff
for sale of water should be identified and a statement showing annual revenue for ten years
period, beginning with the year when the project will be operational, should be prepared. if
this statement indicates that the project authority can generate enough revenue to meet all
the operational expenditure as well as repayment of loan and interest, the lending institution
can be persuaded to sanction loans for the project.

G)

Every State Government and the Government of India have prol,'fammes for
financing water supply scheme in the urban and rural areas, and definite allocations
are normally made for the national plan periods. It will be necessary at this stage to
ascertain if and how much finance can be made available for the project under
consideration, and to estimate annual availability of funds for the project till its
completion. This exercise has to be done in consultation with the concerned
department of the Government and the lending institutions, who would see whether
the project fits in the sector policies and strategies, and can be brought in an annual
planning and budgetory cycle taking into consideration the commitments already
made in the sector and the overall financial resources position. The project may be
finally sanctioned for implementation if the financing plan is firmed up.

3.3.1.6 Conclusions And Recommendations

(a) Conclusions

This section should present the essential findings and results of the pre-feasibility report.
I t should include a summary of:

Existing service coverage and service standards

Review of the need for the project

Long-term development plans considered

The recommended project, its scope in terms of servtce coverage and servtce
standards and components

Priorities concerning target-groups and areas to be served by the project

Capital costs and tentative financing plan

Annual recurring costs and debt servicing

Tariffs and projection of operating revenue

Urgency for implementatIon of the project

Limitation of the data/information used and assumptions and judgements made;

need for indepth investigation, survey, and revalidation of assumption and
judgements, while carrying out feasibility study.

30

The administrative difficulties likely to be met with and risks involved during
implementation of the project should also be commented upon. These may pertain to
boundary question for the project area, availability of water, sharing of water sources with
other users, availability of land for constructing project facilities, coordination with the
various agencies, acceptance of service standards by the beneficiaries, tenancy problems,
acceptance of recommended future tariff, shortage of construction materials, implementation
of support activities involving peoples' participation, supply of power, timely availability of
funds for implementation of the project and problems of operation and maintenance of the
facilities.
(b)

Recommendations

(0

This should include all actions required to be taken to complete project

preparation and implementation, identifying the agencies responsible for taking
these actions. A detailed time table for actions to be taken should be presented. if
found necessary and feasible, taking up of works for rehabilitating and/or
de-bottlenecking the existing system should be recommended as an immediate
action. Such works may be identified and costed so that detailed proposals can be
developed for implementation.

(iO

It may also be indicated if the project authority can go ahead with taking up
detailed investigations, data collection and operational studies, pending undertaking
feasibility study formally.

(ill)

In respect of smaller and medium size projects, the pre-feasibility report can be
considered sufficient for obtaming investment decision for the project if:
The results of the pre-feasibility study are based on adequate and reliable datal
information
Analysis of the data and situation is carried out fairly intensively
No major environmental and social problems are likely to crop up that might
jeopardise project implementation
No major technical and engineering problems
construction and operation of the facilities

are envisaged during

(iv)

In that case the pre-feasibility study with suitable concluding report, should be
processed for obtaining investtnent decision for the project. The feasibility study,
can then be taken up at the beginning of the implementation phase and results of
the study if noticed to be at variance with the earlier ones, suitable modification
may be introduced during implementation.

(v)

In respect of major projects however, and particularly those for which assistance of
bilateral or international funding agencies is sought for, comprehensive feasibility
study may have to be taken up before an investment decision can be taken.

31

3.4 FEASIBILITY REPORT

Feasibility study examines the project selected in the pre-feasibility ,tndy as a nearterm
project, in much greater details, to see if it is feasible technically, financially, economically,
socially, legally, environmentally and institutionally. Enough additional datal information
may have to be collected to examine the ahove mentioned aspects, though the detat1s
necessary for construction of project components may he collected during execution of
works.
It is a good practice to keep the authority responsible for taking investment decision,
informed of the stage and salient featnres of the project. if there arc good prospects of the
project being funded immediately after the feasibility stndy is completed, detailed engineering
of ptiority components may be planned simultaneously.

3.4.1 CONTENTS
The feasibility report may have the lowing sections:

Background

The proposed project

..

Jnstitntional and financial aspects

..

Conclusion and recommendations

3.4.1.1 Background
In this section describe the histoty of project preparation, how this repe)tt is related to
other reports and stndies carried out earlier and in particular its setting in the context of a
pre-f(~asibility report. It should also bring out if the data/information and assumption made
in the pre-feasibility report are valid, and if not, changes in this respect should be highlighted.
References to all previous reports and stndies should be made.
In respect of the project area, need for a project and strategic plan for water supply, only
a brtef summary of the information covered in pre-feasibility report, should be presented,
highlighring such additional datal information, if any, collected for this report. The summary
infortnation should include planning period, project objectives, service coverage, service
standards considered and selected for long-term planning and for the project, community
preferences and aftordability, quantification of futnre demands for services, alternative
strategic plans, their screening and ranking, recommended strategic plan and cost of its
implementation.

3.4.1.2 The Proposed Project

This section describes details of the project recommended for implementation.
Information presented here is based on extensive analysis and preliminary engineering
designs of all components of the project. The detailing of this section may be done in the
following sub-sections:

32

(a) Objectives
Project objectives may be described in terms of general development objectives such as
health Improvements, ease in obtaining w;Ucr by consumers, improved living standards, staff
development and institutional improvements; and also terms of specific objectives such as
service coverage and standards of service to be provided to various target groups.

(b) Project Users

Define number of people by location and institutions who will benefit and/or not benefit
from the project area and reasons for the same, and users involvement during preparation,
implementation and operation of the proleCt.
I

(c) I{ehabilitatioll and De-bottlenecking of ti,e Existing Water Supply Systems

In fact rehabilitation, improvements
debottlenecking works, if necessary, should be
planned for execution prior to that of the proposed project. If so these act1vities should be
mentioned in the feasibility report. if, howner, these works afC proposed as components of the
proposed project, necessity of undertaking the rehabilitattOn/improvcmmt/ de-bottlcnccking
works should be explained.

(d) Project Description

This may cover the following items in bnef:

Definition of the project in the context of the recommended development

alternative (strategic plan) and explanation I,)l' the prionty of tbe project

Brief description of each component of the project, with maps and drawings

Functions, location, deS1h'1l criteria and capacity of each c< )mponcnt

Technical specification (dimension, material) and performance specifications

Stage. of preparation of designs and draWings of each component

Method of financing and constructing in-house facilities, like plumbrng and ser\'lCc
connection etc.

(e) Support Activities

Need for and description of components such as staff training, imprm'ing billing and
accounting, consumer education, health education, community involvement ctc. and W111l1g
of undertaking these components and tbe agencies involvcd.

(j) Integration Of TIle Proposed Project With The Existillg And Future Systems
Describe how the various components of the proposed project would be integrated with
tbe existing and future works.

(g) Agencies bwolved Itl Project Il1lplel1lentatioll A1ld Relevallt Aspects

Desil,,,,ate the lead agency

Identify other agencies including government agencies who would be I1lvoh'cd in

project implementation, describing their role, sllch as granting administrati"" approval,
technical sanction, approvallo annual budget proviSIon, sanction of IOllns) construct1()!l

of facilities, procurement of materials and equipment etc.

Outline of arrangements to coordinate the working of all agencies

Designate the operating agency and its role during implementation stage

Role of consultants, if necessary, scope of their work, and terms of reference

RegUlations and procedures for procuring key materials and equipment, power, and
transport problems, if any,

Estimate number and type of workers and their availability

Procedures for fiXing agencies for works and supplies and the normal time it takes to
award contracts

List of imported materials, if required, procedure to be followed for importing them

and estimatiotl of delivery period

Outline any legislative and administrative approvals required to implement the project,
such as those pertaining to riparian rights, water quality criteria, acquisition of lands,
permission to construct across or along roads and railways, high-tension power lines, in
forest area and defence or odIe! such restricted areas

Comments on the capabilities of contractors and quality of material and equipment

available indigenously

(h) Cost Estimates

Outline basic assumption made for unit prices, physical contingencies, pricecontingencies and escalation

Summary of estimated cost of each component for each year till its completion and
work out total annual costs, to know annual cash flow requirements

Estimate foreign exchange cost if required to be incurred

Work out per capita cost of the project on the basis of design population, cost per unit
of water produced and distributed and compare these with norms, if any, laid down by
b>overnrnent Or with those for similar projects

(i) Implementation Schedule

Prepare it detailed and realistic implementation schedule for all project components, taking
into considenttion stage of preparation of detailed design and drawings, additional field
investigations required, if any, time required for preparing tender documents, notice period,
processing of tenders, award of works! supply contract, actual construction period, period
required for procurement of material and equipment, testing, trials of individual component and
commissioning of the facilities etc.

If consultants' services are required, the period required for completion of their work should
also be estimated.
A detailed PE.RT diagram (ref. Appendix 3.1) showing implementation schedule for the
whole project, as well as those for each component should be prepared, showing linkages and
111ter-dependence of various activities,

34

Implementation schedule should also b<, prepared for support-activities such as training,
consumers' education etc. and their linkages with completion of physical components and
commissioning of the project should be established.

(j) Operation And Maintmance Of The Project

Estimate annual operating costs, considering staff, chemicals, energy, transport, routine
maintenance of civil works, mamtenance of electrical! mechanical equipment, including normal
cost of replacement of parts and supervision charges. Annual cost estimates should be prepared
for a penod of 10 years from the probable year of commissioning the project, taking into
consideration expected out-put levels and escalation.
Proposal for monitoring and evaluating the project performance with reference to project
objectives should be indicated.

(k) E1!vironmmtal Impact

Brief description of the adverse and beneficial impacts of the project may be given covering
the following aspects:

BENEFICIAL IMPACT

ADVERSE IMPACT

t5' Ease and convenience in obtaining water ,51 Risk of promotmg mosquito breeding,
by the consumers
effect of with-drawing surface/wound
water
t5' Improvement in public reuse of water in t5l Effect of disposal of backwash water and
household premIses or by water
sludge from water treatment plant.
authority.
I

t5' Effect

of

construction of storage t5' Effects of construction of storage reservoirs

reservC)1ts
on
flood
moderation,
on wound water table, down stream flow of
navigation, I,'found water table, power
the stream, the reservoir bed etc. and effects
generation etc.
on ecology.

3.4.1.3 Institutional And Financial Aspects

(a) Institutional Aspects
It is necessary to examine capabilities of the organisations who would be entrusted with the
responsibility of implementing the project and of operating the same after it is commissioned. The
designated (lft,>anisation(s) must fulfil the requirements in respect of organisational structure,
persollllel, financial, health and management procedures, so that effective and efficient perfonnrulce
is expected. This can be done by describing the following aspects:

History of the Orl,>anisation, its functions, duties and powers, legal basis, organisational
chart, (present and proposed), relationship between different functional woups of the
otl,>anisation, and with its regional offices, its relation with government agencies and other
organisations involved in sector development

35

Public relations in general and consumer relations in particular, extension services available
to sell new services, faciltties for condncting consumer education programme, and settling

complaints

Systems for budgeting for capital and recurring expenditure and re,'enul', accounting of
expenditure and revenue, internal and external audit arrangements, inventory management

Present positions and actual staff, comments on number and quality of staff in each
cate).,'ory, ratio of staff proposed for maintenance and operation of the project to the
number of people served, salary ranges of the staff and their comparison with those of
other public sector employe'Cs

Staff requirement (category wise) for operating the Pro1ect: immediately, after
commissioning, future requirements, policies regarding staff training, facilities available for
tmining

Actual tariffs for the last 5 years, present tatiff, tariff proposed after the project is
commissioned, its stmctures, internal and external subsidies, procedure rccluircd to be
followed to adopt, ncw- tariff, expected tariff and revenues in future years, proposal to
meet shortage in revenue acemals

Prepare annual financial statements (income statements, bahmcc sheets and cash flows) for
the project operating agency, for three years after the project is commissioned, explain all
basic assumptions for the financial forecast and the tenns and conditions of tapping
financial sources, demonstrate ability to cover all operating and maintenance expenditnre
and loan repayment, workout rate of retum on net fixed assets and the internalfulancial
rate of retum of the project

(b) financing Plan

Identify all sources of funds for implementation. of the project, indicating year by-year
requirements from these sources, to meet expenditure as planned for completing the project as Pc!
schedule; state how interest during construction will be paid, or whether it will be capitalised and
provided for in the loan; explain the procedures involved in obtaining fil1lds from the various
sourCt~s.

3.4.1.4 Conclusions And Recommendations

'[bis section should discuss justification of the project, in terms of its objectives,
cost-effectivencBS, affordability, willingness of the heneficiaries to pay for services and the effect of
uot proceeding with the project.
Issues which are likely to adversely affect project implementation and operation should be
outlined and ways of tackling the same shOlild be suggested. Effect of changes in the assumptions
made for developing the project, on project implementation period, benefits, tariff, costs and
demand etc. should be mentioned.
Definite recommendations should be made rC).,>arding time-bound actions to be taken by the
various agencies, including advance action which may be taken by the lead agency pending approval
and financing of the Pro1ect

36

CHAPTER 4

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
4.1 POINTS OF MEASUREMENT
The measurement of flow in water supply systems is of importance in connection with
assessment of source and its development, transmission, treatment, distribution, control of
wastage and other factors,
The probable locations where flow measurement may be needed in a water supply system
arc:

(a)

River flow gauging~upstream of intake-by floats and current meters or weirs and
flumes or dilution methods.

(b) Measuring yield from wells (yield test) using the head differential through an
orifice meter or venturi meter for pipe flows or by weirs or flumes for open
channel flow,
(c)

Intake structure~raw water input rate by venturi or orifice meter for pipe flows or
by weirs or flumes for open channel flow,

(d)

Flow at the entry to the treatment works (normally after aeration if it is practiced)
by weirs or flumes,

(e)

Filtrate flow from each filter by weirs or notches or orifice metcrs or venturi
meters,

(f)

Bulk flow measurements of water supplied fcom treatment plant and clear water
reservoir by venturi meter,

(.Iii

Bulk flow measurements (l11te:grating and instantaneous) for supply to

distribution zones, sub-zones or tndustries by bulk meters or venturi meters.

(h) Measurement of domestic water supply through service connections by domestic

consumer water meters.
(i)

Assessment of wastages and leakages in pipes and plumbing systems by waste

flow measuring or recording meters.

There are several types of flow measurements of which the more common ones are
described below with some detail. The choice of the particular type depends on the specific
circumstances and desired accuracy.

37

4.2 MEASUREMENT IN OPEN CHANNELS

4.2.1. USE OF HYDRAULIC STRUcrURES
Several types of hydraulic structures like notches, weirs, flumes and drops are in use for
measurement of flow in open channels.

4.2.1.1. Notches
These are cut from thin metal plates, the general forms being either triangular or
trapezoidal.

(a) Triangular Notclles

90 triangular notches are used for measuring small quantities of flows upto about 1.25
m'ls
(i)

Itlstallation Requirements

The approach channel should be reasonably smooth, free from disturbances and straight
for a length equal to at least 10 times the width. The structures in which the notch is fixed
shall be rigid and water-tight and the upstream face vertical. The downstream level should be
always at least 5 cm below the bottom-most portion of the notch (inverted apex) ensuring
free flow.

(ii) Specification for Materials

The plate should be smooth and made of rust-proof and corrosion-resistant material. The
thickness should not exceed 2 mm, with the downstream edge chamfered at an angle of not
less than 45 with the crest surface.

(iii) Measurement of Head Causing the Water Flow

The head causing flow over the notch shall be measured by standard hook gaut,'C
upstream at a distance of 3 to 4 times the maximum dC'Pth of flow over the notch.

(iv) Discharge Equation

The discharge Q (in m'/sec) for V-Notch

1S

given by the expression:

(4.1)

where,
effective discharge coefficient
acceleration due to gravity (9.806 m/s 2)
angle of the notch at the centre
h

measured head causing flow in m,

For 90 V-Notch which is generally used, the discharge is given by the expression
.38

2.362 C, h 25

(4.2)

C, values vary from 0.603 to 0.686 for values of head varying from 0.060 to ().377m.

(v) Limitations
The triangular notches should be used only when the head is more than 60 mm.

(vi) Accuracy
The values obtained by the equation for triangular notches would vary from 97 to 103%
of the true discharge for discharges from 0.008 to 1.25 m'l s.
(b)

Rectangular Notches

The installation requirements, specifications, head measurements, head limits and

accuracy will be the same as for triangular notches. The width of notch should be at least 150
mm.
There are two types of rectangular notches viz. (i) with end contractions and (il) without
end contractions.
(i)

With End Contractions

The contraction from either side of the channel to the side of the notch should be greater
than 0.1 m.
The discharge (m'/s) through a rectangular notch with end contractions is given by the
c'luation:
(4.3)

where,
effective width == actual width of the notch + k (value of k being 2.5 mm,
and 4 mm for biB ranges of upto 0.4, 0.4 to 0.6 and 0.6 to 0.8
3 mm
respectively);
b

ratio of the width of the notch to the width of the channel;

effective head

acceleration due to gravity (9.806

C,
(ii)

actual head measured (h) + 1 mm;

==

ml s~ ; and

varies from 0.58 to 0.70 for values of biB from 0 to 0.8.

Without End COlltractions

The discharge (m} Is) through a rectangular notch without end contractions is given by
the following expression:

(4.4)

where,
b

width of the notch (m)

H =

effective head == actual Imcasured head (h) + 1.2 mm

39

C, =

0.602 + 0.075 hlp

where,

p ==

height of the bottom of the notch from the bed of the channel

(c) Trapezoidal Notches (Cipoletti Notches)

/"

The main advantage in a trapezoidal or Cipoletti notch is that as the flow passes over the weir,

the end contractions are either eliminated or considerably reduced. The SKies of the notch
should have a slope of 1 : 4 such that the top width of discharge is equal to the bottom width
of the notch (b) + half the head of water over the sill of the notch (1/2 h). Thus the loss of
discharge due to end contractions is made good. Discharge equation Q
1.859 bhl/ 2 where
b is bottom width 0 f notch and h is the head over the silL

4.2.1.2 Weirs
T'hese arc similar to rectangular notches but the thickness in the direction of flow is
considerable and therefore coefficient of discharge will be less. The installation conditions
will be the same as for the notches.
(a) Witllout End Contractions (Suppressed Weirs)

'1'hc discharge equation to be used is:

(4.5)
C, varies from 0.864 to 1.0 depending upon the hlp (ratio of measured head to length of
weir in the direction of flow) value from 0.4 to 1,6; for hlp values lower than 0.4, C" may be
taken as 0,864.
(b) Witll End Contractions

Same equation 4.5 is to be used replacing the 'b' by '(b-Cl.l nh)' where n is the number of
contractIOns.
(c) Limitations

The weirs should be used only when the head is more than 60 mm. Minimum width of
the weir sbould be 300 mm.
(d) Accuracy

The discharge values obtained by weir measurements would vary from 95 to 105% of the
tme discharw.

4.2.1.3 Flumes (Free Flowing)

There are two types of flumes, namely:
Standing wave flumes in which standing wave of hydraulic jumps is formed down
stream.

40

.. Venturi flumes
'The installation conditions will be the same as for the notches,
(a) Standing Wave flumes

(i)

Discharge equation:
given by:

The dtscharge equation for standing wave fumes is

.(B - mh - 2CmH}H"
Q ,23 yI2;;('
...!
I)

(4,6)

\\'h<:rc,

Q -,

discharge

C, . -

coefficient of frictIOn having the following values

0.97 for

111

m'/s

Q = (lOS to 0.3 m ' Is

(),98 for Q:= 0,3 to 1.5 mIlS

0.99 for Q:::: 1.5 to 15 ml/s

lun for Q 15m3/5 and above

13"

overall throat width including pters

=:

number of piers

thickness of each pter

C,
Coefficient of contraction, having a value of 0.045 for piers with round nose and
0.040 for piers with pomted nose and II "" D, hv =: upstream head over sill corrected for
velocity of approach

Where,
the depth upstream over sill of throat and

I),

V" ::::

the mean velocity of approach, FJfect of velocity of approach is I,>reater than

V,' 12g because the velocity in the central portion will be higher than V"
Therefore, the head due to velocIty of approach should be taken as :

15.2

(ii)

Limitatiolls
Standing wave flumes should be used only when the head is more than 60 mm. Ratio of

llelD, (Depth downstream above sill of throatl depth upstream over sill of throat) should
always be t.,rrcatcr than (1,5 for the application of standing wave flumes, If this ratio is less
than (1.5, drop tm,}, be adopted,
Mmimum width of the flumes should be 911 mm.
41

(iii) Accuracy

The discharge values obtained by measurements with standing wave flumes would vary
from 95 to 105% of the true discharge.
Parshall Bume is a type of standing wave flume widely used. However, its use requires
application of different equations, based on the throat size, if accuracy in results sinular to
other types of flumes is expected.
The approximate equation applicable for the entire range of its usage, namely, discharges
varying from 0.001 m'/s to 100 m'ls (i.e. throat widths varying from 75 to 15,000 mm) is
given by:

Q = 2.42 W h 258
Where,

m'l s

Q ==

discharge in

throat width in m and

upstream gauged depth in m,

The numerical factors 2.42 and 2.58 are subject to 4% variation in extreme cases Oess in
case of smaller widths).
The minimum head and accuracy will be the same as for standing wave flumes.

(b) Venturi Flumes

(i) Discharge equation
The discharge equation is given by
Q

05445Cv ce fibh 15

(4.8)

Where,
C~

is the coefficient of velocity which varies from 104 to 1.15.

C, is the effective coefficient of discharge varying from 0.885 to 0.99 depending upon hll
varying from 0.05 to 0.70 where '1' is the length of throat in the direction of flow.

(ii) Limitations
Venturi flumes should be used only when head available is between 50 and 1800 mm.
Minimum width of the flume should be 90 mm.

(iii) Accuracy
The discharge values obtained by measurement with venturi volumes would vary from 95
to 105% of the true discharge.

4.21.4 Drops
(i) Discharge Equation
When the flow falls freely from a channel or conduit to a lower level (ground),
measurement can be conveniently made at the point of drop which offers a rough estimate
42

of the discharg~. There should be a mimmumstraight length of20 times the end depth in the

approach channel. The ratio of the end depth to the critical depth in hOrizontal and mildly
sloped channels has a value of 0.70. The discharge may be calculated from

Q = d; 'iib

(4.9)

\Vherc,
d,

critical depth (m)

b width of ch,mnel (m)

(ii) Limitations
Width of channel should be a minimum of 300 mm. Critical depth de should be a
minimum of 50 mm.

(iii) Accuracy
'rhe discharge values obtained by measurements made at drops would vary from 90 to
110'Yo of the true discharge.

4.2.2 VELOCITY AREA METHODS

The rate of flow through a section of a p'pe or open channel is often determined by
multiplying the cross sectional area of water at the section at right angles to the flow by the
mean velocity of water at the section. Cross sectional area is usually determined by direct
measurements. Determination of the mean velocity is generally more difficult and time
consuming, smee the velocity differs considerably from point to point m the cross section.
For determining the mean velocity, several methods such as use of current meter, float,
velocity rod, pitot tube, tracer technillue and trajectory method arc available.
\\fhcn velocity measurements are made at only one point, this point IS usually around O.G
mKldcpth. The exact location of this point is decided on the basis of vertlCal velocity
distribution experiments.
Average velocity of flow at any subsection of the cross section can be approximated by
the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths in that subsection. The cross section is
accordingly divided into various small vertical sections and average velocity v, of each section
IS f(lUnd.
The mean velocity of flow in the cross section is found by the expression
n

L(a,vi )
L":L",,,,,,,,,~~
n

(4.10)

Lai

~.,j

\\fhere a, is area of the indIvidual section and v " is the average velOeltv in that section.
The velocities arc usually obtained by current meter. For floats, the surface velocities arc
found and the average velocity is computed approximately as 11.87 of surface velocity.
Normally the discharge measurements arc 95 to 'J()S"Ic, of the true discharges.

electronicallv
over a

The

yt.TitUf'l

rnctcr:;,
Hl1nlrnllll'1

the

dlfOlwh
"
velocity

ln

of the
producing SlXI"ll)!C
throat sections

sect.lons are

1ns1 runlcnr

. meter

11)
\\
I'l l

axca

\)f

'in

1\

1.1

curve supplied by the manufacturers or to

calibrated. For a given velocity, this type
produces a greater differential head than the simple type.
V~K

fiiir

(4.13)

\\1,crc,
V

Velocity of flow, mps at the point

instrument coefficient

gravitational head in m of water between the impact and static (or trailing) orifices

\ 1 = Differential head in meters of water between the impact and static (Ot trailing)
orifices.

The cocfiicicnt has a value of about 0.99.

Pilot tubes would offer hindrance to Bow and hence may be restricted to pipes larger
thrw 3()1I 111m elia. The values obtained with pitot ll.lbes would vary from 98 to 102';/0 of the
true discharge for woo mm dia or larger pipes. 1)1' smaller diameters, the v'anation would be
larger dependmg upon the obsttllction caused.

4.3.1.4 Water Meters

\\'att:r melers arc generally used for measuring Bow:; in the mains and house service
COn11l'CIH)!1S. Thel arc of ,Efferent tepes but infercntilrl water meters of single let 01 multiple
let with dIvot wet dial are commonly 111 usc.
(II)

Domestic COl/Sllmer meters

The domcslK consurm:l meters

(1)

the following deficiencies'

Tht:\' in voke a high head loss

to bye'

COnSUt11er.s an'

the

11lC1Cf.

(ii)

The rninimutn flow tlLl1 can be

(iii)

Deposition of silt and

out () f order.

(iv)

Since the scaling is not fully water

deteriorate due to which the meter

rCj!):ltCl:C(l tS

as high as 4()

pCI'

hour.

the meter and hence the meter goes

f(lfCll,l'tl

metallic gears get rusted and the plastic

out of order frequently.

I n the abSCfl\.:c of hermetically

there is an ingress of mOisture on to the
face of dial and hence the meter become:s unreadable.
(vi)

i'vlcters with pointers can he tampered

changing the position of pmntcr needles.

,\s 1'(:[ the amended IS 77') 1994 (ISO 406,+) f,)r the domestic consumer
tl1ctcrs arc nlagrwtlcal1y driven and hem"tcticaHv
it is pteferable to uSe only
111ctc1'5;

the

1,'''';('1 4\ )64

Salient features of these In ..:tcfs arc (1)

water, (1i) Ihe meter Slarts rCt,Ylstration al

1;'; no contact n f the tnetcr tncchani~nl 'with

small flows (mmi111um flow of 10 litres) with

46

minimum head loss, (iii)

chamber remaining completely dry, (iv) the gears arc
sdf lubricating and readings can be directly read and arc clearly visible in any weather.

f the advan tages 0 f these meters arc:

Some

(i)

inferential meters are mat,metically dnven. Since there is no contact of the

meter mechanism with water,
is no friction. Hence the meter starts
registration at very sma.ll quantities of flow (at 10 litres per hour) ami involves a
head loss of about 1.5 m.

(ii)

The hcnneticaiJy sealed meters cannot be tampered and the readings can be read
directly. Further, in the absence
mgress of moisture, the dial is clearly visible.

(iii)

Since the dial is hermetically

and is self lubncating.

(iv)

Since there is no change in direction of flow, the head loss through the meter is
smalL

the gear train is fully thy, is above the water

(b) Bulk Meters

For use on distribution mains the bulk meters of Vane \X'hecl type with sizes of 50 to 300
mm or Helical type with sizes of 50 to 3011 mm conform1!1g to IS 2373 1981 are in usc.
These meters also suffer from the same deficiencies stated in previous sectic)t1 (a) for
domestic meters.
'The IS 237.1 is being revised (fourth revision) to incorporate the following modifications
which are likely to address some of the deficiencies;
(i)

Indicating devices to include pointers, di,I!;1tal and combination of the two

(ii)

Class /\ and Class B meters ate to

to be more stringent

(iii)

Pressure loss requirement is to be more stringent

(iv)

Removable type helical meters tn

(v)

Sizes of 65 mm, (,00 mm and 800 mm are to be added.

introduced and perf(mnance requirements are

introduced in addition to fixed type

4.4 SPECIAL METHODS

4.4.1 GENERAL
There arc several special methods. '1'he dilution techniques and the pulscvdocity
methods are applicable to both open channels as \Vell as closed conduits. The trajectory
measurements and bend or centrifugal head meters are applicable to dosed conduits only.
'1'he more common method of dilution techniques is described below.
4.4.2 DILUTION METHOD
ThiS IS based on the fact that a chemical or radioactive tracer, injected into a nvcr or pipe will
be completely and uniformly mixed with the natural flow and that the diluted concentration
down strearn will decrease with !t1crcasinp; disdurgc. Chctntcal conccntr;Hlons ;lfC Ineasurcd by
titration or colorimetric methods and rad1<lactivity by C;eigc~ counter. TIllS method permits the

47

c
'I
('

Fe

is

can

tl,~ it

falls

:t~

1'a1n

it

111

~rnaLi or

tl1g

sllspended
But

matlers

cisterns. or

reSCi"\lOltS

arc

waters would

strcarns.
the: rcmm-al

itself is uswrl/Y
subject to periodic
-['he microscopic

uvertUr1iS

IS

protected

treat:nlcnt

structu,rcs
water are m,,,,,' to

(levI-Inn

acros;} rlY(',r valleys> afe

top
turbidity, carbon

l1"On'l

\vatcr

W,.IUIU ,"I-dwe

19

eroded catchments, organic debris and mineral salts. Substantial variations In the quality of
the water may also occur between the maximum and minimum flows. In populated regions,
pollution by sewage and mdustrial wastes will be direct. The natural and man-made pollution
results in producing color, turbidity, tastes and odors, hardness, bacterial and other
micro.organisms in the water supplies.
(d) Sea Water

Though this source is plentiful, it is difficult to extract economically water of potable

quality because it contains 3.5% of salts in solution, which involves costly treatment.
Offshore waters of the oceans and seas have a salt concentration of 30,000 to 36,000 mg/l of
dissolved solids including 19,000 mg/I of chloride, 10,600 mg/l of sodium, 1,270 mg/l of
magnesium, 880 mg/l of sulphur, 400 mg/l of calcium, 380 mg/l of potassium, 65 mg/l of
bromine, 28 mg/l of carbon, 13 mg/l of strontium, 4.6 mg/l of boron. Desalting or de
mineralizing processes involve separation of salt or water from saline waters. This is yet a
costly process and has to be adopted in places where sea water is the only source available
and potable water has to be obtained from it, such as in ships on the high seas or a place
where an industry has to be set up and there is no other source of supply.
(e) Waste Water Reclamation

Sewage or other waste waters of the community may be utilized for non-domestic
purposes, such as water for cooling, flushing, lawns, parks, etc., fire fighting and for certain
industrial purp()ses, after giving the necessary treatment to suit the nature of usc. The supply
from this source to residences is prohibited because of the possible cross connection with
the potable water supply system

5.1.3 GROUNDWATER
(a) General

Rain water percolating into rhe !,'follnd and reaching permeable layers (aquifers) in the
zone of saturation constitutes groundwater source. Groundwater is normally beyond the
teach of vegetation except certain species of plants called phreatophytes, and is usually frec
from evaporation losses. Groundwater resources are less severely affected by vagaries of
rainfall than surface water resources.
The water as it seeps down, comes in contact with organic and inorganic substances
during its passage through the ground and acquires chemical characteristics representative of
the strata it passes through.
Generally, groundwaters are clear and colorless but are harder than the surface waters of
the region in which they occur. In limestone formations, b'f()undwaters are Vely hard, tend to
form deposits in pipes and are relatively non-corrosive. In granite formations they are soft,
low in dissolved minerals, relatively high in free carbon dioxide and are actively corrosive.
Bacterially, groundwaters are much better than surface waters except where subsurface
pollution exists. Croundwaters arc generally of uniform quality although changes may occur
in the quality because of water logging, overdraft from areas adjoining saline water sources
and recycling of water applied for irrigation and pollution.

50

\Xlhile some of the chemical sul)stan,:cc;

such as
rt'adily soILlble in water,
water containmg carbon dioxide oh,s"rh",j
in the soil. Such decomposing matter also
percolating through, \J(/ater
manganese compounds in the
i,'foundwater and is associated
matter or the reduction of sulphates,
out of bactena and other living orga:1l1
limestone, however, surface pollution can

bnlckishnc:ss are
"J!Ul)JI:

deCOlmr)osing
,''',,] " >lJ

In

Of)~an!c

matter
the water
Ul\)A1,Ut: di':s",h?f'S !Lon
1Il
occurs
in the mttring
formations such as
lnaterial rh""'",,,

(b) Spring

Springs are due to the

of
""1m'"",,, to
Till it issues out on the
surface as a spring, the groundwater carries
the
layers, ,Fiw'h
may supply the nutrients to
Iy sprmg jf it
as a surface stl.'cam,
Spring waters (rom shallow strata are rnorc likely to
po]JutlOns
deep,seated waters, Springs may
pererltJial or
of a
depends on the nature and size of catchment, ,,,,,h'''''N' and 'cr'Kr.tge through the sub,surfllc('
Their usefulness as sources of water supply depends on the discharge and its variability
during the year.

5.1.4 SALINE, INTRUSION

Saline intrusion or salt water
occur in tidal estuanes or in groundwater.
Longitudinal mixing in tidal estuarles IS
by the
fresh water and
studics arc needed to examine this
salt water flow components to mix
salt water creep viz, the upstream progress of a tongue of
water mm'ing inland while
overriding fresh water may still flow towards
sea or ocean, The salt content of such river
It lS essential to determine the periods when
waters may also vary with the tides
supply should be tapped to have the minimum salt content
Groundwater in coastal aCl'lifcrs overlies the denser sa.iine water.
metre rise of the
water table above the sea len:! corresponds to a depth of 41 metres of fresh water lens
wells has to be carefully
floating over the saline water. In such cases the pump111g
controlled or a fresh water barrier
to avoid the salt water tongue entering the well
and CCH1tarnlnating the sarne.

5.1.5 SANITARY SURVEY

'fhough the specific characteristics of
several sources have been delineated above, the
importance of sanitary survey cannot be overemphasized, 'This survey is a study of the
environmcnta.l conditions that may affect! fitness as a source, The scope of the sanitary
sur"ey should include a discern1l1g study of
geolOgical, geophysical, hydrological, climatic,
industrial, commercial, ilS'ficultural, recrcauonai and land development factors influencing
water dramage into the source and the surface ,mel the subsurface pollutions likely to affect
it The subsurface pollution may be derived from privy pits, leaching cess pools, leaking
sewers imel land fills. Pollution introduced at OJ' below the groundwater table is especially
51

on

seriOUS, ")]I1C1"

sources.

;\ 111(1

\\'hcn

run{)

Itl

(! )

tltYlC

j(

((11

1(171)

lY1;L\1111Unl

the,

10

1)( ,
caU1

',l

trC(luen,:v analysis methods, tlo(xis

rnimmnm quantity likely to obtam once
m

Diagram
maXlnll.ltn (WlntiURC
r1;;se1'V01'.1' -;.icross
srrean1.
'tna:xunUtTI scour
the tnaX1mtrrn \vatcr

dam of
in determining

win
likely to

a ttalt1C(.i, so

'p()!1(:m s of

']

probable minimum
f()r "",lOr on

cie:scrlll"d q'Yn'" could be

dctCJ:mln:lrlQ the maximum

up for the purpose as

\Vhilc
computed
stream flow
total inflow mto
the strr'am discharge may
supplemented
ClllCl:g"l1g into the stream through the
hy,jl"(lloh'1caI conditions in the river valley. '1
can not LlS1Htlily be computed
mdefinite factors
Continuous

catchments contributing to the

its cat(:hrncnt arf~a)
flow from
catchment basin,
depcnchng on the geological formations and
",u,urmcx seepage contributing to the river
fonnula as such
of
several
any point
would
the
subsurface flows which loin
",rtcl", flow

In
ponds, the computations must
reckoned
on
reference to the
catchmc;nt arca
and the computable
I Tere again, supplemental quantities
rec:enrcd by the bastn
the catchment area is usually not a
computable factor
usually not
mlo account tn assessing the total quantity available
the project In all computations on the
storage and capacity, probable
cnmideration.
to seepage and evaporation should be

5,2.4 ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER n,.:"Y~, ..."", .. ,., P011,NTIAL

Prior to the year 1979 it)r the assessment
groundwater resource potential,
various methodologies were being adopted by
and the Central Cwundwatcr Board
(CGWB). H.owever, with a view to project a unified view and assessing the resource on
scientific lines, a committee
as
I::xploitation Committee" was constituted with
the then Chairman, Central Groundwater
as the Chairman to suggest methodolof,'Y for
estimation of the groundwater potential and
to
down the nOffi1S for development
various types of structures and areas.
methodology suggested
the committee
been adopted by the Agricultural
Development Corporation (/\.RI)(:). The
Committee had further recommended that
may be further revised to make
carried out bv the Central Groundwater
it more scientific as and when data from the
Board was available.
54

National Bank fiJI'

C;ovemment of India to ''''~."'',,,',,
Ni\BARD
1985, .fhe
Groundwater
methodo]og'j su,ggilisted by the
was enough f()Orll: h,)f
resource
VanOll$
methodology.

'W"PN"I

ABARD)
the
lllCll"JOll in its approach
availing World
wilS of two
duration-1984
the
matter wa~;
and felt that
of the
a n:.:v-isi2_d
It

r;,c)
C;rouf)chvatcr E:st1mation
to
of
nornlS to
of Imba in 1984,
estimated
resources
In an aquifer
on groundwater level fluctuation
water table
Th e rain fall
estimated should
corresponds to the rainfall of the
of
m
long term norma] nU!I!Cl.l
arca as
MeteoroJog1Cal
(IMD) To estimate
drought or surplus rain fall,
nl()nsoon tllay
of ,:) tel 5
an
Ii-um winter rainfall may also
i1l1'lOI'en on the same lines.
'.I 'otal groundwater resources for water
potential recharge in shallow water
15
tuta} hITounthvatcr rCSt)urces
committed base flow and to account
flow and the domestic and
resource, the utj];2ablc resource for'
'1'he cjuantum of ~")W,'UW
'C'..HI"","

of the aquifer and is

Groundwater being a
based on normal annual

eXistence

on \vcstern
semiarid bell ,.. \".,1,
central part of peninsular
1,1')() mm and distributed
south . ,,\vcst rnonsoon iH1d
lfl north t nlon,: or kss UI'lIll!l'
hydrogeological C()nditil)f)s
second edition (1
I
Board, (,(wern

;\ scientific assessment ()f

tcmatin,ly on the
of rC('{}lmner](
generated by Central (
and data

;Jc)uifers is the sum of annual redlClrgc and

water logged areas, Jt also recommended that
for
and industrial purposes, for
] n case the committed
more than
of
deCrtlaSed accordingly.

is usually

n"':trlc

to lon['
term
u

(iepcnclatli(: source of ","',,",I"

remurcc has to be
primarily
developed
means of suitable
fot various purposes, The
on
climatic
hydrogeological
paradoxically
heaviest
almost along the same latitude,
J811 mm).
a
rain fall
!lorth--south
being of the
tlOnIH""t
tu the n\Tr
water resourCes 111 the country The
and gUillitv lS
11l
publi':hrd
C;
tllore

Board. '1'1

has been
,ommnll:e (I
annual rcplcl1tshablc

hy,drc)g(:oi')glcal and geophysical techniques and are

supplement the eXllSI!ng techniques
not a replacement
these tc(:htuqucs.
convenience, we can divide the aquifers into two gtoups: (0Aquifers in alluvial areas,
(ii) i\cpifers In hard
areas.
(i) Aquifers In AI,Il/vial

,,n"u.'

Most

sands and gravels arc flUVial deposits, either in the fonn of stream
channel deposits and valley ftils or as alluvial fans. The remainder arc cheniers, beach ridges,
beaches, and some well deposited dunes. 'Table 5.1 lists the keys to detection of such aquifers
on the satellite imagery. Although hydrogeolo[~cally significant landforms etc. can be
delineated easily on landsat images, more details arc visible on aerial photographs. In
favorable cases landsat .
can be used to select locations for test wells. In other areas
more detailed ground surveys or examination of aerial
locales can be
photographs.

TABLE 5.1
KEYS TO DETECTION OF AQUIFERS IN ALLUVIAL
AREAS ON SATELLITE IMAGES

No.

Description

I.

Stream valleys; particularly wide, meandering (low gradient) streams with a large meander
wavelength and with broad and only slightly incised valleys

2.

Um\erfit
by topographically low, elongate areas with impounded
drainage or with a stream meandet wavelength smaller than that of the floodplain or
terraces

3.

Natural levees

4.

"leander loops showing locatiun and '''I;W'''' thickness of point

5.

Meander Scars in lowland; oxbowlakes arcuate dissection of upland areas

G.

Braided tlrcnn;lgr etlan.net scars

7.

Drainage line
meanders

.1

be

themselves

be tm,::g'ralfltxt materials)

change in dr'<iT1r"'" natter:n; or change in size or frequency of

by
and cucstas as well as by changes in lithology)

8.

Arc deltas (nJ,arsest materLals) and other

9.

rid,'es: parabolic dunes.

10.
11.

Alluvlell

corrk,(cil'" fans; bajadas.

Alib'1wd oblong areas of different natural vegetation representing lancUocked bars, spits,
Cit other coarse and
tnaterials.

cli~;:sected

58

PATTERNS
I.

Drainage pattem, unpl\' lithology and de!,~Te of ,tructural control; dramagc demIt\' Ilurnld
rct-,t1.on:;) and drainage texture (and rc hri01l5) imply pltm ~lz(" compaction and perlllcab ity.

2.

Snowll1clt; if every thing d~c i~ ctlual, anomaluus early tndl'1llg :-:nuw and greening of
vegetation show areas of h)roundwatcr discharge; icc free area:, 011 n\Tt'S and lakes.

3. Distinctive tyVes of llat.l~c vegetatiun commonly show upstrcatn extensions of drainage

patterns~ areas of high soil mOIsture, and landfornl outline's (I fun11cJ regions); abnlJH change.~
in land co\'er tl1)e or land u,,' lmph landform, that mar be hydrolo!'''calll ,ignifICant but do
not have a characteristic shape.

4. Flon!-,'<lte lake" ,inuous lake" and

former stream vaUey.

ali!,~lcd

lake, and pond, repre,entlllg remanent, of a

Parallel and ,tar dum".

S.

6. Spliya of parallel linear pal!erns represcnting old alluvial fans or landlocked c/rclller

complexes.

TONE
1. Soil type; fiuc- hrraillcd soib

COlll1TIOnly

arc darker than coarsc~grained soils.

2. Soil moisture; \vet soils arc darker than dry soib,

3. Type and spccies of native vegetation; vegetation is well adapted to type and thickness of
soil, drainage characteristics, and seasonal period of saturation of root zone.

4. Land usc and land cover: for example, percent bare soil may condate with drainage density;
abo for example, native vegetation ill lowlands and drainage density; and agnculture
uplanci> may indicate periodic flooding.

011

5. Anomalou, early or late seasonal growth of vegetation in areas of high soil moistnre, as
where water table is dose

to

land snrface.

TEXTURE
L l:nifonll or mixed types of native vegetation; 50111C species and vegetation associatlolls arc
indicators of wct versus dry sites, thick ve.rsus thill soils, or particular l11ineral compositions
of ,oils.
2. Contrast between sparse vegetation on lOpof,'faphic highs and denser vegetation in low
(wetter) areas .
.). Texture contrasts at boundaries of grass, bush and forest cover tyVes; po"iblc boundarie, of
~()il types or tnoisture conditions.
(ij)

AqUifers In Hard Rock Areas

1'he groundwater abundance depends on rock type, amount and intensity of fi:acturing.
The keys to location of aqnifers in hard rock areas is given in Table 5.2. The only space for
storage and movement of groundwater in such areas is in frachlres enlarged by brecciation,
weathering, solution or corrosion. These have surface expressions. in fact weathering,
solution, and corrosion operate on land surface as well, in addition to geomorphic processes
such a, mass wasting and frost weds,jng, ;\ fracture that is a plane of weakness for

59
2962l1A&E!97~7A

enlargement by groundwater may be represented on the land surface by topographic

depression, a different soil tone, or a vegetation anomaly at land surfaceo
Many fractures ate vertical, in thIs caSt:, hncaments may represent favourable locations for
water welk Other fractures may be obliqueo

TABLE 5,2
KEYS TO DETECTION OF AQUIFERS IN HARD-ROCK AREAS ON
SATELLITE IMAGES
----O=U:=1:"':C=R:"::OPI'ING: ROCK T-YP~E:---SI.No.

Description

Lalldf(mns; topographic

20

Outcrop pattems; banded pattcms for sedimentary rocks ( outlined by

vegetation in some regions); lobate outline for basalt flows; curving patterns
for folded beck

30

Shape of drainage basins

Drainage patterns, density and texture

50

by lincl1men ts); triangular facets

Fracture t)1)C and symmetry (as
alluvial fans below; discontinuities ill
above fault or fault-line scarps
beckling p'ltterns, topo!,>raphy or topographic texture; and vegetation types

6.

Relative abundance, shape and ,hsrribution of lakes

7.

Tones and textures (difficult

known examples)

to

describe; best determined by stndy of

Tn)es of native land cover

FOLDS
10

Cuestas and hogbacks; asymmetric ridges and valleys; flatirons on dip slope and irregular
topography on back slope; uniform distribution of vegetation on dip slope and vegetation
banding parallel to ridge crest on back slope; ba)ada on dIp ,;lope and separate alluvial fans Oil
back slopt:.

20

Banded outcrop patterns not related to topography; closed to arcuate patterns; V-shaped
V -shaped map patterns of rid!,>es; sedimentary rock patterns with an igneous core

30

Trellis, radial, annular, and centripetal drainage pattenlS, partly developed patterns of these
types superimposed 011 drainage pattems' of other 1)1)(50

~o

.Major deflections in str<.'lUII channel,; changes in meander wavelengrh or changes from

meandL'1ing to straight or braided patternso

:L

Asymmetric drainage; channels no! centered betwem drainage divides,

to

60
2962 UME/97-7B

LINEAMENTS
1. Continous and linear stream channels, valleys, and ridges, discontinous but straight
and aligned valleys, draws, swags and gaps,
2, Elongate or aligned lakes, large sinkholes and volcanoes

3. Identical or opposite deflections (such as doglegs) in adjacent stream channels, valleys,

or ridges; alignment of nearby tributaries and tributary junctions.
4, Elongate or aligned patterns of native vegetation; thin strips of relatively open (may be
rights of way) or dense vegetation,
5, Alignment of dark Of light soil tones,

(iii) Limitation
Though remote sensing is a vt!fsatile tool, the presence of important indicators of
groundwater occurrence can-not always be recognised as such on satellite images especially
where morphological expressions of geologic structures are relatively small. The tone
differences between rock types are indistinct and variation in the inclination of rock
formations minimal,
The limitations of remote sensing in groundwater exploration are:
1. No quantitative estimates of expected yield of wells can be given from remotely
sensed data,
2, No depth estimation of aquifers can be made. It may, however, be noted that
empirical observations show that len!:,'th of a lineament (fracture zone) is related to the
depth of the lineament.

3. Assessment of cfuality of water is also not possible. Although the type and vigour of
vegetation present on the land surface does provide a clue to the quality of water
underneath,
4. In high-relief areas, satellite imagery may not be adequate to locate groundwater
controls, Aerial photography may also have to be used,
5 Lateral extent of only those aquifers which arc directly exposed or manifest through
land covered e,g, shallow aquifers (vegetation), valley f!lls etc, can be delineated.

(b) Geophysical
Geophysical methods play an important roJe in any groundwater exploration work
Geophysical methods detect differences or anamolies of physical properties within the
earth's crust. Density, maj.,'11ctism, elasticity and electrical reSIstivity are the properties most
commonly measured, Experience and research have enabled difference in these properties to
be interpreted in terms of g<Xl!OgiC-structures, rock type and porosity, water content and
water quality.
All the four major geophysical methods viz; electric, magnetic, seismic and gravimctic
find their use in gr'oundwatcr exploration in addition to the method of electrical logging
whICh is used extensively to study the physical character, especially porosity and permeability
61

of aquifers penetrated by bore holes, Of the four major methods, electrical and seismic
refraction generally find the maximum use in that order.
In unconsolidated and consolidated sediments, the problem from the geophysical point
of "iew may more often be not specifically of locating groundwater as such, but
determination of water table and delineation of saline aquifers from potable water zones, On
the other hand, in igneous and metamorphic rocks where !,'foundwater generally occurs ttl
fissures and shattered zones or in basins of decomposition, the problem is mainly to locate
such structural features which constitute the possible location of the aquifers yielding
sufficient quantities of water.

(i) The Electrical Resistivity Method

The electrical resistivity of a rock formation limits the amount of current passing through
the formation when an electrical potential is applied, It may be defined as the resistance m
ohms between opposite faces of a unit cube of the material, I f a matel~al of resistance R has
a cross ,sectional area /\ and a length I" then its resistivity f can be expressed as

RA

(5.1)

In the metric system, units of resistivity arc ohmsm' /m or simplY ohmm,

Resistivities of rock formations vary over a wide range, depending upon the matenal,
density, porosity, pore size and shape, water content, quality and temperature.

(ii) Seismic Refraction Method

This method involves the creation of a small shock at the earth's surface either by the
impact of a hea\} instrument or by exploding a small dynamite charge and measuring the
time recluired for the resulting sound, 01' shock wave to travel known distances,
L:Iectric lOgging and other related geophysical tools, such as gamma ray, neutron loggmg,
help to determine where the aquifers arc located to reduce the number of failures, Besides,
surface operated equipment, such as the seismograph (non~explosive type) are necessary
adjuncts for maximum f,Yfoundwater exploitation,

5.2.5 HYDRAULICS OF GROUNDWATER FLOW

(a) General Hydrologic Equation
f lydrolof,';cal equilibrium is expressed by the following e(Iuation:

LR LD

(5.2)

+AS

where,

LR
LD

Summation of flows due to hydro 10f,';cal factors of dischar&~,

AS

associated change in storage volume

summation of flows due to hydrological factors of recharge

,~Yfl

62

tv!ore specifically the recharge (2:R) is composed of the following:

I. Naturaltnfiltration deriyed from rainf;tll and snow melt;
2. Infiltration from surface bodies of water;

.3. Cnderflo\\';
4. Leakage through confining layers, or water displaced from them by compression; and
5. \,'atcr dCrtyed from diffusion, charging and water spreading operations.
Conversely, the discharge includes:
1. EYaporation and transpiration;

2. Seepage

111(0

surface bodies of water;

.3. C:ndcrflow;
4. J ,eakage through confining layers or absorbed by them by reduction of compression;
and

5. \Vater withdrawal through wells and mfiltration galleries.

The associated change in storage volumes, L\S, depends on the properties of soil or rock
particularlv, the porosity or yoid ratio, size, shape and compaction of the f(nmation which
are all reflected in the specific yield of the formation. L\S increases with the specifIC yield.

(b) Ra Ie Of G wlIlltiwater Flow

The Aow of groundwater through aquifers under the hydraulic comhtions of non
turbulent or straight line flow is governed bl' Darcy's Law which states that head loss due to
fnctton varies directly as velocity of AmI' and is expressed as:
V

Kl

(5.1)

where

v _.

\'cloci!1' of flow in metres per day

slope of hydraulic grade Ime, i.e. slope of the groullliw,\tlT table or
plczotnctric surElCc

1<

Coeff of permeability or proportionality constant for water of a ;.,';ven

I'CtTlpcraturc Oowing through a t~vcn 111<1terial in nlctrc:-;/day

and

(SA)
where',

(~

C;roundwater How in rn; per da\'

;\

cross section of "yuifer in

porosity of \Vater~ bearing medium, it being assumed that the product' :\1"
represents the arcas of the channcls through which flow is takmg place.

m'

This should not be used for flows having Reynolds number greater than 10. This limit is
generally reached as water approaches face of wells in coarse'i,'fained sandy soils. In practice
no lower limit has been observed even at small hydraulic gradients.
Since T is dimensionless ratio, 'K' has the dimension of velocity and in fact is the velocity
of flow under a hydrauhc gradient of unity.

(c) Conditions Of Groundwater Flow

The groundwater is obtained from aquifers through a "gravity well" or "pressure well" or
an "infutration gallery".
In the "gravity well" the surface of the water outside of and surrounding the well is at
atmospheric pressure.
'
In a "pressure well" the aquifer holds water under pressure greater than atmospheric.
An "infiltration gallery" is a horizontal tunnel or open ditch constructed through the
aquifer in a direction nearly normal to the direction of groundwater .flow. The tunnel type of
galle:T is sometimes called a horizontal welL
If a gravity or pressure well is pumped at a constant rate, the drawdown in the well
around the area of influence will continue to increase until the rate of replenishment is equal
to the rate of pumping i.e. until the equilibrium has been established. The flow into the well
until this equilibrium is established is under "Non-equilibrium" conditions. The flow Into the
well after the equilibrium has been established will be under "Equilibrium" conditions and
the flow will be called steady. The steady flow may be "unconfined" or "confined". The flow
in a h'favity well is "unconfined" and in a pressure well is "confined".

Cd) Formulae For How Under Equilibrium Conditions

Assumptions

Direction of the flow of groundwater is horizontal;

..

The flow is at a constant rate and if) a radial direction towards the centre of the
well; and

..

The well penetrates to the bottom of the aquifer and is

unless it is specified to the contrary.

til

equilibrium condition

(i) Flow Into A Gravity Well Under Equilibrium Conditions (Refer Fig 5.1)
The tlow into a gravity well under equilibrium conditions is given by the formula:

_ U6K(H' .,h')
Q(R)
Log

(r)

(5.5)

"'!here,

Q ::: Rate of flow into well in tn' / d

K ::: Permeabiltty constant 1i1 m/ d
H

Depth of the water in the well before pumping in m

64

GROUND SURFACE.

"f

..

...

QX

...

. .. .

'.

. . .. .. .. . .
..

..

. .

:'WATER TABLE'

..
DRAW DOWN

..

..

rr
H

-----=- - ---=-_
--- - -- - - ---_
IMPERVIOUS LAYER
-- -----------FIGS.l: GRAVITY WELL UNDER EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
h -, Depth of water in the well after pumping

(ii)

R -

Radius of influence in m

Radius of well in m

=(H _. drawdown) in m

Flow into a pressure well under Equilibrium Conditions. (Refer fig 5.2)
Flow into a pressure well under equilibrium conditions is given by the fOffi1ula:

2.72K.m(H - h)

(R)

Log

Where,

rate of flow into well in nr' / d

permeability constant in m/ d

m
II

(5.6)

= thickness of the confined aquifer in m

= depth of water in the well before pumping in m
:=

depth of water !11 the well after pumping in m

65

GROUND SURFACE

.. p. . '.

. ',;

'.

'.

'.

" "

. ;.. . . . .

'

.,'

! . '

...... :~.. ":":",

.
.
'.

."

' .. '",:

:/;"':.~.:

. '.', ..

'.' I

II "/ ' 1 /11

I , III/I 'III
1/11/1/11/1/1111//1///11/ II.
1I111~/IAQUICLUDE III/I

'

~/~1///;I/I~~'It~:;/~{~J?

/IIIIIII~ 111/11/11/1111111111
I

..

'

......

"

.'

..

' .....

.
'AI
...

_,. 0'
\ '.
:-.... CONFINE ED AQUIFER ~:.:;
'. "-. t ",.
#""

I.

".1',

.. ...

.. _

( . . . . ",. ' , . , '

",..

..

.~ e...~

A '
~

. . . . . . . ,., . . . . . .

",,'j/l/.',_
,.:' l . .

1, .... ....... " , j ' - ' }

'6,. ' .. bo .. . ,' ' .... It.
.
... A. f.
f:l. r:.',

' .... "A.

..

.. \.1 ..

--- -IMPERVIOUS
-------------_--= ==--=--=..-_
LAVER
-...

',.

';

.....

\0

..

..

....... -

.....

FIG 5.2 : PRESSURE WELL UNDER EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS

radius of influence in m

radius of well in m.

(iii) Flow Into An Infiltration Gallery Under Equilibrium Conditions (Refer Fig 5.3)
The expression for the rate of flow into an inftltration gallery is I-,,jYcn by the formula:
Q

H' -h'

KL--2R

(5.7)

where,

rate of flow in m 3 ! d

permeability constant in m! d

length of the gallery in m

II

initial depth 0 f water level in m

66

- --

SEEPAGF FACE
AND ENTRANCE LOSS
THiS SIDE
BLANKED
OFF ~ __

-~-

_. ACTUAL
FLOW
PATTERN

~<r-

ASSUMED
FLOW
PATTERN

--

FIG5.3: INFILTRATION GALLERY UNDER EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS

(iv)

f water level 111 m

final oepl h

radius of 111tlucnce in m

Partial Penetration Of An Aquifer By A Well

I f the gravity well ooes not penetrate to the bottom of the aCjuifcr, the expression (5.5) is
not applicable. The flow into a partiallv pcnetratmg gravity well is I-,,;vcn by the expression:

(I

IJ6~~~~2ilh2)[I{J + 7rF:O:~) JJ

(5.8)

where)

R = radius of influence in m
r

IJ

_.

radius of well in m
thickness of aCluifer 111 m

I II = thickness of aCjuifer penetrated

1!l

pHI/II

67

1tp/ 2 = angular perimeter in radia!lS

(e) Flow Into Wells Under Non-Equilibrium Conditions Or Unsteady Flow Conditions
The rate of flow under non-equilibrium conditions is given by the expression:
p

(5.9)

11460q F(u)
T

250$ x'
T t

(5 .10)

11::::---

where,
F(u):::: well function of u whose values could be found out from the Table at
Appx 5.4 or the type curve at Appendix-5.5 for different values of u

Q :::: uniform rate of pumping in Ipm

S

storage coefficient

time during which the well has been pumped (expressed in days)

coefficient of transmissibility in Ipd per metre width

x -

distance from the well in m

draw-down in m.

Q, S and T are considered to be constant.

Then,

Qx114.6

T'

2508

= C, arc also constants

-

The equations (5.9) and (5.10) above be written as:

log C,= log P .. log F(u)
and

(5.11)

x'

log C, = log - .- log(lI)

-

(5.12)

The values of C, and C2 can be found out from the field observations. Drawdowns in the
observation wells (x metres away from the central well) are observed at different intervals,
when the central well is pumped out at uniform rate.
The measured values of 'p' are plotted as ordinates against measured values of x2/t as
abscissae on a log-log paper and a curve drawn as at Appendix-5.S
Because of the similarity of expressions (5.11) and (5.12) and the methods of plotting this
curve and the type curve (plotted with values of F(u) as ordinates against values of II as
abscissae on a log-log paper) there is a corresponding point on the type curve which is
displaced vertically by a fixed distance representing log C, and horizontally by a fixed amount
68

representing log C z. Therefore, a fixed amount of vertical and horizontal shift will bring the
two curves into coincidence.
I f transparent paper is used for the plot of the observed data and it IS placed over the type
curve, to be shifted horizontally and vertically until a best fit of the plotted points to the type
curve is obtained, then any matching point will identify the values of F (u) and u that
correspond to the values ofp and x 2/t by which equations (5.9) and (5.10) can be solved for
T and s.
Though these equations apply rigidly only when (i) the aquifer is homogenous; (li) the
aquifer is infmite in areal extent; (iii) the well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer
(Iv) the coefficients of transmissibility and storage are constant at all times and places; and (v)
water is released from storage as soon as the cone of depression develops, they could be
used in the field conditions generally encountered.
Tbis method is ve,ry useful for long term prediction of groundwater yield and regional
planning of b'fOundwatcr extraction (Appendix-S.6)

5.2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF SUBSURFACE SOURCES

'fhe subsurface sources include springs, wells and galleries. The wells may be shallow or
deep. Shallow wells may.be of the dug well type, sunk or built, of the bored type or of rhe
driven type. They arc of utility in abstracting limited quantity of water from shallow pervious
layers, overlying the first impermeable layer.
Deep wells are wells taken into pervious layers below the first impermeable stratum. 'Tbey
can be of the sunk weI! type or the bored or drilled type. They are of utility in abstracting
comparatively larger supplies from different pervious layers below the first impervious layer.
Because of the longer" travel of groundwater to reach pervious layers below the top
impermeable layers, deep wells yield a safer supply than shallow wells.

5.2.6.1 Classification Of Wells

The wells arc classified according to construction as follows:
(a) dug wells;

(b) sunk wells;

(c) driven wells; and
(d) bored wells.

(a) Dug Wells

Dug well of the built type has restricted application in semi-permeable hard formations.
The depth and diameter are decided with ref<;rence to the area of seepage to be exposed for
intercepting the required yield from the sub-soil layers. Unsafe guality of water may result if
care is not taken in the well constructiun. It is necessary to provide a water-tight steining
upto a few metres below the vertical zone of pollution which usually extends 3 to 5 m or
more below natural ground surface.
69

The steining should extend well

provided with watcr~tight manholes.

and a

cover

The bottom of the well should be

below the lowest probable
summer water table allowing also for an orli:l!111l.m
water is
the
well. Adequate provision should also be
care of .
by other rl!mping
wells. To flCilitatc infiltration into the well,
sleming is constructed in
masonary
or, weepholes are left in the steining at suitable mlen"als. It is usual to insert cut lengths of
pipes in the steming with the outer end
a wIre
and shrouded with gravel
to arrest ingress of fine material..

(b) Sunk Wells

Sunk wells depend for their success on
water bearing formations which should be
adccluate extent and porosity. The sunk well is only the interposition of a masonar\' barrel
into such a deposit so as to intercept, as large a quantity of
as is possible.

(i) Size vs Yield

The yield of any form of a well is dependcnt on the rate of flow of the groundwater and
the area made tributary by the depression of the water level in the well rather than Oil the size
or form of construction. j\s is well known,
effect of size alone is vcn~ small and an
increase in the yield oflarge wells will not commensurate with the increase in size.
The large well has an advantage over the small well in its storage capacity and facility for
placement of pump sets economically. Trouble
often be experienced in the small wells
through c\ogt,>1ng and the entrance of fine sand. This is largely aw)ided in the large well as the
entrance velocity of the water is correspondingly small. Opportunity is also grven for the
settling of fine material.
\Vdls for water supply arc constructed
normally ranging from .'1 m and
above. As the cost of a well increases With increase 111 diameter, more rapidly than docs the
. yield, any large diameter should be adopted after a careful consideration.

(ii) Construction Methods

'1'hc minimum depth of a well is
the depth
to reach and
penetrate, for an optimum distance, the water
stratum allowing a mar).,>1n {irr dry
seasons for storage and for such draw down as may be necessary to secure the reguired yreld.
The method of constmction employed depends on the si"e and depth of the well,
characteristics of material to be excavated and quantity of water to be encountered. The
procedure generally adopted is to have open excavation upto the subsoil water table and
thereafter to C0t11tnCncc sinking the stcining built in convenient heights, over a \vooden or
R.Ce. curb with a cutting edge at the bottom, the curb projecting about 4 ems beyond the
outside face of the steining to facilitate easy sinking. Mild steel holding down rods arc run
ii'om the bottom of rhe curb through the steinmg spaced about 2 metres circurnferentially,
with horizontal ties in steel or of concrete
spaced about 2 metres vertically. The
material from inside the well is dredged' and removed either mechanically or by manual
labour usmg divers with diving clluipment.
71l

(iii) Measures to Increase Yield

Dewatering the well to an optimum extent is resorted to, during the sinking operations.
The constructions supervision should ensure uniform \'ertical sinking of the steining. Entry
for the infiltration water into the well is usually at the bottom below the curb. Tn order to
reduce the vdocity of entry and to abstract a larger yield for the same drawdown, wcepholes
in the steining at suitable ;nteITals,
and vcrtimlly, would be useful. These could
be of cut length of pipes
01'100 mm
built into the sreining, with wue gauze at the
Illiter end, which will be kept flush with
outside face of the steining. Such wcepholes
would draw water from the pervious layers extending on:r the depth of tbe stcintng, apart
from the 1Ilflux at the bottorn. In the tnitial
of pumping and during the training of the
neld, the fines from willer bearing strata round each wecphole would be drawn out
faci.litating a larger influx through each
under normal pumping.
(iv) Porous Plugs
In the case of infiltration wells sunk 111 sandy soils, a porous plug in the form of a reverse
fliter is placed at the bottom
the well
the initial training of the ytcld from such well,
to facilitate the abstraction of a greater yield, as the plug would permit increased yclocities of
entry without sand blows. The graded plug is usually an inverted filter comprising of coarse
sand and broken metal of appropriate sizes t.o suit the texture of the subsorl lavers in the
aquifer tmmcdiatcly below the
The depth and the composition of the porous plug
Will be designed to maintain the natural
layer immediately below the curb level
undisturbed during pumping.
Radial strainer pipes arc driven ....'w",,,II,. from the inteftor of 'mnk wells ttlto the water
bearing pervious strata as (l 1111't1SUre
the vicki I'm the same draw down. The
arnlnECtTlent
in effect enlanrcs
the zone
of the well. I 'urther details arc given
"J
,,)
under Radial Collector \\'dls in

(v) Protection Measures

!\11 wells should he eO"cree! so as to
direct pollutinn of water. \\'herc infiltration
wells arc sunk in the bed of streams liable to carry floods, the top of the well should be kept
Il.S to 1 m ahoY(' the maximum flood
if it is not very high. I f the well top tS kept below
flood level, provision should
made
ventilating the well with a porous concrdc r11lg
placed below the cover slab or with
m
coyer slab ftlled with a graded filter rnaterial.

(c) Driven Wells

(i) Construction
The shallow tube well, also called a
well, is sunk in various ways depending upon
Its Size, depth of well and nature
encountered. The closed end of a driven well
comprises a tub" of 4() to ](ll) mm in
, closed and pointed at one end and perforated
f()r some distance therefrom. The tube thus prepared is driven into the wound by a wooden
block until it penetrates the water
stratum. The upper end IS then connected to a
pump and the well is complete. \Vhcrc
penetrated is sand, the perforated portion
is covered with witT gauze
Size
upon the
of the sand. To
71

prevent injury to the gauze and closing of the perforations, the head of the shoe is usually
made larger than the tube or the gauze may be covered by a perforated jacket.
Such a driven well is adopted for use in soft ground or sand upto a depth of about 25 m
and in places where the water is thinly distributed. On account of the ease with which it can
be driven, pulled up and red riven, it is especially useful in prospecting at shallow depths and
for temporary supplies. It is useful as a community water standpost in rural area.
(ii) Protection Measures
Special care is necessary during construction to avoid surface pollution reaching the
sub-soil water level directly, through any passage between the pipe and the soil. ~The usual
precaution is to have the perforations confined to the lower depths of the aquifer with the
plain tubing extending over the top few metres of the soil. In addition, a water-tight concrete
platform with a drain should be provided above ground level, in order to deflect any surface
pollution away from the pipe,

(d) .Bored Wells

(i) General
Bored wells are tubular wells drilled into permeable layers to facilitate abstraction of
groundwater through suitable strainers inserted into the well extending over the required
range or ranges of the-water bearing strata. There are a variety of methods for drilling such
wells through different soils and for providing suitable strainers with a !,>ravel shrouding
where necessary.
Bored wells useful for obtaining water from shallow as well as deep aquifers are
constructed employing open end tubes, which are sunk by removing the mare rial from the
interior, by different methods. The deeper strata are usually more uniform and extensive than
strata near the surface, so that in regions already explored, deep wells can be sunk with far
more certainty of success than is usually the case with shallow wells. Methods of sinking
deep wells are in many respects different from those already described and matters of
spacing, pipe friction, arrangement of connections, etc., are much more important than in
the shallow wells.
For bored wells, the hydraulic rotary method and the percussion method of drilling such
wells through hard soils are popular. For soft soils, the hydraulic jet method, the reverse
rotary recirculation method and the sludger method are commonly used.

(ii) Direct Rotary Method

With the hydraulic direct rotary method, drilling is accomplished by rotating suitable tools
that cut, chip and abrade the rock formations into small particles. The equipment used
consists of a derrick, suitable cables and reels for handling the tools and lowenng the casing
into the hole, a rotary table for rotating the drill pipe and bit, pumps for handling mud laden
fluid and a suitable source of power. As the drill bit attached to the lower end of the drill
pipe is rotated, circulating mud is pumped down the drill pipe, out through opening in the bit
and up the surface through the space between the drill pipe and the walls of the hole. The
mudladen fluid removes the drill cuttings from the hole and also prevents caving by
plastering and supporting the formations that have been penetrated. For soft and moderately
72

hard materials a drilling tool shaped like the tail of a fish, the 'fishtail bit' is used. In hard rock
a 'rock bit' or 'roller bit' is substituted. This bit has a series of toothed cutting wheels that
revolve as the drill pipe is rotated.
Water wells drilled by the hydraulic rotary method generally are cased after reaching the
required depth, the complete string of casing being set in one continuous operation. If the
water-bearing fonnation lies so deep that it probably cannot be reached by a hole of uniform
diameter, the hole is started one or more sizes larger than the size desired through the
water-bearing formation. Separate strings of casing are used as required through the separate
sections of the hole. If the fonnatlOn is so well consolidated that the hole will remain open
without casing, a well may be finished with one string of casing and a well screen.
This method is most suitable for drilling deep holes in unconsolidated formations. It is
unsuitable for drilling in boulders and hard rocks due to slow progress and high cost of bits.
It IS also unsuitable for drilling in slanted and fissured formations and serious lost circulation
zones. Mud drilling is hannful in low pressure formations due to mud invasion. The
hydraulic rotary drilling generally requires large quantity of water which may have to be
brought from long distances, if not locally available. Because of adding large quantities of
water and sand or clay to the drill cuttings, the hydraulic rotary method is less suitable for
obtaining accurate logs of the strata encountered.
A reccnt advance is the use of organic drilling fluids instead of inorganic and permanently
gelatinous clays such as bentonite. The organics are almost completely sel f-destructive within
a pcnod of few days which means no drilling muds are left in the pores of the aquifer and,
therefore, almost always higher yields are obtained with accompanying lesser development
expenditures. In addition to higher specific capacities, cleaner holes (more cuttings settle on
the surface c<luipmcnt) and faster drilling rates also result
(iii) Percussion Method
In the percussion method of drilling, the hole is bored by the percussion and cutting
action of a drilling bit that is alternately raised and dropped. The drill bit, a c1ublike, chiseledge tool, breaks the formation into small fragment; and the reciprocating motion of the
drilling tools mixes the loosened material into a sludge that is removed from the hole at
intervals by a bailer or a sand pump. The drilling tools are operated by suitable machinery;
which is usually of the portable type mounted on a truck or a trailer so that it can be moved
readily from job to job. This method is best suited for drilling on boulders, slanted and
fissured formations and lost CIrculation zones. Rate of drilling in alluvial formations,
palticularly those havmg clay or sticky shale strata, is much lower as compared to direct or
reverse rotary methods. Percussion drilling in hard rock is a slow process and is being
gradually replaced by pneumatic rotary drilling because of economy and speed of completion
regardless of the higher initial cost

'Pneumatic Drilling'
Pneumatic drilling with top-hammer and eccentric bit and pneumatic drilling with down
the-hole hammer are the two principal methods available for drilling in consolidated (hard
rock) formations:
73

(a) Top Hammel' and Eccentric Bit

This rapidly expanding drilling method is most valuable when drilling in hard rocks
covered with difficult over~burden~ The mTrburdcn, even if it is of the collapsible type,
presents no problem as the method is based on the simultaneous drilling and inserting of
casing tubcs down to and even into the bed rock. The principle of the drilling method is as
follows:
i\ compressed air powered rock drill with a separate rotation coupled to it, works at the
top of a drill string~ [\t the bottom of the string 1S a tung~ten carbide set drill bit, the pilot bit,
to which the impact and rotation is transmitted~ Immediately above this bit is a reamer with
a tungsten carbide set cutting edge~ \'\'ith normal rotation to the left, the reamer will swing
out eccentrically and cut a hole which is of larger diameter than the pilot bit, allowing the,
casing tubes which enclose the drill stnng to enter into the hole at the same pace as the
drilling proceeds~ Since no external obstruct1ons can be tolerated on the string of casing
tubes, they will have to be flush~iointed with male and female threads or, preferably, by
welding. 'rhe cuttings arc flushed np between the drill string and the casing tubes~ To make
this effective and also prevent the formation of large amounts of dust, foam~~producing
chemicals arc introduced into the flushing alL

(b) Down-tile-Hole Hammer

This drilling method, called D'Ilf for short; permits rapid and effective drilling 1fl rock
and through overburden which is not susceptible to collapse. In this method the impact
mechanism blows directly on the drill bit and accompanies it down into the hole,
Compressed air for the impact mechanism is supplied through drill tubes which arc jointed
as required as the drilling advances~ The same air is, after it has passed the hammer, made use
of fe)r Hushing. The necessary rotation IS supplied from a rotation unit connected to the
upper drill tubc~
the drill tubes arc not required to transmit the violent impact energy of the hammer,
they can be manufactured with large diarneter and stiH be relatively thin walled, 'This gives the
method better flushing characteristics than conventional top hammer driIling. Theoretically,
the rate of penetration is independent of the hole depth with the DTH method no \Vatcr is
required during drilling, The equipment is also cheaper and lighter as a much smaller
compression is required than for top hammer drilling.
i\S

(iv) Hydraulic Jet Method

This is the best and most efficient method for small diameter bores in soft soils~ \x/ater is
pumped into the boring pipe fitted with a cutter at the bottom and escapes out through the
annular space between the pipe and the bored hole, The pipe is rotated manually with the aid
of pipe wrenches with a steady downward pressure~ The soil under the cutter gets softened
and loose by the action of the jet of water and is washed with it as the cutter proceeds, down
with the weight of the pipe~ Additional lengths of pipe are added till the required depth is
reached, The wash water emanating from the annular space indicates the type of soil that is
being encountered by the cutter. \Vhen the desired depth is reached, the pipes arc withdrawn
and the well tube with the strainer is lowered by the same process using a plug cutter with
the plug removed instead of the ordinary steel clltter~ Whcn the pipe is in position, the plug

74

to

IS

a
mm pipe
pump

well is cleaned by forcing water through

well. Then it is withdrawn and the

the bottom,
right to

wells, ca:"llg
for I'etting,
tube well
u
outer
withdrawn, (;enerally
econotnlsC

use of water uun",>

arc
and mechanically driven pump set is
strainer is lowered into the casing pipe and the
air is used for developing the welL To
wash water carrying from the bore is
drawn for being forced into the bore,

(lJ)

Tn thiS

t",'tend

method which is used only m rlo"l'v

diameter
which rotates slowly
the cutter,
washings and is led to a series 0 f S\llmr"
brlm:e the water is put back to flow into
can

to

through the pipe and fed back into

pipe, No casing is required in this
or no sand, "Ibis method is suitable for
cutting pipe is clamped to a turn-table
water pumped out of the tube contains the
(;llcctlve sedimentation of the solid particles
Bentonite or some dayey material which
flom time to time,
the cutter is taken out of the bore and
hole, 'rhe annular space between the

"'LUVU is raised and lowered by lever

nearby. When the boring has proceeded a
the inside of the bore pipe is carried
pel:at()r "'N'''F. the top end of the pipe during the
This method when done with
the bore pipe to come out of the pipe,
sump, Bentonite or some clayey material
d,,,,tf,, upto about 50 metres, \Xnen the
out and the well tube with the strainer is
small diameter wells in soft soils
for usc in areas not easily accessible

out in an

and

lm:UlU,1l

labour
(vii)

IS a,aU:IUJC

Wells

Wells in soft soils must be

When bored in rock, it is necessary to case
the well
through the soft upper strata to prevent (a\'ing, Casing is also desirable i,)r
the purpose
cxdudmg
water and it should extend well into the solid stratum
below, \Vhcre artesian conditions exist and
water \I'ill e\entually stand higher in the \n:ll
than the adjacent groundwater, the
mllst eXlend into and make a tight joint with the
mto the ground abO\'e,
impervious strat'um; otherwise water WIll

i5

If two or more water bearing strata are encountered, the water pressures in different
strata are likely to be different, that from the
usually being the greater. \vnere different
pressures thus exist, it is only possible to
their amount by separately testing each
stratum as reached, the others being cased
This operation is an essential part of the
boring and should be carefully perfol1Tled. Important differences in quality and yields are
discovered in this way.
When quality stratification exists, which may be ascenamed from geophysical logs or
drill-stem tests, blank casings should be provided against zones containing undesirable
quality of water and the annular space between the casing and hole wall should be scaled
with cement grout or packers. This will ensure that the fresh water aquifers arc not
contaminated by leakage.
Large casing is generally made of welded or riyeted steel pipe. j:or smaller sizes of pipes
which are to be driven, the standard wrought iron pipe is ordinarily used, but for hea\T
driving extra strong pipe is necessary. The life of good heavy pipes is ordinarily long, but
they arc liable to rapid corrosion due to the presence of excess amount of carbonic: acid. The
usc of rust resisting alloys would be economical in such special cases. Nonreinforcc:d plastic,
usually PVC, casing upto lOO mm dia and reinforced plastic casing and fibre glass for longer
dia upto 400 mm are coming into vOb'lle.

(viii) Well Strainer and Gravel Pack

In providing the strainer arrangement whereby water is admitted and sand or gravel
excluded, it is desirable to make the openings of the strainer as large as practicable in order
to reduce friction, while at the same time nreventllH!
1() entrance of anv
: considerable amount of
sand.
The openings in well strainers are constructed in such a fashion as to keep unwanted sand
out of the well while admitting water with the least possible friction. In fine uniform strata,
the openings must be small enough to prevent the entrance of the constituent b"ains. \Vhere
the aCjuifer consists of particles that vary widdy in Size, however, the capacity of the well is
improved by using strainer openings through which the finer particles arc pulled into the
well, while the coarser ones arc left behind with increased w)id space. i\ graded lilter is
thereby created around, with the aid of back flushing operations or by high rates of
pUmp11lg.
The selection of the well screen is important; on it depends the capacity and the lile of
the well. The size of the openings may be selected, after a study of the rnechanical analysis of
the aquifer, to pcrmit the passage of all fine particles representing a certain percentage, by
weight, of the water-bearing material. It is comnlon practice to usc openings that will pass
about 70 per cent or more of the sand grams in the natural aquifer whose uniformity
coefficient should range between 2 to 2.5. h),. soils with a uniformity coeHicient less than
1.5, gravel shroud should be used. The shape of the openings should be such as to prevent
ciogL;ing and bridging, which can be diminished by Vshaped openings with the larger end
towards the inside of the well. Long, narrow, horizontal or vertical slotted pipes arc preferred
for large diameters. The openings should be placed as close together as the strength of the
screen will perm. t.
76

m a screen should

such as to maintain an entrance

l);,,'trc'ie of sand that is to be excluded by the
to 6 cm/ s, with gravel shrouding I t is
slightly less than the thickness of the
the
The length, diameter and
must
adjusted to give the desired entrance
is desirable to allow for incnlstation and

area

l~,

or no g;ravel~ it is very advantageous

tbe sand stmla, thus permitting the
ciecn'",,;rnQ ground friction 'I'he gravel wall so
depth of the boring I t may vary from
gravel to be provided would be
ncfrctr21telf and the slot size in the well
screen SIZes can now
custom,tailorcd to fit any
former tnultiple (concentrically placed)

lU ern

affected if the gral'el pack ratio,

of formation material, exceeds 5,
devciolltIlern or, If the ratio is excessive,
resulting in failure, The gravel size should
scctlon
the aquifer materials
ttlJHe,d to the grayel

about the same

pack (for natural pack) well, i,(\
coarser
of graveL

the screen sue

It

h)r small

em elia, the strainers arc generally of

it gaJ"aniscd Iron
with about
length of pipe of 1,8 111, having an
24 or
mesh which again
gauge, having about 2 to 3 holes of :1
18,
The cffecti\'C area of opening
mm elia, (
shrouding is not
Slralncr.

(b)

30 mm to 300 mm
the
These haye Vshapcd slots of varying
s"c in the aquifer Slots 2,5 mm
lt1

2 or

;\

to

~)

r11rn

HI

sornc cases,
Tl

Sometimes the brass monometal strainer is strengthened with an inner

greater rigidity and longer servicc,

. slotted pipe

(c) Slotted Pipe Strainers

Galvanised iron or brass pipes having
slots about 3 mm in width and
mm m
length are provided in-conjunction with pea
shroud, 100 mm to 250 mm
The
slots are V-shaped with the smaller opening on the outside. The
,hmud makes it
possible to use strainers with large sized
and abstract a larger yield than is otherwlse
possible. The slots are preferably to be
unslottcd stflpS
between
successive rows or columns of slots.

Ine advantage with this type of strainer over the others is that there is less damage by
galvanic action or chockagc due to incrustation.

(d) .New Type of Strainers

Strainers of different makes arc marketed
specific ad\'antage for
One such
a slotted mild steel pipe core, coated with
anti,co[fosive plastic pamt and provided
with an enveloping graded sand shroud bonded with heat resistant, water tepellant plastic

IS

Strainers made 0 f special alloys such as

red brass etc, arc also used where indicated
High density polythenc or P.VC and
view of their non-choking, non-corroding
uninterrupted service.

steel (types 104 and 316), monel metal,

combined strainers arc gaining popularity in
properties which
long and

non~incmsting

Infiltration Galleries
(a) Wells Vs, Galleries
Infiltration galleries offer an improvement over a system of wells, in that a ),>allery laid at
an optImum depth in a shallow aquifer serves to abstract the subsoil flow along its entire
length, with a comparatively lower head of depression. i\!on:mu, in the case of a multiple
system of infiltration \\ ells, the frictional
contributed by the several connecting pipes
diminish the draw~do\\'n in the farther wells to that extent and the utllitv ()f a well becomes
less and less in the total grid. All the same, wells have !o be locat'ed ,,,tlh a m11limum distance
in between each pair, so as to avoid mutual 111tcrf'Tence under n()rm'l1 pumpl11g. It also
becomes uneconomical to lay long lengths
cOllncctmg pipes in fin:1' heds ,\t depths where
constructional difficulties add to the cost of their laying and jointing ,\gainst high suh,soil
water level conditions, Ihese pipes are themselvcs vulnerable to damages from undue scour
during high floods if adequate safeguards arc nO! provided, Thc pipes arc liable to break at
their junction with the well steining, should
be a subsidence of the well structure under
floods,

(b) General Layout

Elssentially, a gallery is a porous barrel inserted within the permeable layer, either axially
along or across the groundwater flow. 1\ col.lccting well at the shore end of the gallery serves
as the sump from where the infiltrated supply is pumped out, The collecting well IS the point
at which the maximum head of depression is imposed under pumping operation, the
78

depression
farthest

diffused

llHOlJr(W)ut

the gallery to induce flow

The exact alignment of a gallery must

with reference to
texture
the sub~soil layers, after necessary
investigations to map out the entire sub~soil A
gallery could be laid aXially along a nvcr or across a river. Jn both the cases, the
depresston induced is the factor influenCing
abstraction of the subsurface flow into
gallery liner; and the zone of influence
along th<; entire length of the gallery line
have the same variations irrespective of
direction of the gallery. i\ cross gallery would
have the advantage of the same potential
in the sub-soil water level along its entire
length, whereas the axial gallery wtll
a
potential in the sub~s()il water level, from
a maximum at the farthest end upstream, to a minimum at its other end down stream. But a
cross gallery has a distinct advantage when it is used as an instrument for abstracting
maximum availabk sub-surface flow, in the river-bed if this was possible, in which case
cross gallery becomes virtually a SLtLH;mral:C ";Iff"L'C.
(c) StructJlrl' of a Galll'rI!

'rhe normal cross sect10n of a

compnses loosely jointed or porous pipe or rows
pipes, enveloped by filter media of f,'1'adcd sizes, tmrkmg up a total depth of about 21/2 m
a wtdth of 2 1/2 m or above, depending on
number of pipes used for collection of
r.nfiltrated water. The enveloping media round the collecting pipe functions more as a graded
plug whereby water from the subsurface
layers of the river bed is abstracted without
drawing in fine particles at the same
'rotal reliance need not, therefore, be placed on
the filter media of the gallery as sLlch, for effecting the full scalc purifrcatiDn of the inflow.
The gallery has necessarily to be located sufficiently below the lowest groundwater
in the aquifcr, under optimum conditions of pumping during adn:rse seasons.
should, of course, be located lower than the scouring zone of the rivcr bed under
floods, so that the topmost sand
of the gallery media remams undisturbed at all
'rhc natural permeable layers of tbe ;"juifer o\,er the gallery media serve as the initial fr.Itcring
layers for the subsorl flow and also safeguards th~; f,'illlery from scouring effects.
The disposition of the filter medra
the porous collecting pipe and the partl'ctc
distribution for each layer of the
arc of importance. I f the invert of the gallery tS
up to an impervious layer, there is no need to provide any filter media
collecting ptpe except perhaps a nominal layer of coarse aggregate to separate
the soil immediately below and to ensure a uniform bedding for the pipe.
consist of either a single or double !'Ow
stoneware or concrete pipes loose jOl!1tcd
cement lock filters. Perforated PVC
can also be used. The pipes are laid usuaIly
honzontally or to a gradient if aligned in
"Erection of flow. 'rhe coarse aggregate
1.11 the pipe material is in three layers, followed
coarse and medium sand layers, as
below:
Filtcnng medium near pipe line - -'18 mm
2nd layer

38 to 19 mm U{()hell stone.

-'lrd layer

12 to 6 mm broken stone.

stone,

79

4th laver
5th layer

\.. ''''''' sand

nun
a Sieve 1
Fine sand

of

n11n Slze

[etmrtel1 on

Sl'l.t;,

nlUHCV

on

r111cron SlC\"('

In the older practice, the pipe was

coarSe media, while the finer layers
layers on the top alone. This is not
the sides and a repetition of t11l the
collecting pipes is also necessary.

corn

) through
the

The particle size distribution between

successnc
should
a multiple () f liluL Precast perf,mlted concrete
arc also
the enveloping media on the three sides.
Filter media round the gallery
said to
infiltration well bottoms. In the latter case,
to be designed to
particle sizes of the sub-soil layers on
well IS founded, in
of fine particles into the well under
opc'[at1()r1
t() lHClU(:t: a !m'''llcr
plug. It ('VelltU?ltt! serves to traIn
head of depression than is otherwise
the yield into the well and increase
operations. Likewise, the enveloping
the actual byers of the subsoil which
111cdia.
Preliminary boring operations and sieve
could help to
on the
different variations in such subsoils, so
"'s:te'n was on an extensive scale, the
gallery media could be designed
m
to obtain
maximum vickI under optimum heads 0 f llcun_,

(Ii) COllstl1lctiollal Features

The constructional features during
Trenches arc dug with adequate shoring or
decided upon for the invert of the ,,,,llcl-v
below the sub-soil water level, a g1'eater
the gallery. The gallery can be laid under
purpose is not feasible or economical.
m for inspection. These are sunk into
wells arc taken a little below the im'crt
!tee slab with watertight manhole
A practical limit on the yield potential
depression head, if the gallery is unduh'
maximum effects to be realised, the
reference to the gallery grid, with manhole
also at the blind end of each gallery arm.
pumping point, if the grid system ncee:iS
be too (:xtcns1\"c ancl un\\'}ickh~
length
gallen' under any

elf

the

the
pumpmg. For
located centndlv with

abstracted and the IOtal sub-surface flow in the river past the gallery section. So long as the
flow al"tractcd IS less than the total flow past the area, additional bralltry systems could be
inserted in the samc area, with one or more pumping points, in order to draw out the
maximum quantity. \Vhen the maximum quantity possible has been abstracted through a
gallery system at a single location, the potentiality of the source at that point will have been
fully explOIted. In such a case, any augmentation of the supply from the same river as the
source will have to be attempted at a new point either upstream or downstream, with a
distance left 111 betwcen, such as would bring into the stream course adequate supplies from
the catchment, which could be tapred, without affecting the yield from the gallery already in
serVlCe.

When infiltration gallery systems arc inserted in aquifers with confined groundwater, the
rate of abstraction from the gallery must bear a practical relation to the replenishablc capacity
of the sub surface arca which comes within the influence of the gallery under pumping.
The proviSIon of a gallery within it tank or a lake-bed suffers certain inherent
chsachantages tn that the static water on top, in a state of continuous sedimentation, builds
up a Slit blanket on the top of the gallery, which may retard the free passage of watcr through
the IakcAlCd underlayers and into the gallery media. Periodical removal of the surface silty
layer so collected would overcome such a handicap.
(e) Check-dams

C.ndcr certain conditions, the provision uC" sub-soil barrage or check dam across a river
lust downstream of a gallery system, helps m 111umlating the river-bed area over the gallery
and pnmding permanent saturation of the subsoil layers contributing to the yield through
river-bed on an impermeable layer and into
the gallery. The bar:ragc is usually keyed into
the banks for it to function successfully. Incidentally, it would also save the gallery system
against uarnflges by scour Juring floods,

5.2.6.3 Hadia.l Collector Wells

:\ coilector well COllSISts of a cylindrical wdl of reinforced concrete say 4 to 5 111 in
dlarneter, gOing mto the aCluifer to as great it depth of the sub-strata as possible, i.e. upto an
impermeable stratum. Normally the saturated aquifer should not be less than 7 m above the
tup of the radial pipes. I:rom the bottom of the well, slotted steel pipes, normally of 200 mm
to :lllo mm diamclcr on the inside and going upto :lO-:l5 metres in length are driven
hor;wntallv. The length is determined by the composition and yield from the a(juifer. The
dram tubes are made LIp of short 1c1l!o1h of pipes each 2.4 metres in length which arc welckd
to each othn electrically one after the other.
These steel pipes arc driven horizontally into the aguifer by means of suitable twin Jacks
placed in the wdl and crossing the steining of the well, through the special openings or port
holes. !\t the same time, desanding operation is carried out through the head of the drain
1''lx:s. Th" operatio!) ;s very important and results in the removal of all the fine particles in
the alluvium thus increasing the drawofI
/\ sketch of a collector well is given in :\ppendix5. 7.
81

(tl)

Destltlding Operation while

An important operation in the driving of

lin]",,, is the operation of dcsanding of
tubes of 200 mm to 300 mm dia which
dnvcn to a
certain distance, An inner tnbe is then '
into the drain
IS
sending a
blast of compressed air for loosening
particles of the alluvium at the
head of the drain, When the compressed air is [U11nCl! off, the
of
due to
the head of the water table, enables the
into the intenor
well to
carried until clear water without any finc
IS obtained,
of the water is insufficient to m()\'e the fine
'1'hen the drains are driven
This process ensures formation of big
coarser particles in the alluvinm; this sheath
fdter During the course of des anding, the
which enables one to estimate the diameter f'
(b)

(c)

around
sted drain,
of the
a, drain of
section of a reverse
of sand remmTd arc rncasured carefully,
sheath thus
around the drain,

Advtlntages
(i)

The surface of drawoff of r011",I,,y

of an ordinary or traditional well. It
high total yield.

(ii)

The danger of clogging IS eliminated by

of desanding which removes
all fine particles around the drains
creates a high sheath through which a larh'"
yield with low velocity is obtained,

(iii)

The collector well uses 9()O/o

ordinary well under watcr table

(iv)

The collector well is able to

depending upon the strata and

(v)

The drawoff from a co11cctor

is
by valves controlling
radial
pipe, The valves have shafts cxtciKhnE to the top of the
which make control
and regulation of the supply
enables the well to
easily
by
closing the valves, if cleaning is eyer
The facility of cleaning by "I''''''''
the desandmg process, if at a11
clogging and resulting falling off in the
yield, ensures a much longer
installation, while
of infiltration
gallery is difficult and expensive.

(vi)

I n coarse and saturated river

cheaper both in capital and

tn
case
is l'n,any tirncs greater than
ensures a very low veIoc;t\' of now with a

head available from the water

pur.h."'" can usc only 66/(L
varying from 5002500 m' /hi

installatIon of radial
co;;ts than any cO!l\"cntional

well

Limitations
(i) /\ saturated aquifer of minirnum
(ii) 'rhe aljuifer should be coarser
(iii)The iV1uifcr should be

tTl lS nCCC';S:1I'V

hOlY" "",nl'<

82

5.2.6.4 Filter DilSilns

\,1,m there is a
flo-w in a river
average depth of L5 to 3 m
flo\\', assuming a filter rate
to
and under-drains, usually loose
water from
covered with sand.
R. C C. pipes. Ibe collecting well
the river.

IS

is hard rock beh)\\! an

sub-soil met
nuul. :n to take advantage of
filter. Sand in this area is removed
or perforated
an; imd and
be led to It collecting well
L or
as pump house IS located on
of

5.2.6.5 Syphon Wens

\'\hen the depth of saturated 11C]uifcr is
cannot be laid to take full advantage of
tried . .A syphon well will be most suitable in
well, 45 m diameter, sunk to a shallow
sunk all round the well to the fllil depth
from where the water is pumped.

5.2.6.6 Determination

the conventional wells and galleries

certain
to be
case. A syphon well consists
a
at the botton>. Tube wells alC to be
and syphol1cd mto the central well

Wen

The specific capacity of a well is the

case of artesian wells it is usually "",U!l1I:U
working limits of the drawdown.
increase in drawdown and the life
selection of screens and gravel and thorough
(11)

metre of drawdown at the

In the
Sp(:elile capacity IS constant withi!! the
with duratlon of pumpmg,
SP'::UllC capacity can be ensured by proper

Measurement

The actual drawdown m wells under ""m,,,,,(, IS

min
case
of shallow tubewclls, dug or sunk wells,
more common method is to drop a weighted
string upto the water ]eyel, before and
and computing the difference. In the
case of deep tubewclls, a satisfactory
is to adopt the air pressure m<:thod. ;\n air
tube is inserted into the well to
anticipated maximum depressed wat cr level.
initially required to depress the
Air is pumped into the tube and based on;ur
water Ieyel in the air
down to its
the reduction in such pressure with
well
the drawdown during the pumpmg
increasing draw down 111
operations is measured by a calibrated
top.
The speCIfic
recuperation method.

may be

by the discharge method or bl' the

(b) Discharge Method

Using a pump discharging at a constant
intervals of time At, the water levels arc HUI.CU.

water level IS lowered in a \n,lI and al

The discharge eCjllation for tlus l1H'I'llnct

l' = AL1h +

where ,

11)

Q --

rate of pumping;

A _.. area

scchon

wel1;

I<

specific capacity

average drawdown

LIt;

LIt -- internd of time; and

/\h:::;:: dcpn,:ss10n during

1n the' aboyc cl]uatlon, (), /\ an(l
be calculated filf each set of

The scicetlUt1 of the pump

finally_ The time interval LIt should

arc

should

/\h is uhsern:d, h is measured and K can

such that a desirable depression is obtained
depressions during the l11ne mtelyai arc

neit.her t.oo great nor too sHlalL

\VhCll the water level is rnaintaillCd

becomes:

()Llt - KhLlt
'-

a partlcular dra\vJ()Wll) the

c~quation

(5_14)

or

Q = I<h, i_e , the rate of pumpmg eClwlb

that particular draw down and sp_ cap_

Q/h
;\ practical
to confidently nn-di,-i
perrnancnt production weUs is to constTuct 1'\\'0
one well with a centrifugal pump (about
in the otheL Thc resulting discharge
expected specific capacity ofl_2 m

drawdowns for larger dia gravel packed

rnrn elia tesnvclls, 0.6 m apart, pumping
capacity) and measuring the drawdown
draw down in the well (L6 m away is the
to be drilled at the sileo

5.2.6.7 Maximum Safe Yield And

I f the well is not developed to the
of the aCluifers, the maximum yield is
limited by the maximum perulJssiblc ,"",i''''T
well and by the size and the method of
construction of the well. In the case
tubular wells, the maximum permissible
draw down mar be Imuted by the SUCtiOIl
() f the pumps or by the depth of the \vells. In
the casc of rnasonry sunk wells as well as
the drawdowll can be further restricted
with a view to preventing sand hlows
disturb the aquifer unduly. Sand blows
which help to rernove the fines and
111
of the yield are, however, desirabk
The maxrmum quantity that can be drawil
fixed with reference to the diameter 0 f the
well and the hydmuli.c subsidence value
size of the particles proposed to be
removed during the tr:lining of the
best results_ This !nay be termed the
critical yidd_
R4

5.2.6.8 Maximum Safe

DepressIon

l;rom the maximum safe vicld

head of depression can be calculated,
the critical head of depressIon is the
blows which will disturb the a(JuifeT tHtd cause

5.2.6.9 Other Influencing

l:l1n",w

capacity) the
rnaxtrn_utn
depressi()n, usuall y termed
exceeded, ina)' cause serious sand
to
welL

li"f'tell'"

(a) Head Losses

The resistances to flow not uSl1alh'
tube or well, friction in the tube itself and

arc

[netton of entrance mtn the well

heacL

o - and corroslc)ll JDaV

clotrt:in
Inadccluatc area of openings into
<,"X,)
M
..
cause the loss of head of entrances to be a
proportion
the tnial heacL The n:locitl'
head is usually too small to be worth
'I
friction head l!1 wells uP!" 30 metTes
s11'la11 IIl'IIn{>t{'f, it is often a
large
in depth .is usually small, but in deeper
and needs to be carefully considerccL If
for larp," [,onion of its length, the
friction in the casing pIpe may be
into account, \\'here not
the fi.'iction would
prubably be greater, the amount depending on 1
of the well
It may be
as>urllcd as 25 percent greater than

\Vhere friction head is of considerable amount, the vicki will nOi

proportional to
drawdowtl but to drawcio"'l1 minus
dH' wdls 0 f small
and with
high pressures the vicki is largclv dependent on
pipe friction but with large
the
little affected by
ncld depends rather upon the ground
diameter Thus,
while predicting performance of wdls at it
on
losses must be computed and addecL

Jf the well does not penetrate to the'

but reaches shc)rt of this, there

will be increased resistance ncar the well (r)f

quantities
water or, f(n the same head,
the flow will be decreased, This added resistance due to decreased crosssectioll occurs only
in the immediate Vicinit\' of the well and if
of head or total depression IS
and if the well extends half or two third
porous straturn, the added resistance will
be but a small proportion. \,'hcre the ,,",ltef bearing formation is made up
of
different degrees 0 f porosit\' and the resistance to flow
the stratum to another is
the yield will be largeh' influenced by the
welL

(b) Rate of Draw ami replenishment

jn

the case of shallow groundwater supplies, conditions

eCluilibriul1l between flow of
gmundllatcr and draft from wells are
and the ncld of a collcctmg s)'stem WIll
continue ['rom IT:>r to year with little yanation
that due to famf>lL In the case
deep
and artesian supplies of large capacity,
this is generally not truc, 'rhe
of the
111'1I11(:n5c n:slT\'oir of stored water cornrnonh"
111 such cases is such that cquilibriutn
of slope 0 f pressure is established VCty
the pressure head or groundwater level IS
likely to continue to decrease for matt\'
1n thIS case to widen the
area of the \vcU systetn constanth' to increase
putnpmg,

\Xlhere
flow
and not through the interstices of a
porous material, the effect is !:,'fcatly to increase
capacity of the material and at the same
time to modify the law of flow. The resistance to flow through large fissures will vary
appr<:>x:lmate:ly as the sguare of
the first power. As a result, the yield of a
well
through fissured sources
not increase at the same rate as the lowering of
water III thewell,
much more sin:wiv
(d)

Hmll

Total

When developing a collecting system,

to
decided is the extent to which
the case of shallow seated supplies,
the !:,'fOll!1dwater flow can be tapped or
captured by suitable design and the ultimate
almost the entire flow over a given width can
total perc(llatlon 10
tributary area. With a system of wells,
capacity may be a question
the total How can be utlliscd only when
\vatcr is lowered such that there is no head to
cause flow away from the wells on the lower

(e) Mutuallnterfercm::e
I f two or more wells penetrating to
same stratum arc placed near together and arc
relatively much less than the sum of .their
simultaneously operated, the total yield will
mdlvidual yields when pumped independently to
same leveL This mutual interference in
wells depends upon the size and spacing
the radius of the circle of influence of
the wells when operated singly and upon
'Inc amount of the interference is
expressed as the percentage
reduction
per well below that of a single well
uninfluenced bv others.

if> A.11tml[ement of Wells

The most favourable arrangement for a
small wells is in a linc at right angles to
the direction of flow of the groundwater, as m this way the largest possible area will be
flow or along a groundwater contour, the
drawn upon. By placing the wells across
advantage of equal heads in the several wells IS
secured. \X/here, an area of small width
needs to
drawn upon, the arrangement is not so material, as the water will flow towards
the wells from all directions. But with a long
of wells and a large draw off, it is of much
!111f)()ftancc.

(g)

afWells

The amount of water which can be

eXI.ent by which the water level can
amount of water obtainable from a given svs.tc,n
enough apart so that their CIrcles of
will
prpmg
loss of head by friction, this
arc deep amI therefore, expensive, they
lesser extent than the shallow wells
interference can be judged
pumpmg tests on
bcmg operate,l at different rates
111 vanous

a system of wells depends upon the

along the line of weIls. The maximum
wells would be when they are spaced for
not overlap. But on account of cost of
the most economIcal spacing. If wells
spaced to interfere comparatively to a
spaced closer.
extent of mutual
wells, or on those first sunk, the wells
combinations. \Vith the information so
86

costs of

obtained together with a knowledge

subsequent wells could be deiterm"",,,.}.

the best

The economical
for
likewise the economical draw-down
size and spacing also depend upon
solution requires a
study of
(h)

Coastal Aquifer

Salinity

f111"ff?,O;S

In coastal areas,
principal aquil:ers are
formations deposited under various sechuH:rltmcy environments, Ocdlsionally, the underlYllng
tertiary formations also contain
the
111 coastal areas
occur under confined conditions under
water
aquifers are overlying the saline water a'lI]I!c:! or more commonly wedged betw"en
overlying and underlying saline water
of such pCI[,eJelUal
aquifers brings in problems of
piezometric
decrease in yields controlled by the reservoir
aquifers,
Construction of suitable groundwater structures In
1S
with
hazards like vertical downward peco)latron
upcon)mg of
water
corrOSion
of casing of tubewdls while taping the
water
wedged t)elw(~en
saline water
The
in tubcwells '''I'IHH)!, finegr:aitlcd
aquifcl's is also observed very frequently,
The variability of gc':.lloglC
occurrence !11
tracts demands SP';U:'U alten 11nn
both in cxplcln1.tol:Y and
development SL2lges, Continuous [c!:earch
in well screens
special
l1ltlwMf'f cI'""I'innn1f'flf in the coastal tract is e,,;e!lena,1.
to cater to
Monitoring of groundwater
to extensive groundwater
to nc."V('nt
intrusion
would help in suggesting suitable
hazards,

State Groundwater Departments and

of observation stations to monitor
specific studies are
available which

,"\l,lill"U

Board have a good

water

ne1[W()fK

on

5.2.6.10 Wen ueveloplrne:!U

The object of weN development is
sand and other such materials
from a zone immediately around the
screen, rhCI'Pi,v cre~t1t1" larger
in the
fOI1Tlation through which
can flow more
the wells and the development
process continued until the stabilisiation
gravel-pack is fully assured, \VelJ
development incidentally corrects any tl{)!;!',mg
of the water bearing formation
which has occurred during drilling
material In the water
(,mnation immediately around the screen in
the well yields sand
water at
the maximum capacity, \Vell development
operations of flushing,
and
eqUIpping the wells before they are put mto service,

ltl(:Iudtt"lg washing

Flushing can
pumping and back

agitatirtg or by (ii)

(i)

it mets! cause reversal of flow through the

I f the development ()I :elUI(
well. This is
to avoid the
screen opening of
occur when flow is continuously in one
bridging of openings
groups
as
water out of the well through the
direction. Reversals of flow arc
screen and into the \vat(,~r
removing the force to allow flow to
take place from the formation
and back into the well. This process is
known as
'1
outflow (with
to
well) portion of the surge cycle breaks
the inflow portion moves the fine
down
bridging 0 f openings that
to\vanJs and through
screen Into
fron1 which it is later remon:d: Sursring
on
downstroke forces water outwards
is done by raising and lowering a plunger
through the screen, the pllltl,tZCr
plunger or valve type.
(a) Solid
i\ sImple solid type surge
conslSts of two brIber or rubber belt discs sandwiched
between wooden diSCS, all assembled owr
with steel plates serving as washers
under the end couplings, the
or
forming a reasonably close fit in the
well c:";m,:'.
Before surging, the well should
remove some of the mud
on
settled in
screen, Thi" ensures that 11
the a(juifer into the well to permit the
is then lowered into a well to a depth
screen. /\
rnotion is
through a dtstance
the long stroke spudding motion" It. IS
plunger to make tl dmp readily on I he
usuallv found adequate
this n"m",,'

a lei of water and batled or pumped to

hole and any sand that may haw
flow of waler will lake place from
to run smoothly and fredy. The surge plunger
Ihe water but above the lOp of the
raising and dropping the plunger
rig is used, it should be operated on
enough weight be attached to the surge
i\ drill stem or hea,'), stnng of pip('s tS

Surgmg should be started slowly, gradually

hrmt at which the plunger will rise and fall
speed, stroke
time for this initial
and the
or saud pump lowered into
bailed out and
The
sand is pulled into the welL '
as the rate
generally r

the speed but keeping withm the

. Surging (~ done for several rlltt1utcS) the
Then the plunger is withdrawn
fhe sand accutnulation 1n the screen
<Ire repeated until lutle or n()
for each sl!ccessin: per;ud of
The sand pump type of bailer is

"""'c<"d""

wurk,

;.;urgc plunger 1n that the fornK'r

\vhich arc coycfed by
\"alyc

The Yah'c type surge plunger diftt:rs

carries a number 0 f small port holes
leather.

Valyc typc surge plungers arc operated 1f1

(nanner to
plungers. Thee pull
water from the ;lcluifcr into the well on
some
the water in
the well to press upw;ud through the
ll:,l.rUKC to produce it smaller re,'crsc
flow in the aquifer. This creation of a
water to the well than the our rush
during the surging operation is the principal
most important feature of this tI'pe of
plunger. The vain: type surge plunger,
r(,lmln: is parlicularlv suited to usc In
de\eloping wells In frmnations with low
smee it ensures a net flow
water
into the well rather thrm out of it i\ net
can result in the water tIlm'ing
upwards to wash around the outside of
ca:,lllg ,tmee
permeability of the aquifer
outside of the casing could cause
will not permit flow readilv mto it Washing
caving of the npper formations and thus create
difficult problems. ;\n incidental bencfit
gained from the usc of this type of plunger ts
accumulation of water abc,n: the plunger
with the eventual discharge of some waleI',
over the top of the well. The "a.kes
in effect produce a sort of pumping
tIl
surgll1g
the well and thus
reduce the number of times it 1S neccssarv
plunger to bail sand out of the well.
Surge plungers can also be
screen. ThIS
be desirable in
developing wells with long screens. lly
within the screen, the surging
action can be concentrated at chosen levels
is ft.tIly developed throughout the
entire length of the screen. The surge plungers should, f(Jr much usc, be sized to pa:;s fredy
through the screen and itS fittings and not
a close
111 them, as is the case when
operating within the well casing Special care must
exercised when surging within the
screen to prevent the plunger from bccorning
by settling of
abow: It. h,r
this reason the usc of plunger within
screens
only be attempted by experienced
drillers. Care must also be exercised when
to den:iop \\'ells in aquifers
containing many clay streaks or clay balls.
acl.1otl
the plunger can, under such
conditions, cause the day to plaster over
screen surf~lcc \vith a consequent reduction
rather than increase in yield. In addition,
or wholly plugged screen can
produce high differential pressures, with a
0 collapse of the screen.
(ii)

Pumping and Backwashing

(a) High 1!elodty jetting

High velocity jetting or back washing
directed horizontally through the screen
well development. The principal items of
pressure pump, the necessary hose, piping,
water supply.
The procedure is to lower the tool on the
screen. The upper end of the pipe is c<
and of a high pressure pump sllch as the mud

an

with high Yelocity jets 0 f water

OCtne1"Allv the most effective method of
required arc a simple jetting tool, ;1 hibrh
\V;lter tank or other source
safe
to a porn! near the bottom of the
a swi\TI and hose to the discharge
hvdraulic rotary dnlling. '1'he
39

am."'" 7

and preferably at
5 mm nozzle, While

is slowly
repeated until
dc'vdoped. It has been found
mto it, creating a
Jetting are purged
oc,rlJon of
water
m:"'.m: pump for
progress
return to static, the
measurements to
the
he,)rctlca! expected
lnstantaneous
with

)!)':lnlelet!

slot
1uore

with conllinc,OllS
,,"'rnd"

usc
in being dISiSl!,atcd
most
Ovel

trouble as a result

material
slotted pipe,
of the jets is
screc'n can be
achieved throughout the
not bkcly to cause

small

over

for usc in small wells is one

top of
well
simply il1\'okcs the
OIlmo 15 111
This
disc harge is
and
water lc\'cls arc such as to PCrtlllt
pump through
wcaring of its
'1'11<.' usc
the pump
not
for usc 1n

lIS"'S a cell (rifugal pump

ca:mlv and carrying a sluice vaIn"'
closing
pcnclcilc opcmng
creates a surp;mg
on
sand,free. The method IS only

rdatin:ly
the
gra\Tl
the !.,,:adilw
,
'"
l)[ it.,
O"'l"1\'c]
(

conccnt ratH)n

oyer

arl'as,

1S

u:;ually
1)1)

more effectIve than the other methods in developing

packed wells. The thini1cr the
gravel pack, the more likely is the removal
all the undesirable material, including
fine
sand and silt.
The use of dlspersing agents such as polyphosphates at about 6 kg per kiIolttcr of
washwater effectively assist in loosening and removing sut and day from the aquifer as well
as the face of the chilled hole. Flushing IS
when the presence of fine sand in the
dIscharging W,lter is insigmftcant. During development, the discharge should correspond to
the deprcsslOn of 50 per cent higher than the normal depression at which the tubcwdl is
later pumped on continuous duty. Where a
of 511 per cent higher than
normal
dcprcsslOn can not be arranged, the
may
over developed so as to ywld a
discharge 20 per cent in excess of the rated &;charge.

(c) Testing

or

1\ tubewcll out
alignment and contain'ng kinks or bends should be rqected
such cicviatlons cause severe wear on the pu.mpshaft, bearings and discharge ca,ing
tn a
s('ere case, might make it. impossible to
a pump m or out. If a deep well turbine pump 1S
to be imtalled m a tubcwdl, the hOLl$1!1g should
true to line withm pct111lSsiblc
deviation from it,;
tn a P01l1t just below
maximum depth at whICh it is proposed to
set the pump. Jf an air lift or suction pump is used li,r pumping, the alignrncnt 1S not so
important and the same claim has been advanced for the subll1ersiblc type of pump.1t is
sUVJ;ested, however, that even if it is intended to install a type of pumping equipment that
will function s<llisFactorily in an out of line well, the requirements of these 'PCC!llI.;UlU'"
should be en (Jreed.

Tubcwdb are to be tested filr plumbncss and alignment normally after ComplclJOn
dnllmg but immedIately after the housmg pIpes arc installed but prior to commcnclllg
"favel
fllluw
''1
. .avcl,shrouded tubcwelk
<,
,; tn the casc'
<::>

'Jr

In the case of gnwdshrouded tubcwclls, if

assembly is found tndincd in a
[,()$ttlon before [illtng the gravels, the assembly should be pulled m a desired d,,l'c'"
,lpplying f, ,rec through pcks or by other means with a view to fl'cufymg the
bnngtng the pipe assembly within the pcmi1ssIblc
of
The gravel
should be undertaken immediately after the verticality has
and rectIfied. If
between
bl"
means
nece"an, remedial measures should be adopted 111
1'ncan\ to bnng the pipe a~scmbly \vlthH1 the <",,.,,,,,,,,hl 'ltnl1ts
h)1" wdls encased with pipes
than
I tnm diameter, the
ot the
the
shall have a de\"J<lrion not exceeding !II em per 10 m of depth of the tubcwdl
deVIation shall be in one direction and m OtiC plane only. The deviation of the tubcwell shall
be determined accordin(' to the method as rcconuncndcd III IS: 2Rilil I ()(i4.

"

/\ftcr the tubc\\'ellls completed, step drawdl)wn tests and recupcration tests arc
determine the wcll characteristics such as speclfic
and coefficients
and permeability of the ;Jclwfer to select suitable sizc and type of pumps to be i",talled
liibc\\dls as also well spacing.

10

1fl

The water is also collected during aquifer

test and analvsed
usc to which the lubewdJ water is to
the dtfTercnl CO!1stHnents depending upnn
() I

Equipping
(i) Selection afPumps

Ll<:p(.;m1111g upon the

as a ccnt:nh
pump, vertical
shall
to the lubewdls.

fUIDlnc llUHlIJ ..

noted during the tests, a suitable pump,

submefsible pump Of reciprocating pump

recent mnovation is to use airtight pack":fS or

between pump columns and well
(i) produce Jess than atmospheric pressure'; beneath them which enables more
(a maximum additional
(\In) and concomitant additional yield to be
a well and (ii) prevent oxygen
entering the lower portion of the well and
inhibiting the growth of aerobic iron baclf;ria
(ii) .'",mfil511

Sealing

drinking water tubcwells it is neceSSilW that the annular space between the bore
the housing pipe be cement t,'touted
5 m below ground level or up to first
like clay bed. In gravel
tuhewells, two gm\'cl feeding pipes on
the housing pipe should be on n'II uu to the full depth of f(lUndation.

1 Failure Of Wens And The Remedial Measures

corrosion or incrustation of the screen
cleaned of sand by rneans of a sand
be pulled (lut, cleaned and
()UISlUC the
it may be
a

nl:mn or

o\vmg

well
a
plunger
the well. The
1S
sput1Cllrlg, causmg water to
in the plunger,
top
the well
IS
vi()lently back through

. Iopgmr::
. " or C'IV;"
cause " a1f-()

with

nnrk,'"

(11f

(b) Use of DIy lee

Dry icc or solidified carbon dioxide
into a well quickly turns to a gas
generating a sttong pressure if the 6",$ is confined.
charge is suddcntIy released to fall
mto the well and vaporise, generating
The method has its own
such as
freezing the hands and suffocation of the operators due to fumcs of carbon dlOxide and
rupture or lifting
the casing or collapse of
screen. 'fhe method is also not to be
advocated because of its practical limitations in operation and utility.

(c) Chemical Treatment

Chemicals such as acids, chlorine and sodium hexametaphosphate may be added to a well
for the purpose of dissoh'ing or dislodging
mtterial or incrustation on the screen (lr
1!1 the sand surrounding the screen.

(i) Acids
Acid trcaunent may be resorted to
the metal of the screen will not be
seriously attacked by them. Ther should be mtroduccd in sufficlcntlv high CO!1centtal1()HS,
that the acid concentration will reach at
cent ncar the screen, by mC,HlS of a wide
mouthed funnel
25 mm or smaller
black iron or plastic pipe. \\'hel1 uscd in long
screens, acid
added in quantities to fill I. 5 m
the screen and the conel\ietor pipe
raised 1. 5 m
pourmg
The acid solution in the well should be a,,:!lated
by means
plunger or other suitable means for 1 to 2 hours f(l]]OWin!; whlCh the
wen should
bailed until the water IS
clear and the operation repeated twice or
thrice as
I f acid is added in
form,
(Iuanti!\' added should be lXl,,,,d on
the total volume
water st:mding in
well, and not on that 1ll I he screen
!\ numb,'r
of precautions mnst be exercISed likc, all persons hand111lg the and wcanng
and
water proof gloves, pouring the aCld
tnlO
water 10 prepare the solUl1on,
of adequate \Tlltilation in pump houses or
I
disallo\I/(U'lct'
personnel to stand 1n a pit
well durlng trcalrnent
(as the he;!r'ic! toxic gases lend to settk tt1
a h a : ; Iwcn
11
should be pumped to waste to ensure
rt'lnr
all
to
:lOrmal supply.

(ii)

Llllnrme

of
treatment (100 tn
)nne IS
usualh UU:U'.Jl
or sodium hvpochloritc being used as source of chlof1l1e, with proper agllation
the usc
"docile,j'cttilw
or
surgrim'
with
it
to
be
))l')fe
I
r)
,)
treatrnent, Ptlrtlculady in loosening
often
(\1' the
accornpany the deposition of iron
of' Ihe trc,lImcnr 'I
trcatrncnt
Jetting tcchni'juc greatlv improves
be repeated:) or 4 tlmes to reach
that mal'
It
also be alternated wllh acid ,,"'ohm,'nl
firs t.

(iii) Polyphosphates
Poiyphc"phates effectively disperse silt
mangancse and the cltspefscd rnatcnals can

and the oxides lind hl'droxides of Iron

ill pumping In
jon

arc saft, to handle and, therefore, find considerable applteation in the chemical treatment of
wdls.

hlr effective treatment, 12.5 to 25 kg of poly phosphates arc needed for every kilolitre of
water in the well. 1\ solution is usually madc bl' suspending a wire basket or gunm' bag
cot1taimng the polyphosphatc in a
ofwatcT ..'bnut a kg. of calcium hypochlorite should
be addcd for every kilolitre of water in the well in order to facilitate the removal of iron
bacteria and their slimes and also for disinfectlon pl" ;)oses. After pouring this polyphosphate
and hl'pochlorite solutlOn into the well, a surge plunger or the more effectlye high ,'docit\'
)c:ttmg tCc!lIH<jue is used to agitate the water rn the well. Two or more successive treatments
ma\' be used for better results.
i'io single treatment is suitable for all tubcwclls. But with proper diagil0sing of the well
sickness and taking appropriate steps as discussed above the best and co:;t effective method
catl be selected. Table 5.3 gives well clOgging problem and suggested treatment and Table 5.4
gin" application of variou:; well rehabilitation methods on different types of formations.

(iy) Disinfection
in

The procedure to be adopted for disinfectmn of new or renovated wells etc. is presented
Appendix 5.8.

TABLE 5.3
WELL CLOGGING PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTED TREATMENTS
SI.No.

Problem

Trc.:atement SuggcObteci
.......................................

1.

Ci(

to
fine s;md, clay and

SlitS.

(:hcmtcal clogging

Sodium hc,;unctaphosphate 50 gil depending on the

left therein f"r
hr,; The same
:;hould
by surg1ng) It:H!ng
chclnical rnix or
"w,w," till well 1:, freed frull1 el, ;gging.
!lornlal

Hydrochloric aCid or sulphuric acid with mhibttor arc

added to the welL The dosage can be kept as in the case uf
sodium hexametaphosphate.

94

Bacterial clogging

Chlorine has been found to be c!Tective in i<),,,enitlF this

"
type of clog,ging. J t not only kills the bacteria but it oxidises
the matcnal, so that it is dissoln:d. Calcium hypochlorite
should be used to form solutIon of 2110mg/litre which is
introduced in well through small polythcne pipe. \\'c need
280 l,'1n of hypochlorite at 7(1;, concentration for I,OOIl
litres in water to gIve it solution of 21)1) mg/litrcs for the
killing of bacteria. The well is agitated through surging
method, then left for 1(1 hrs for removal of slimes bv
bailinf,r/sunnnfC
or air l'cuinO'
or air lifting
~)'
<,?,'
h
"

TABLES.4
WELL REHABILITATION FOR VARIOUS ROCK FORMATIONS
AND METHODS EMPLOYED
51.

Method Employed

no.

Unconsolidated Consolidated
(a)
Sand Stone
(b)

Consolidated
Lime Stone
(c)

I.

Use of compressed air

Removes the
settled deposits of
fine si] t and cla 1,'.

Not \'C1T
'rpplicablc

Not ,'cn applicable

2.

Use of Po]yphosphates

Removes fine
sands, silt, shale
and soft iron
deposits

Not \~crv
effective

Not "cn' effect;",

3.

Use of hydrochloric
acid, followed by
chlorinc

Remo\'cs
sulphate,,;,
carbonates and
iron deposits

Not YCfI'
effective

:-;ometimes bendictal, aCId

trcauncnt is rccOlntncndc.:d

4.

Dynamiting

Not used

j:ffccti,c for all

rives of \\'ell
screen deposits

Fffecti\'c if large charges

are introduced

5.

Surg1llg

Same as
cotnprcsscd atr

Rarely uscd

51.
no.
(,

'~---""~-~~~~"

Method Employed Unconsolidated Consolidated

(a)
Sand Stone
Dry icc (compressed)
dlOxrde

Rarely used

as
comrm:ssed air

as under

Caustic

II rm,'''','''

Not

Same as under Ca)

(a)

other ba,etcria

8.

Consolidated
Lime Stone

oil scurn

as t.mder

by

as

Ca)

(a)

lubricated

5.2.6.12 Design Criteria

(a) Tullewells
Design of the tubewdl is

(1)

on the following considerations:

'1
effective area of opening of the strainer (the length and diameter of a stramer)
is based on the critical vdOClty of entry of water through the strainer openings
(normally 1 to 6 em/ s).

VeI()city of m,c in the pipe

IS

uS1Jally ",, ;,"ocl to 0,6 to 1.2 rnps,

The allowable drawdown "ff1Wd at

in soft rocks,

formula is usually restricted to :I LU 6 m

I n a well under wate, table conditions at

Clcluifcr should be screened.
(b)

onc~third

to half the bottom

the

Dugwells

l!l a shallow dug well, the allowable

where the \'eJocity of
of water

5.2.7

rate depends on
sand) thus resulting 1n

drawdown
wells, in tilting

DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACE SOURCES

5.2.7.1 Intakes
;\ water works intake is a device or structure placed in a surface water source to permit
the withdrawal of water from the SOUfce,
arc used to draw water from lakes, reservoirs
or nvers tn which there IS either a wide fluctuation in water level or when it IS proposed to
draw water at the most desirable dcpth~

(a) Types of Intakes

Ci)

Wet intakes;

(ii)

Dry intakes;
96

(iiD

Submerged Intakes; and

(iv)

Moveable and floatine intakes.

(b) l,ocatioll

intake:

The following tac:to'rs should

(i)

The location where the best quanty

(ii)

Absence

(iii)

Absence of ice tloat etc

(Iv)

Formation of shoal and bars shonld

(v)

Navigation channels should

(vi)

Fetch of wind and other conditions tfecrit1(Y the waves

(vii)

lee storms

(viii)

Hoods

(ix)

r\ vailability of power and its reliability

(x)

Accessibility

(xi)

Distance from pumping station

(xii)

Possibilities of damage by

\VJter 13

currents that will ,h,<,",,!pn

avoided as

ITl(lV"'"

avail:ahlc
of the intake

as possible

hazards.

Conditions affecting the quality of water will include currents due to wind, terl"<II'r:ltlJf('
and seasonal turnover and other causes that will
water of unsuitable
at the
intake. Channels with high velocity currents
floating debriS
teC are
to
the safety of the structure. N a"igation
add to the danger
pollution from
and other refuse discharged from ships.
afC hazardous because of its Impact on the
structure and closing of the ports even 10 Inclrcs below the water surface. \'\.'aves arc
hazardous to the superstructure of an mtakc; also they stir up mud and silt from the bottom
in such quantity as to affect the quality of the water.
t\ study of the currents in a lake or river should be made before the locati')f\ of an intake
is selected in order to ensure water of the best lJuality and the avoidance of polluted water.

;\n mtakc in an impounding reservoir should be placed in

deepest part of
reservoir, which is ordinarily ncar the dam, to take full advantage of the rcservoll. caflaC'!V
available. ProVision for ports at different ekpths to take advantage of better watcr cluality
should be made.

(c) Design Considerations

The intake structures design should provide for withdmwal of water from more than one
level to cope up with seasomll variations of depth of watet. C;ndcrsluicc,; should
provided
for release of less desirable water held in ",.e',,,,,

In the design of intake a generous

by intakes arc known only approximatelv.
protected by clusters () f piles or

must be allowed as {()tces to be resisted

in or ncar navtgablc channels should
b!(}\\/:;

t110vlng

objects.
07

Undermimng of foundations due to water currents or overturning pressures, due to deposits

silt against one side of an intake stmcture, are to be avoided.
entrance of large objects ml0
intake pipe is prevented by coarse screetl or by
obstructions offered
small openings 111 the crib work placed around the
pipe. Fine
screens
the
of small fish
other small objects should be placed <it an
arca
the
in the intake crib should be sufficlen! to prevent
."cr(,atc:r than about 8 metres
mmute to avoid
s,:t!lable matter
an entrance
mto the if' dat:e
bly,er/sed ports
and controlled to prevent air
water over the
of at
three
1

The
intake
the'

conveYIng \vater

well in or near
shnuld
to a
used.
standard cast mm
although more expensive, makes the

of the
the suction well should be such that the
to the suctIOn pIpes of pumps
not draw air. A velocity of 6() to 90 em/ s in
conduit with a lower
through the ports will give satIsfactory performance.
cross~sectlOnal ',lfCl of the Sl1Cl1on well should be three to five times the
cross~
area of the uHakc conduit

conduit should be laid on a continuously rising or Luling ~'!ade I,) avoid

accurnulatton of air or
pockets of which would otherwise restrict the capacity of the
conduit.

5.2.7.2 Impounding Reservoirs

Impounding reservOIr is a
constructed in th~ valley of a stream to store water
during excess stream flow and to supply water when the flow of the stream is insufficient to
meet the demand for water. For water supply purposes the reservoir should be full when the
rate of stream flow begins to become less than the rate of demand for \Vater.

(a) Choice 0/ Reservoir Site

The suitability of a site must be judged from the followmg stand points:

(I) Quantity of water available.

(ii) Quality of source.

of the construction of a reasonably water tight reservoir.
(iv)Distance of the source from the consumer.
(v) Elev<ltion of the supply.
(vi)Possibility of biolo&>1cal troubles in the case of a shallow reservoir.
(IJ) Physical

Considerations

The estimation of the quantity of water which any impounding works will yield is the first
consideration in any scheme. This consists essentially of relating the capacity of the reservoir
(and therefore the height of the (bm) to the distribution of runoff from the catchml'llt area
98

(i.e. the vananc,ns in a stearn

consideration on its merits
provide the increased yidd

t'CCCfVC

to

to

COn.~tTuct

lYV)rc c\)1')secuUve

first

prelimnary
mdicate whether such a

Any

ulh . ,,",

desig;ned to develop a
of

built, it should
th" behaviour and
construction of an
great extcl1i.

to

from to'pograpl

such tcrrns as,

the
on
diverted around or oyer
nC'\v reserVOir,
careful companson of
these
will '!"I""m,n,'

an

(c) Geological

'fhc deCision as to the

one \Vh~ch rests lan!dv
on gcOl()!.,1cai
\.1
"
geology of the
area) of

construction on. a
t't.:'SCt'\/OH

1$

arc(t

The geological
should be lIsed to
reservon area and the
exhaustive geologICal exploratiofL The
catchment may have a profound effect on
permeable strala may account for high percolation
of the dip is away from the valley.
stram ,Hnn,r
neighbouring valley
result in increased
a
tendency will be for he water stored underground to isc;ue

(tl) Site Exploration

The geological invcstigatlOll should not

of a ,,<1'" I'\le

into which a watertight cUH)ff can be made,

foundations to determine their ability to
the litruclufC.
numerous trial holes or bonngs in addition to
sunk
Preliminary exploration work should also mcludc an
above the dam in order to discover whether
ground in the
movement
subject to disturbances in the past and whether
the safety of the dam and its ancillary works.

occur to

stnltUtTl

I n general,
the preliminary gCO[(),,'1CaJ mvestigations should be as complete and
exhaustive as possible and the
work (often considerable) will bc' well
justified. Inadequate examination may prove

(e) C01nl1Utation of Storage

determine the [e(luired capacity of a storage reservoir, the first step is to prepare a
the amount of ram fall
for as long a period 1t1 the past as possible.
f('rnrcl, of the Meteorological
for
locality under consideration are best.
If
arc not available, the best possible
should be obtained from places at which
condltlcJ!1s corn;spond as closely as possible to those at the place under consideration. The
stora~~e is then
On
expected once in 30 years. In exceptional
cases,
figures for the drought
once tn 20 years may be adopted and during
drought
worse than anticipated once ill
years, rationing of supplies and more
rat:101lHi llSC of water will have to
step is to obtain and study run off records, if there are any, to detcmline for
of
available as run off. Usually such data are
each month of the year the
data froD1 an arC;l having s11niJar
limited and It may be necessary to usc
characteristics.
S(COllO

third step is to establish and tabulate monthly evaporation losses. These are based on
reservOIr area, which is not known before hand but generally ranges from 3 to 10 per c(~nt of
the water shed area. A table is then prepared to show the expected draft or consumption for
month of the year. Tbe amount of stream flow for each month is determined from
runoff
or multiplying the rainfall by
percentage of runoff. The required quantity
of water is found by adding the consumption and the estimated losses from evaporation,
percolation and leakage.
These data win show the difference between supply and demand for each month. The
required storage capacity will
the
total deficiency during any succession of
months when the stream flow is less than the draft on the reservoir.
A mass diagram can be drawn to determme the required storage. The deficit value
occurring one in 30 years may be statistically worked out and used.

Other infornlation furnished by the mass

includes; (1) date that the n:sclYoir is
full and stops overflowing; (2) dates that
reservoir is full and starts overflowing; (3) the
dates that the reservoir is empty; (4) the dates
the level of the surface of the water in the
reservoir stops falling and starts to rise, the reservoir not being completely empty; and (5)
whether the flow of stream is sufficient or insufficient to fill the reservoir.
The volume of water that can be held in
impounding reselYoir can be determined
approximately by multiplying average surface areas between contours by contour interval or
the prismoidal formula may be used.

V = II (A + A + A )

(5.15)

Where,
V

Volume between contours, corresponding to surface areas :\, and ;\,.

100

A" A 2, &A) :::c Respective areas endclScd ,vlthm

contour interval is h,

medium

(f> Biological Considerations

The catchment area should
prcpare,,! so
flow quickly into the rc,;crVOlr H",p",d
organic matter. The
bushes
to the 1,r{mnd
wave action should
pollution should
the reservoir should
and ""'''{ll
reservoirs which
not
the use of herbicides, as it can Impart oily or
u,,,,nH to water
Channels should be cut to pockets
reserVOir
when thelcvd is lowered, The reservoirs ~UU\,H'
consist of at least two compartments
should permit water to be drawn off at
depth
draft to exdude the algaeladcn \I/iller

(g) I{eservoir Management

(i) Silting
Loss 0 f capacity due to the deposition
use fullness of the rescrV()1f in a
erosion control, reservoir operation and ciCSll't1!1l[ "'0111.', 'I
chosen on a non-silt bearing stream, or
channel so that heavily silt,laden waters
should be located on the smallest drainage area
pel' year per sq, kilometre) under Jndian rnnri'" ",,,'c
}\[tcr silt has
depOSited in it reserV01r,
applicable, for removing it other thml to on,eLlte
some extent at times of high stream flow,
dredged malenal presents a serious pn
Soil C1'OS1011
control arc closely
,erosion there would be no silting
conservation include proper crop rotation,
protected drainage channels, check dams,

the
site
be
the main
11CCt:UC

rnetres

to
1S

111

method, widely
to flush out the silt to

t.o
of reservoirs since
prevention methods
ter'fa(:m;g, stnp Cf()PI)mg,

lienee it is necessary to provlde for silting r'''~or''!'v I'()f all impounding reservoirs,
on studies Of data pertaining to similar catchments,
(ii)

Evaporation

By evaporation, a process by which water passes

the liquid state to
state,
water is lost from water surface anJ rnoist
surfaces. IJence it: is of unportancc in
determining the storage requirements and
losses from impounding rcscrVOlrS, and
101

water surface is influenced by temperature,

pressure of saturated vapour and vapour
content of water The evaporation loss in storage
eS";l2I111:,[1 that the available surface storage is
upto 30(,~) cau be reduced economically.

reSef'\iOlfS.

II

solid

cnF~,HIIL

have

property of spreadmg on the

organic compounds which g;tvC
contraeton by wave action thus
film offers resistance to the
'W'.Hauuu is reduced,

alcohol or a mixmrc of these

suppreSSinQ evaporation frorn lakes and reS{TvotfS.
;ucohols
imilgenouslr available
T
rcsen o1n; by spraying on \V;lter
q lrhre so as to cover
The chemical can be med It! solution,
111 PO';l.'(l<.:r
or as all cllm'lsi(l!1. Sora'nn!! In
form is the simplest and most widdy
i\ dose
is adequate for
velocities below 8 kmph,

.)C'::p'lge occurs

of
reservoir are sufficiently permeable
fl,"rm,j en.trance of wa.ter and
through the ground beneath the surrounding
from making
to
extent possible economically, erosion
contour ploughing, terracing, strip cropping,
1o'lI11v
pastufGs and the prevention
the constructIon of chec.kdanlS
be useful on a long term basis.

]{c:serv,llr management IS also

value m reducing the algal problems. Small inflows of
water
In organic matter should
possible instead of allowrng them
to infect the main body of the water. 'The warer weeds in rhe reservoir should be controlled
under,watcr cutting i\lg;tcidal measures as
suitable methods such as dragljing
described 111 chapter <) mily be adopted to cnn"rnl algae in reservoirs.

102

CHAPTER 6

TRANSMISSION OF' WATER

Water supply
broadly involves trol]qmissinn of water from the sources to the area
of consumption, through frce flow channels or
or
mams, [)c'llcndlng
topography and local conditi.ons, conveyance
flow and! or I"'''"',''
Transmission of water accounts for an
the capital e""'UM
careful consideration of the economics IS
em
conveyance, \Vhile \vater is being
it is
to ensure
is no
possibility of pollution from
areas,

6.1 FREE FLOW AND PRESSURE CONUUITS

6.1.1

OPEN CHANNEIB

Economical sections for open channels are gencraUy trapezoidal while

sections prove economical when rock cutting lS involved, Unifonn flow occurs m Cl1annl:IS
where the dimensions of the cross~section,
slope
the nature
arc
same throughout the length of the channel and when
is jusi
to overcome the friction and other
at
at which the water is flowing,
()pen channels have restricted nsc in water works practice in view
the
percolation and evaporation as also
of pollution and misllse of water,
they need to be taken ajong the gradient and

may be
\Vhilc open channels and
conveyance of treated water, they may be
diversion channels meant fi)1' carrying
augment the Yield frorn the reservoirs,

cost

arc not

to

tna111tcnancc cost

to
raw \vater.
arc

fi.11'
to

6,1.2 GRAVITY AQUEDUCTS AND

Aqueducts and tunnels are designed
capacity of supply in most circumstances
tunnels arc generally horseshoe shaped,

sl:t:1lICt:ur:ll

Gravity flow tunnels are built to shorten

cost of aqueducts, traversing nneven termin,
reduce seepage but they may be left unlined
stable rock.
Mean velocities, which will not erode

,'''01nne''

flow
at
and not hydraulic reasons,

O'i'SIVHT

conserve the head

to H:<.JUl,t:
to conserve head and

from 030 to 0,60

unlined

6.1.3

1 to 2 metres

CarlaJS

PRESSURE AQUEDUCrS AND TUNNELS

case of pressure tunnels, the weight of

are ordinarily circular in secticln, In
pressure,
'\\/hen there is not enough
overburden is relied upon to resist
cylinders or other reinforcing structure, for
10 the

6.1.4

PIPELINES

Pr,)ch:nes normally follow the profile

pipelines
ground surface quite closely.
are of cast iron, ductile iron,
have to
i;lid below the hydraulic gr<l(J:ltCl1:t
prestressed
reinforced cement concrete,
, asbestos cement, plastic etCH

6.2
slloniv cnn, Ill'" IS

on resistance to flow,
or
scour, secl.im,ent tranSIDo:rt quality of water and relative
(If'n'''1fH'fH

cost

use m calculatmg the velocity of flow.

conduits and
formula for free

(6,1)

10 3 C

(6.2)

metre

in rnn1

'VUla."'C ntCllUS 1!l

c
104

A chart for the Hazen""\'(/il1iams fornrula is

in\ppendix

(d"

(b) Manning's Formula

The 1\!anning's formula is:

V =

1 2 .I
r 3S 2
n

1'or circular conduits:

3
2
I
V=3968x10' xd 1 xS2
and

n
I g
. I
Q = 8,661 x. 10' 7 x- d 3 x S 2
II

Where,

Q "
S

-=

d
r

di:.;charge

cubic metre

hour

slope of bydraulic gradiem

diameter of pipe in mrn,

::

hydraulic radius in metres,

velocity in mps, and

Mannirw's
coefficient of tOlll'hncss
c>
f)

A chart for Mannitw's formula is

.'

1!1

(c) Darcy-Weisbacll IS Formula

Darcy and \\;/ cisbach suggested the

pipe

as,

(6.7)

;;;::

2g D

Where,

head loss

dimensionless friction

to friction

acceleration due to

velocily in mps

length in memos

dia in metres

O\"CI

1!l

length L in 111(.'lr(S

rnCI'lOnai c'yethcIcnt IS

f( i7dIi)

log,o!.

251

Darcy's Friction
Reynold's

x Diameter !Viscosity

pIpe; k

=:

Roughness projection

Colebrook-White formula, reference may be made to any

ec(unm(:mled Design V,dues of roughness (k)

Value

'k'mOl

New

0.035

0003

ensure that their

to avoid Over designing
rfficn(oved ml.othodls of manufacturing
current practice of xJopting
.m.uu". in under utilization
the pipe
number (hence on velocity and
106

diameter) and relative roughness (d!k). For Reynolds number greater than 107, the fnction
factor 'f' (and hence the C value) is relatively independent of diameter and velocity.
IIowever, for normal ranges of Reynolds number of 4000 to 106 the friction factor' f'
hence the C value) do depend on Diameter,
and relative roughness.
PVC, Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
plastic pipes are inherently more smOO!tJl
compared to Asbestos Cement CAC),
cement mortar! epoxylined metallic
pipes. Depending on quality of workmanship
manufacture and the manufacturing
process, the
Concrete and cement mOftar! epoxylined metallic pipes tend to be as
smooth as PVC, GRP and other plastic
The metallic pipes lined with ccrnent mortar or
and Concrete pipes behave as
smooth pipes and have shown C values
140 to 145 depending on diameter and
velocity. Reference may be made to "
of Water Supply Practices", AWWA!M9
published by American Water Works
(AWW A), second edition 1995.

With a view to reduce corrosion, increase

""'l.l."'''''', the metallic pipes are being I1r,'Wldril

Concrete and cement mortar! epoxyJined
reduction in
an y
values (C

and prolong the life of

durable smooth internal lininbYS AC,
GRP and other plastic
",rVin,,, cap:acrly with
and ,'herf'lnre
substantially

raw water are

to deposition of silt and development
of
growth resulting in reduction ofr . HTlf1n<rcapacity of such pipes. In case of buildup
of
growth !buildup
deposits in
pipes, they can be removed by sera I)],,,,,
and
the pipelines.
to
10 section 10.3 of this
(,Preventive maintcr1ance~ cleaning of pipes)

metallic pipes
tendency
incrustat.ion
wet and
conditions
reduction m their
design 0 f unlined mt,taJlltc
should be cliscouraged.

to

I [azcnWilliams
adlJpl:cd for design purposes atc

U'.'~"cy

as carrymg waters
and stalo'11ant water
operations), um1crgo
lower
use of unlined metallic

values

107

Table 6.1: HAZEN - WILLIAMS COEFFICIENTS

.~-~--------------------

Pipe Material

Reeommended C Values
New Pipes@

~----

Design Purpose

-------~--~----------------------

Unlined Met;lllic Pipes

Cast Iron, Ductile IrOll

1'10

too

\!i1d Sted

140

100

(;alvanized IrOIl above 50 mm elm. #

120

lOll

Cakalllzed Iron 50 mm dm and

below used for house sen'icc

1211

55

140

lAO

145

C()tlneCt1(Hls.

Ccnt1ifllg;llly Lined Metallic

Pipe's
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron and ,\!tld
Sted Pipes hued with cement mortar
or Epoxy

Cp to 120() mm elm
12(J() mm <lia

Method Cement
Lined Met:lllic Pipes
! ruu, Ductile I ron and \lild
Pipes

110**

Non lllet;lllic Pipes

Spun C >llcrcte,
Pres tressed COllcrete

Lp to 120(J mill dia

140

140

.\ bow, 1200 mm (ita

145

145

,\sbcs(os Cement

I 51!

140

PVC, C; R P and other Plastic pipes.

150

145

--~--~~--------

(;y

The C miZfeJjill' lIen' pipfJ indtided ill tbe 'LINe 6,1 are/or cletel71lil?ilZ~ fbI! acap!()bdif),
103

0/ s!liface finirh 0/ new pipelines.

The liser agency I7J(~y spedfj; that JI01l' test may bl?
conducted jor determining the C lla/ues ~f laid pipelines.

Tne quality o/.gahJani::;jng should he in accordallce u!ilh the refetJfmt standard, to

resistance to corrosion through out its desZgn life.

For pipe., of clirJIneter 500 mm ami abOlJe; the nmge of C va/ue.>' may beJrolll 90 to 125
jor pipes less than 500mlll..

**

In the absence of.rpedjic data, thi, value iJ luommended. HOlVeIJer, ill case mtthmtiejield
data is available, higher vallies upto 130
be adopted.

elWin!

The coefficient of roughness for use in Manning's formula f ) [ different materials as

presented in Table 6.2 may be adopted generally for desi g'1\ purposes unless local
experimental results or other considerations warrant the adoption of any other lower
value for the coefficient. For general design purposes, however, the value for all sizes may
be taken as 0.013 for plastic pipes and (J.O 15 for other pipes.

-Type
-of lining

Table 6.2: MANNING'S COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS

Glazed coating of
enamel Timber

Masonry

Stonework

Earth

Condition

In perfect order

0.010

(a) Plane boards carefully laid

(0) Plane Boards in ferior workmanship or aged,

0.014

(e) Non-plane boards carefully laid

0.016

(d) Non-plane boards inferior workmanship or

aged

0.018

Ca)

Neat cement plaster

(Jon

(b) Sand and cement plaster

(e) Concrete, Steel troweled

0.015

(d) Concrete, wood troweled

CUllS

(e) Brick in good condition

0.015

(f)
(g)
(a)
(b)

Brick in rough condition

O.cH7

Masonry in bad condition

0.020

Smooth, dressed ashlar

OJ) 15

Rubble set in cement

0.017

(c) Fine, well packed gravel

0.020

Ca) Regular surface in good condition

(b) In ordinary condition

0.020

(c) With stones and weeds

0.030

0.016

0.014

0.025

109

Condition

Type of lining

(d) In poor condition

Steel

Cast Iron &

Ductile I ron

(e) Partially obstructed with debris or weeds

0.050

(a) Welded
(b) Riveted

0.013

(c) Slightly tuberculated

0.020

(d) Cement Mortar lined

0.011

(a) Unlined
(b) Cement mortar lined

0.013

0.017

0.011

Asbestos Cement

0.012

Plastic (smooth)

0.011

Note: ValHes of II may be takefillJ' 0.0 15for unlined meta/lie pipes and 0.0 11 for phstie and other

rmooth piper.
The friction factor values

!11

practice It)! commonly used pipe materials are given in Table 6 ..3.

TABLE6.3: RECOMMENDED FRICTION FACTORS

SI. N

Pipe M

IN DARCy-WmSBACH FORMULA
r
Friction Factor
"utI)
For D ... iun
To
New
Period or
Years
100
2000
0.02
0.01 to
0.01 to
0.02

1.

R.C.C

AC

100

3.

HDPE/PVC
SGS\1('

20

4.

(Ull to

0.02

0.01 to

0.02

100

0.01 to

0.02

om

to

0.02

100

600

(Ull to

0.02

0.01 to

0.02

O.lll

tcJ

0.02

0.053 to

0.03

600

5.

CI
(for cOll"osivc
waters)

100

lOon

6.

CJ

100

.
1000

om

to

0.02

0.034 to

0.07

100

2000

om

to

0.02

(J.OI to

0.02

15

100

(f()f non~c:orrosive

waters)
0

7.

Cement Mortar or
Epoxy Lined
metallic pipes
(Cast Jrem, Ductile
I ron, Steel)

8.

C;L

--

0.014 to 0.03

0.0.115 to

0.06
110

(Reference may be made to LS. 2951 for calculation of ['lead Loss due to friction according
to Darcy-Weisbach formula) .

. 6.2.3 HAZEN-WILUAMS FORMULA

The commonly used Hazen-Williams formula

following inherent limitations:

(i)

The numerical constant of HazenWilliams formula (1.:318 in FPS

or 0.85
in MKS units) has been calculated for an assumed hydraulic radius of I
~U1d
friction slope of 1/1000. However, the fommla is used for all ranges
and friction slopes. This practtce may result in an error
+:
1!1 the
evaluation of velocity and 55'% in
of frictIOnal resistance

(iD

The DarcyWeisbach formula is dimensionally consistent

coefficient C is usually considered independent of pipe diameter,
of
and viscosity. However to be dimensionally consistent and to
of friction conditions, it must depend on rdative toughness of plpe
Reynold's number. A comparison between estimates of Darcv\\icisbach friction
factor r, and its equivalent value computed from HazenWilliams C for different
111 usmg
pipe materials brmgs out the error in estimation of 'f' upto
Hazen Williams formula. It has been observed that for higher 'C' values (new
and smooth pipes) and larger diameters, the error 15 less, whereas it is
for lower 'C values (old and rough pipes) and lower diameters at
velocities.

(iii) The Hazen-WIlliams formula is dimensionally inconsistent, smce

Hazen
\\iilliams C has the dimension of Lor T' amI therefore is dependent on unIts
employed.

6.2.3.1 Discussion On Various Formulae For Estimation Of Frictional

Resistance
(i)

With a view to avoid the limitations of the I lazcnWilliams formula, the present
trend is to usc the Colebrook-\Vhitc ('(Iuation for estimation
friction factors
and then use the Darcy\Veisbach l()rmnla for estimation of headJoss due to
friction in the pipelines. This practice will yield correct results compared to the
Ilazcn Williams fommla.
The estimation of Darcy's 'f' for variations in velocity and diameter involves
repetitive and tedious calculations. Further, there is a need for assuming a
correct k value in the Colcbrook\v11itc equation for calculation of friction
coefficient 'f in the Darcy~\Veisbach formula. Conservative assumption of 'k'
values will also result in underutilization of carrying capacity of the pipes.
However it is recommended that'
losses should be estimated with
Darcy-Weisbach formula by changing 'f values for varying velOCtty and diameter
combinations and assuming a correct k value in the Colebrook-White equation.
111

Recommended 'k' values for use in Colebrook-White formula are shown in 6.21 (d).

00

there is a choice for use of pipe friction formulae, Darcy-Wiesbach yields

accurate results but involves extra computational effort and therefore Hazenis commonly used. The Modified H.azcn Williams
Williams (H\J\0
(MHW) formula being an improvement was suggested for use in lieu of H\V
formula. 'rhe MHW
shown in Para 6,2.4 is derived from DarcyWeisbach (DW) and Colebrook- Wbite equations. Since the friction coefficient
depends on relative roughness
pipe and Reynolds number; CR values also have
to be varied for various diameter and velocity combinations to give correct
estimation of the frictional resistance which also results in extra computational
efforts, Average CR values are given in Table 6.4 for use in the Modified Hazen
Williams fotmula which will
'na] resistance within S% accuracy as
per Tab]e 6.4, Darcy-Weisbach fOlmula
with Colebrook-White equation
gives most accurate results followed by
J !azcn-\Villiams formula and
Hazen-Williams formula,

(li0

It is sib'11ificant to note that irrespective of the formula used for estimation of

frictional resistance, it is necessary to adopt different roughness coefficient values
for the various velocity-diameter combinations if the frictional resistance is to be
accurately estimated involving changing the C values, k or 'f or CR values for the
same pipe material. In design, various velocity-diameter combmatiotls are required.

6.2.4 MODIFIED HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMUlA

The Modified Hazen Williams formula has been derived from Darcy-Weisbach and
Colebrook-\Vhite equations and obviates the limitations of Hazen-Williams formula.

(6.8)
\Vhere,
CR

coefficient of roughness

pipe diameter

acceleration due to gravity

friction slope

viscosity of liquid

For circular conduits,

V",oc

for water:::

1()"" m'ls

and g

= 9.81 m/s 2

The Modified Hazen Williams formula derived as

:=

143.534 C R ro6S75

S05525

h= [L(Q/C0L81J/994,62D481

(6.9)
(6,10)
112

in which,
V

velocity of flow in m/s;

CR

pipe roughness coefficient; (1 for smooth pipes; < 1 for rough plpes);

hydraulic radius in m;

friction slope;

internal diameter of pipe

friction head loss in m;

length of pipe in m; and

flo\\'

10

m;

in pipe in m' I s.

A nomograph filf estimation of head loss by Moehfied Hazen\Villiams formula is

presented in the Appendix. 6.3.

6.2.5 EFFECT OI' TEMPERATURE 9N COEFFICIENT OF ROUGHNESS

Analysis carried out to evaluate effect of temperature (VIScosity) on value of c:
..
C
0 n(,
maxtrnutn \'anatl0n
() f ('. . R lor
a ten1pcraturc range 0'f 10"(' to ,,0
,,' 1S 4"
diameter of 2000 mtn at a velocity of 3.0 m/s. In the light of this revelation, CR
presented for average temperature of 20"e.
t h at t h e

,J

a
are

6.2.6 EXPERIMENTAL ESTIMATION OF C R V ALVES

The coefficients of roughness in vanous pipe formulae atc based on
conducted over a centurv ago. The values ofllazcn Williams C, 1\hnnings n and roughness k
values in Moody's Diagram have also been used on experimental data collected in
nineteenth century. There have since been major advances in pipeline technology. Both the
manufacturing processes and jointing methods have improved substantially oyer the
and newer pipe materials have corne 111to usc. Continued usage of roughness
estimated without recol:,'11ition of these advances is bound to result in conscn<ative design of
water supply systems. Accordingly CR values of commonly used commercial pipe matenals
have been experimentally detennined in a study conducted within the country. This study
covered pipe diameters 100 to 1500 mm over a wide range of Reynold's Numbers (~ x 10'
to 1.62 x 106) encountered in practice. The results indicate that centrifugally spun cr, ReC,
AC and HDPE pipes behave as hydraulically smooth when new and hence, C" '" I for these
pIpes.
The use of Ilazen \Villiams 'C' as per TabJc 6.1 results in under utilizatioll of above pipe
material when new. The extent of under utilization varies from 13 to 40 percent for Cl pipes;
23 percent for RCC and AC pipes; and 8.4 percent for IID!'1 ': and PVC pipes.

6.2.7 REDUCnON IN CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES WITH AGE

The values of [iazen-Williams 'C' are at present arbitrarily reduced by about 20 to 23
113

in carrying capacity of
ba,:tc:nolloglcaJ qualny of water and ,",.l,w""
data on existing systenlS in scnne
dUl~ng the study 10
111 ,,1111 cd in

such

Studies have revealed that chemical

pIpes with
the carrying capacity
anah'zed
aloll!'
with
.'
<:::I
to the
!11 caI::ryi.nJl,

out

in the case of cr
vaiues as per
n""N"" for CI
AC and IlDPF

shown

SHlUlI;S

to

arc

;"ew cr, Dl,

of

Cll~mre

behave as hydraulically smooth

hence

no reduction in
needs to
quality
waleL
10 prevent formation
with

period
30
pipes if llon,corrosivc water

1')

ncteen

[(ClUClion IS

trallS1,ortcd.

r(,(1lIi,!'ed

HCClf'ri for
care must
and consequent
unlineri

and
ensure

cleansing velocity,
(Iv)

While carrying corrosive waters, unlined Cf,

will loose 47 and 27
percent of their capacity respectively over a desib~1 period of 30
a cost
bio .. chemiGtl
of
trade-off analysis must be carried out between chemical
water quality, provision of a protective lining to the pipe interiors and
at reduCt!d
CR value for ascertaining the utility of Cl, DJ and steel pipe
m
transmission of corrosive waters,

Recommended CR values are presented Table 6.4. The use of the recommended values in
conjunction with Modified Hazen,Willlams formula or the nomograph will permit fuller utilization
of pipe materials,

TABLE 6,4
RECOMMENDED CR VALUES IN MODIFIED HAZENWILLIAMS FORMULA (AT 200C)
Material
Diameter(mm) Velocity(m/s) CR Value
CR Value For
When
Design
Period
N 0,
New
of 30 Years
1

2,

RCC
M:

2000
100

600

114

Diameter(mm)

VI'I

I~llli s)

3.

HDPE alld PVC

20

100

0.3

1.8

LOO

1.00

4.

el/DI
(for water
positive 1 ""gel".
mucx)

100

1000

0.3

1.8

1.00

U.S5*

5.

Cl/D! (I:or waters

1110

WOO

(U

1.8

LOO

0.53*

IOIJ

20()()

0.3

2.1

1.00

l.OU

100

600

2.1

tOO

LOll

15

100

0.3
0.3

1.5

0.87*

0.74

.:

error

negative

o.

Langelier's'

.1..\

Mph 11 j(' p'pes lined

cement mortar
epoxy (for water
ncg;ttlve
. 1: '-'s' .1.
I

7.
8.

SGSW
Gl (for waters with
Langeliers
Index)

*These tllV (11!erage CR lItl/ueJ ivhith re.mlt ill II

6.2.9 RESISTANCE DUE TO SP.ECIAlS AND

q/ 5(% in eJttllHltioll (!f Jtlljill't' res/fIance.

ApPURTENANCES

head loss, wh1ch is expressed as velocity

P'peline transitions and
add to
head as I<
2g where V and g arc in m/s
respectwely or equivalent length
sWl1ght pipe. 'rhc values of I< to
adopted
cl1t.tet!cnt fittings are given in Table 6.5 and
equivalent length of pipe for different sizes
"'''lUI.'' fittings with K~~l are given in Table
6.6.
TABLE 6.5: K-VALUES FOR DIFFERENT FITTINGS
Type of Fitting
Value ofK
Sudden contractions
'"'"

shape well

0.3* . U.5
0.5

Flhmv 90

0.5 . 1.0

45

0.40.75

22

0.25 - 0.50

Tee 90u t~1

Straight

)ff

1.5
0.3
115

Value ofK

Type of Fitting

0.3

Coupling

0.3** - 0.4

Gate valve (open)

\vith reducer and increaser

0.50

Globe

10.0

Angle

5.0

Suring check

2.5

Venturi Meter

0.3

Orifice

1.0

*VarYlng \vlth area ratIOS.

**Varying with mdius

fABLE 6.6 : EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE FOR DIFFERENT SIZES OF FITflNGS

WITHK=l
Size in mm
Equivalent length of pipe
Size inmm
Equivalent length of pipe
metres
in metres
10

0.3

65

2.4

15

O.G

SO

3.0

20

0.75

90

3.6

25

0.9

100

4.2

32

1.2

125

5.1

iO

1.5

150

6.0

50

2.1

~_2_1 0 GUIDELINES FOR COST EFFECTIVE DESIGN OF PIPELINES

.
"
cost of transmISSIon
and dlstrrbntlOn
system constrtutes a maJor portlOn of the
proJect cost. I t is desirable to adopt the following S'1jidelines:
,J(i)

The design velocity should not be less than 0.6 m/ s in order to avoid depositions
and conscgucnt loss of carrying capacity .

.l(ii)

In design of distribution systems, the design velocity should not be less than 0.6
m/ s to avoid low velocity conditions which may encourage deposition and/or
corrosion resulting in deterioration in guality. IIowever, where inevitable due to
minimum pipe diameter criteria or other hydraulic constraints, lower velocities
may be adopted with adeguatc provision for scouring.

(iii)

I n all hydraulic calculations, the actual internal

diameter of the pipe shall be

116

adopted after accounting for the thickness of lining, if any, instead of the
nominal diameter or outside diameters (OD).
(iv) In providing for head loss due to fittings, specials and other
actual head loss calculations based on consideration included in SlJI""'cfion
should be done instead of making an arbitrary provision.

6.3 PIPE MATERIAl,S

Pipelines arc major investments ln water supply projects
as such constitute a
part of the assets of water authorities.
represent a large proportion
the capital
are of particular importance.
invested in water supply undertakings
pipe materials shall have to be judiciously
not only from the point
Vlew
durability, life and over all cost which
besides
pipe cost, the installation and
maintenance costs necessary to ensure
function and performance of the pipeline
y\roughout its designed life time.

J6.3.1

CHOICE OF PIPE MATERIALS

The various types of pipes used arc:

I.

II.

Metallic pipes:

c.r., D.l., M.S.,

I.

(i)

Unlined .Metal1ic pipes

(ii)

Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy lining;

Non Metallic pipes

1')

"

Reinforced Concrete, Prestressed Concrete, Bar \Vrapped

Concrete, Asbestos Cement

(ii)

Plastic Pipes: PVC, Polyethylcnce, Glass Reinforced Plastic, etc.

Cylmder

'The determmation of the suitability in all respects of the pipes and specials, It)r any work
IS a matter of decision by the Engineer concerned on the basis of requirements for the
scheme.
Several technical factors affect the final choice of pipe material such as intcmal pressures,
coefficient of roughness, hydraulic and operating conditions, maximum permissible diamt:ter,
internal and external corrosion problems, laying and jointing, type of soil, special conditions,
etc.
Selection of pipe materials must be based on the following considerations:
(a)

The initial carrying capacity of the pipe and its reduction with use, defined, for
example, by the Hazen-Williams coefficient C.
Values of C vary for different conduit materials and their relative deterioration in
service. They vary with size and shape to some extent.

(b)

The strength of the pipe as measured by its ability to resist internal pressures and
117

external loads.

(c)

The life and durability of pipe as determined by the resistance of cast iron and steel
pipe to corrosion; of concrete and
pipe to erosion and disintegration and
plastic pipe to cracking and disintegration.
The ease or difficulty of
handling and laying and jointing under
diffcrent conditions of topography, geolc.gy and other prevailing local conditions.

(e)

The safety, economy and availability of ma.!1ufactured sizes of pipes and specials.

(I)

The availability of skilled pcrs()!1jl1et in construction and commissIoning of pipelines.

(g)

The ease or difficulty of op,em'l101lS

rnatntenance,

The
and durability of the pipe depends on
factors including inherent stren/:,>th of
the pipe mitterial, the manufacturing pmcess
with quality control, handling, transportation,
laying and jointing of the pipeline, surrounding soil conditions and quality of water, Normally,
the design period of pipelines is considered a.s 30 years. Where the pipelines have been
manufactured properly as per specifications, designed and installed with adequate quality control
and strict supervision, some of them
more than the designed life provided the quality
of water is non~corrosive. However, pipehnc failures fOf various pipe materials even before the
expiry of the designed life have
reported probably due to lack of rigid quality control
during rnanufacture and H1stallation, improper desihrn~ presence of corrosive waters, corros1ve
soil environment, improper bedding
other relevant factors.
l,ined metallic pipelines are evpeered ro last
the normal design life of 30 years.
Jowever, t.he relative age of such pipes
on the thIckness and quality of lining available
its durability or desi/:,'fl life are the two tn<ljor
for corrosion. The cost of the pipe material
t~ovem!ng factors in the selection of the pipe material. ~'he ipe!ine may have ve~)t1g life b':.'t
may also be relatively expensive in terms of capit,tl and recurring costsanJ, thcrefor"eL.~~J.'U:ro
nec~)_~~rryout a ~~ctailed W;n(i!~~.alyS!s before serect;;;g~ap!p(;--;:llaicrlar-r~~

...,

The metallic pipes are being prm'ided

internal lining either with cement mortar Or epoxy
so as to reduce corrosion, increase smoothness and prolong the life.
Underground metallic pipelines may rC'luire protection against external corroSion depending
on the soil environment and currOS1ve ground \Vatcf. Protection abtal11st external corrosion is
provided with cement mortar gum;t;ng or hot applied coal~tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with
fibreglass fabric yarn.
The determination of the suitabilityi" all respects of the pipeline for any work is a matter of
decision by the engineer concerned on the
of the requirements for the scheme. A
checklist in Table 6.7 for selection of pipe material has been provided to facilitate the decision
makers in selecting the economical and reliable pipe material for the given conditions.
118

SNo

11

I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
I7
I8
I9
I 10

TABLE 6.7: CHECK LIST FOR SELECTION OF PIPE J\1ATERIAL

Attribute

I PVC I AC I CI

I Hydraulic smoothness (C Value)

I Structural strength for extemalloads
I Strength to sustain internal pressure
I pase in handling, transportation and storage

I
1

I I
I I
I I
I!

I
I

I-Cspacity to withstand damage in handling and maintenance

16

Dl

I Resistance to internal corrosion

I Resistance to external corrosion
I Resistance to heat/suulighr
I Resistance to rodent attack
I Sustainabilty in Black Cotton Soil
111
I Reliabilty and effective ,oints
112
I Cspable to absorb surge pressure
I 3 I Ease in maintenance and repairs
114 I Use experience
j 15 I Durabilty (Sustainable trouble fret. maintenance)
1

Type of Pipes

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

I MS I PSC I GRP I }IDPE I HUME I GI I OTHERS I

I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I
I
I
i

I
I
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I
I
I

I
I
I

!
I
I
I

I~T

I
I
I

I
I

1
I
I
I

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
1
I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

.fany

I
I
I
I

!
I

I Consumer satisfacation

I
I
I
I

Remarks

I
I
1
I

i
!

117 I ReSIstance to tamperin.g by anti~socia1 dements

1 18
1

19

20

I Economy
I

Availabilityofspecials
Availability of skilled persotu1el for installation & maintenace

-Ii

Behaviour of pipe line -likelihood of interruptions due to

l~~ge, bu~#rtg~~~;a.nd ~~J()! repa1~__ ~~ ___________

I Recommended size range for-~----I Rising Main

I Gravity Main
1~~Main

Note

Weightage

to

10

numbers

in

relation

I
'

I
I
I

to

the

- -I I

1
I
I

significance

of

the

attributes

I
!

(10

stands

for

highest

quality)

may

be

considered.

119

checklist 15 strongly recommended for large and medium projects (more than
15 MId). The checklist can be filled up based on the merits and demerits of relevant pipe
I t is necessary that a c!uantitativc and gualitative assessment is made to arrive at
most economical and reliable pipe material.
'The project report should include provisions for addressing the less favourable attributes
a]ong with the cost estimates for the same. Risk factors should be identified and stated
clearly in the project report. Risk analysis should be carried out to arrive at the correct
decision in selecting the pipe material.

6.3.2 CHECK LIST FOR SPECIFICATIONS FOR MANUFACTURE,

SUPPty, LAYING, JOINTING, TESTING AND
COMMISSIONING m, PIPEUNES
6.3.2.1

GENERAL

\1(/atcr utilities often procure pipes

the valves and fittings from

one manufacturer/supplier under one contract,

manufacturer/ supplier under another contract
have them installed under
contract rather than entrusting the entire work of
Commissioning of pipelines to a single
Manufacture, Supply, J
Jointing,
plea that it results in economy and sa\'cs time.
agency. This procedure is resorted to on
It is seen that wherever single contracts are not awarded

the entire work of

Manufacture, Supply, Laying, Jointing, 'resting and Commissioning of pipelines to a single
a"""m:\" the responsibility for performance of the pipelines could not be assib>ned to any
particular agency, Time delays if any, in procurement of fittings and valves will also affect
the completion of the contract and also
in cost overruns'. Quite often, at the time of
commissioning, deficiencies are noticed which might be due to failure at the manufacturing
stage or due to transportation handling, or laying/jointing defects or failure of fittings and
valves.
it is desirable that all pipeline contracts are awarded on a single contract
so that quality assurance at various stages of manufacture, supply, delivery,
laytng, jointing and
is taken care of by a single agency and the timely completion also
rests with a single
this may result in
of competiti\'e offers and hence results in
Further,
water uti.l;ty's tIme and resources which otherwise arc spent in
n't<Hl'ltormg
performance of several small contracts can be better utilised for quality
m,ll1ltgc'rncnt of
contract. This may ensure economy by timely completion and quality
construction,
res'pc,n Sl hl11tv

it is necessary that the specifications l~)r single cont.ract responsibility have to be

coml)T('fwfl'mrp and provide for penalty 111
so that tbe time and cost over I1ms can be
avoided. There will be several site specific conditions and circumstances for the pipeline
installations which vary to such an extent that it is very difficult to recommend a simple/
single all inclusive set of specifications for the pipclme contracts. A check list for drafting
H()Wf'V""I'

120

specifications for Manufacture, Supply, Laying, Jointing, 'resting and commissioning of

pipelines for procurement through a smgle
is t"wished, Judicious
of itcr",
which cover cross country or city installations is rCCIUllC((

6.3.3 CHECK LILST FOR SPECIHCATIONS FOR MANUI'ACTURE,

SUPPLY, LAYING, JOINTING, TESTING AND
COMMISSIONING PIPELINES
PART I

PROCUREMENT

Section 1 - General
1.1

Scope of work

1.2

Definitions

1.3

Drawings ,md documents nJecrcd to

1A

Reference Standards

1,S

Penal clauses for failure to meet

requirements,

1,6

Basis for Prices; to include all pipes, fittings, valves, jointing materials, mcluding
labour, cost of factory testing, lining, coating, marking and all other incidental
expenses for manufacture, transportation, insurance and deliver}, at
exclusions/inclusions may be clearl\' specified)

t,

11).(111(:(;r etc

sc!leduie & perfonnance standards and

Section 2 - Detailed Requirements - Pipes

2.1

Material for pipes (standards for

inspection

2.2

Diameter of pipe

2.3

Wall thickness/other dimensions of

2.4

Class of pipe

2,5

Laying length

2.6

Pipe ends- flanged-socket/ spigot/ plain

2.7

Special pipe lengths and special fittings

2.8

Working Pressures

2.9

Pipe lining and coating both for bUrled and exposed pipes

lll;!.llT"'"

tnanufactllfing opcrat1()ns, testing and

plpe

Section 3 - Transportation a.nd delivery at site

3.1

Type of tmcks used for transportation.length/weight

3.2

.Handling equipment for loading and unloading

121

Section 4 - Field Joints for Pipes

4,1

Requirements for machined couplings/ends

4.2

Flan&'Cd/joints, pitch circle, blots type, gasket quality

4,3

Welded joints-runs-thickness

PART II

INSTALLATION

Section 1 .. Instruction to Bidders

t 1 Procedure for invitation of bids
1.2

Instructions to bidders

1.3

Bidders proposal to include plan/programme for construction

1.4

Agreement and perfomumce bonds

Section 2 - General Specifications

2,1

I)efinitions

2,2

Scope of Work
Payment conditions

2.4

Statutory Recluirements, Payment of wages,Policy-Enviromncnt control ,safety

Personnel

Section 3 .. Detailed Specifications

3.1

Time Schedule

3,2

Construction facilities

- storage space

interference with other

servtCcs

\Vork and materials

3.4

Concrete
Excavation, Bracing of excavation
from excavation

S,,[ctv to public

Disposal of excess materml

3.6

,\
Mamtenance,
removal ant! rCf,lorlstlcuctlo,n of other interfering facilities

3.7

Safeguarding of excavations

3.8

Backfill

,1'l

Resurfacing of roads within

of property

Section 4 - IJipes
4,1

Approval of drawings

4,2

Distribution along trench

4.3

Preparation of bedding

4,4

Lowering and laying

4,5

Jointing
122

4.6

Inspection and tests

4.7

Bends, manholes, outlets

4.8

Joints- Flanged, bolting materials and gasket- machined ends - welded joints

4.9

Field touch up of site joints.

6.4 CAST IRON PIPES

6.4.1 GENERAL
Most of the old Cast Iron pipes were cast vertically but this type has been largely
superceded by centrifugally spun cast iron type manufactured upto a diameter of 1050
mm(IS- 1536-1989). Though the vertically cast iron pipe is heavy in weight, low in tensile
strength, and liable to defects of inner surface, it is widely used because of its good lasting
qualities. There are many examples of cast iron mains in this country which continue to give
satisfactory service even after a century of use.
Cast I ron pipes and fittings are being manufactured in this country for several years. Due to
its strenbrth and corrosion resistance, C L pipes can be used in corrosive soils and for waters of
slightly aggressive character. They arc well suited for pressure mains and laterals where tapings
are made for house connections. It is preferable to have coating inside and outside of the pipe.
Vertically cast iron pipes shall conform to LS. 1537-1976. The pipes are manufactured by
vertical casting in sand moulds. The metal used for the manufacture of this pipe is not less than
grade 15. The pipes shall be stripped with all precautions necessary to avoid wrapping or
shrinking defects. The pipes shall be such that they could be cut, drilled or machined.
Cast Iron flanged pipes and fittings are usually cast in the larger diameters. Smaller sizes have
loose flanges screwed on the ends of double spigot-spun pipe.
The method of Cast Iron pipe production used universally today is to form pipes by spinning
or centrifugal action. Compared with vertical casting in sand moulds, the spun process results in
faster production, longer pipes with vastly improved metal qualities, smoother inner surface and
reduced thickness and consequent lightwcight(IS. 1536 -1989).
Centrifugally cast iron pipes arc available in diameters from 80mm to 1050mm and are
covered with protective coatings. Pipes are supplied in 3.66m and 5.5m lengths and a variety of
jO!tlts are available including socket and spigot and flanged joints.
The pipes have been classified as LA, A and B according to their thicknesses. Class LA pipes
have been taken as the basis for evolving the series of pipes. Class A allows a 10;(, increase in
thickness over class LA. Class B allows a 20');" increase in thickness over class LA.
123

2962 UA&EI97-11A

The pIpes are spigot and

,OCKer

type. When

water, the inside coating shall not contain

pipes are to be used for conveying potable

constituent soluble in water or any ingredient

which could impart any taste or odour wl'lats:oever to the potable water, after sterilization and
suitable washing of the main.
"

Experiments in centrifugal casting of iron pipes were started in 1914 by a French Engineer
which ultimately resulted in commercial production of spun pipes.
the weight of vertically cast pipes of the same

pipes are about 3/4 of

The greater tensile strength of the spun iron

IS due to close grain allowing use of tiunner wall than for that of a vertically C1St Iron pipe of
equal lengrh. It is possible by this process to mcrease the length of the pipe whilst a further
advantage hes in the smoothness of the inner sur'lace.

6.4.2 LAYING AND JOINTING

Before laying the pipes, the detailed map 0 f the area showing tile alignment, sluice valves,
scour valves, air valves and
hydrants
with the existing intercepting sewers,
telephone and electric cables and gas pipes will have to be studied. Care should be taken to
avoid damage 10 the existing sewer, telephone and electric cables and &>as pipes. The; pipeline
may be laid on the side of the street where the population is dense. Pipes are laid
underground with a minimum cover
1 metre on the top of the pipe.
Laying of cast iron pipes for water supply purposes has been generally govemed by the
regulations laid dO\'l/11 by the various muniCipalities and corporations. These regulations are
intended to ensure proper laying of pipes
due consideration to economy and safety of
workers t:ngaged in laying.

6.4,2.1 Excavation And Preparation Of Trench

done by hand or by machine. The trench shall be so dug that the pipe
required gradient and at the required depth. When the pipeline is under a
a rmmmum cover
to 111 is recommended. The width of the trench at bottom
shall provide not less than 200mm
on both sides of tile pIpe. Additional width shall
nn'W'lflf"d at positions of sockets
for jointing. Depths of pits at such places
sball also be sufficient to permit finishing

6.4.2,2 Handling Of Pipes

\v'hile unloading, pipes shall not be thrown down but may be carefully unloaded 011
inclined timber skids, Pipes shall not be dragged over other pipes and along concrete and
similar pavements to avoid damage to p1pes.

6.4.2.3 Detection Of Cra.cks In Pipes

The pipes and fittings shall be inspected
defects and be rung with a light hammer,
preferably while suspended, to detect cracks. Smearing the outside with chalk dust helps in
124

29621JA&EI97~-11B

the location of cracks. If doubt persists further confirmation may be obtained by pouring a
little kerosene on the inside 0 f the pipe at the suspected spot. If a crack is present the
kerosene seeps through and shows on the outer surface. Any pipe found unsuitable after
inspection before laying shall be rejected.

6.4.2.4 Lowering Of Pipes And Fittings

All pipes, fittings, valves and hydrants shall be carefully lowered into the trench by means
of derrick, ropes or other suitable tools and equipment to !,revent damage to pipe materials
and protective coatings and linings. Pipes over 300nun dia shall be handled and lowered into
trenches with the help of chain pulley blocks.

6.4.2.5 Cleaning Of Pipes And Fittings

All lumps, blisters and excess coating material shall be removed from socket and spigot
end of each pipe and outside of the spigot and inside of the socket shall be wire-brushed and
wiped dean and dry and free from oil and grease before the pipe is laid.
After placing a length of pipe in the trench, the spigot end shall be centered in the socket
and the pipe forced home and aligned to gradient. The pipe shall be secured in place with
approved back fill material packed on both sides except at socket.
'Ine socket end should face the upstream while laying the pipeline on level ground; when
the pipeline runs uphill, the socket ends should face the up gradient. \Vhen the pipes run
beneath the heavy loads, suitable size of casing pipes Of culverts may be provided to protect
the casing of pipe. High pressure mains need anchorage at dead ends and bends as
appreciable thrust occurs which tend to cause draw and even "blowout" joints. \Vhere thrust
is appreciable concrete blocks should be installed at all points where movement may occur.
Anchorages are necessary to resist the tendency of the pipes to pull apart at bends or other
points of unbalanced pressure, or when they are laid on steep gradients and the resistance of
their joints to lonf,ritudinal or shear stresses is either exceeded or inadequate. They are also
used to restrain or direct the expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under the
influence of temperature changes. Anchor or thrust blocks shall be designed in accordance
with LS. 5330-1984.

6.4.3 JOINTS
Several types of joints such as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton joint, mechanical Joint
known as Screw Gland joint, and conventional joint known as Lead joint are used.

6.4.3.1 Categories Of Joints

Joints are classified into the following three categories depending upon their capacity for
movement.
(a) l{igid joints

Rif,>id joints arc those which admit no movcment at all and comprise of flanged, welded
and turned and bored joints. Flanged joints 1Tlluirc perfect alignment and close fittings are
125

frequently used when, a longitudinal thrust must be taken such as at the valves and meters.
The gaskets used between flanges of pipes shall be of compressed fibre board or natural or
synthetic rubber. \Velded joints produce a continuous line of pipes with the advantage that
interior and exterior coatings can be made properly and are not subsecJnently disrupted by
the movement of joints.
(b) Semi Rigid joints

Semi rigid joint is reprcsentt~d by the spigot and socket with caulked lead joint. A semi
rigid j01111 allows partial movement due to vibration etc. The socketed end of the pipe should
bc' kept
the flow of water and the spigot end of the other pipe is inserted into this
socket. A twisted spun yarn is filled into this gap and it is adjusted by the yarntng tool and is
caulked well. A rope is then placed at the outer end of the socket and is made tight fit
by applying wet day, leaving t\VO holes for the escape of the entrapped air inside. The rope is
taken out and molten lead is poured into the annular space by means of a funnel. The clay is
removed and the lead is caulked with a caulking tool. Lead wool may be used in wet
conditi.ons. Lead covered yarn is of !,'fcat usc in repair work, since the leaded yarn caulked
mto place will keep back water under very low pressure while the joint is being made.
(c) Flexible joints

Flexible joints are used where rigidity is undesirable such as with filling of granular
medium and when two sections cannot be welded. They compnse mainly mechanical and
mbhcr ring joints or tyton joints which permit some d"b'fee of deflection at each joint and
arc thc,ref<:lre able to stand VIbration and movement. 1n rubber jointing special type of rubber
are used to connect. cast iron pipe which arc cast with a special type of spigot and
socket in the groove, the spigot end being lubricated with grease and slipped into the socket
by means of a jack used on the other end. The workmg conditions of absence of light,
presence of water and relatively cool unifnml temperature are all conducive to the
preservation of mbber and consctJuently this type of Joint is expected to last as long as the
pipes. lIenee, rubber jointing is to be preferred to lead jointing.

6.4.4 TESTING OF THE PIPELINE

6.4.4.1 Genera.1.
After laying and jointing, the pipeline must be pressure tested to ensure that pipes and
ioints are sound enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely to be developed under
working condit1ons.

J6,4.4.2 Testing Of Pressure Pipes

field test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the maxImum of the
follo.
(a)

1 1/2 times the maximum sustained operating pressure.

(b)

1 1/2 times the maximum pipehne static pressure.

126

(c)

Sum of the maximum sustained opt,rating pressure and the maximum surge
pressure.

(d)

Sum of the maxImum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge pressure,
subject to a maximum equal to the work test pressure f,)[ any pipe fittmgs
incorporated.

11

The fidd test pressure should \vherevcr possible be not less than 2/3 work test pressure
appropriate, to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron pipes and should be applied
and maintained for atleast four hours. If the visual inspection satisfies that there m no
leakage, the test can be passed.
Where the field test pressure is less than 2/3 tile work test pressure, the period of test
should be mcreased to atlcast 24 hours. The test pressure shall be gradually raised at the rate
of 1 kg/cm2 /min. If the pressure measurements are not made at the lowest pomt of the
section, an allowance should be made for the difference in static head betwcc,n the lowest.
point and the point of measurement to ensure that the maximum pressure is not exceeded at
the lowest point. If a drop in pressure occurs, the quantity of water added in order to
re-establish the test pressure should be carefully measured. ThiS should not exceed n.! litre
pe, mm of pipe diameter per KM of pipeline per day for each 30 metre head of pressure
applied.
In case of gravity pipes, maximum working pressure sball be 2/3 work test pressure.
The hydrostatic test pressure at works and at field after installation and the working
pressure for different classes of pipes are given in Appendix. GA.
The allowable leakage during the maintenance stage of pipe;, carefully laid and well
during construction, however should not exceed;
ND/f>
qL ,~ ~.. -.-..115

(6.11)

\Vbere,

qL-

Allowable leakage in em3 /hour

No of Joints in the length of pipe line

::::

Diameter 1!l mm

The average test pressure during tbe leakage test in kg/em'

where any test of pipe laid indicates leakage greater than that specitlcd as per the above
formula, the defective pipe(s) or jOlnt(5) shall be repaired/replaced until the leakage is within
the specified allowance.
The above is applicable to spigot and socket Cast I ron pipes and i\. C pressure pipes,
whereas, twice this fignre may be taken for sted and prestressed concrete pipes.

127

'(

fll

6.4.4.3 Testing Of Non-Pressure Conduits

In case of testing of non-pressure conduits, the pipeline shall be subject to a test for of
2.5 meters head of water at the highest point of t\e section under test for 10 minutes. The
leakage or quantity of water to be supplied to maintain the test pressure during the period of
10 minutes shall not exceed O.2Iitres/mm dia of pipes per kilometer length per day.

6.5 STEEL PIPES

6.5.1 GENERAL
Steel pipes of smaller diameter can be made from solid bar sections by hot or cold
drawing processes and these tubes arc referred to as seamless. But the larger sizes are made
by welding together the edges of suitably curved plates, the sockets being formed later in a
press(IS:3589). The thickness of steel used is often controlled by the need to make the pipe
stiff enough to keep its circular shape during storage, transportation and laying as also to
prevent excessive deflection under the load of trench back fUling. The thickness of a steel
pipe is however always considerably less than the thickness of the corresponding vertically
cast or spun iron pipe. Owing to the higher tensile strength of the steel, it is possible to make
steel pipe of lower wall thickness and lower weight. Specials of all kinds can be fabricated
without difficulty to suit the differc. nt site conditions. Due to their elasticity, steel pipes .adopt
themselves to changes in relative ground level without failure and hence are very suitable for
laying in ground liable to subsidence. If the pipes arc joined by a form of flexible joint, it
provides an additional safeguard against failure. Steel pipes being flexible are best suited for.
high dynamic loading.

6.5.2 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION

It must be borne in mind, however, that steel mains need protection from corrosion
internally and externally. Against internal corrosion, steel pipes are given epoxy lining or hot
applied coal tar/asphalt lining or rich cement mortar lining at works or in the field by the
centrifugal process. The outer coating for under ground pipeline may be in cement-sand
!,'lliniting or hot applied coal tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with fibreglass fabric yarn,

6.5.3 LAYING AND JOINTING

Small size mild steel pipes have got threaded ends with one socket. They are lowered
down in the trenches and laid to alignment and gradient. The jointing materials for this type
of pipes are white lead and spun yam. 'I11C white lead is applied on the threaded end with
spun yam and inserted into socket of another pipe. The pipe is then turned to tighten it.
When these pipes are used in the construction of tube wells, the socketed ends after
positioning without any jointing material arc welded and lowered down. Lining and out
coating is done by different methods to protect steel pipes, While laying, the pipes already
stocked along the trenches are lowered down into the trenches with the help of chain pulley
block The formation of bed should be uniform. The pipes are laid true to the alignment and
gradient before jointing. The ends of these pipes are butted against each other, welded and a
128

coat of rich cement mortar is applied after welding. Steel pipes may be joined with flexible
joints or by welding but lead or other filler
hot or cold, are not recommended, The
welded joint is to be preferred. In areas
to subsidence this joint is satisfactory but
flexible joints must be provided to isolate valves and branches.
When welding is adopted, plain-ended pipes may be jointed by butt welds or sleeved
pipes by means of finct welds, For laying long straight k~lgths of pipelines, butt joint
technique may be employed. 'Ibe steel pipes used for water supply include hydraulic lap
welded, electric fusion welded, submerged arc welded and spiral welded pipes. The latter are
being made from steel strip, For laying 0 f welded steel pipe IS 5822-1986 may be referred
to.
For more details on different types of steel pipes used, reference may be made to the lSI
codes indicated in Appendix 'C'.
For hydraulic testing of steel pipelines, the procedure described
and ductile iron pipes may be followed.

t(J

cast iron spun pipes

6.6 DUCTILE IRON PIPES

6.6.1

GENERAL

Ductile I ron is made by a metallurgical process which involves the addition of magnesium
into molten iron of low sulfur content. The magnesium causes the graphite in the iron to
predpitatt~ in the form of microscopic (6,25 micron) spheres rather than the flakes found
in ordinary cast iron. The spheroidal h'faphite in iron improves the properties of ductile iron,
It possesses properties of high mechanical strength, excellent inlpact resistance and good
casting qualities 0 f grey cast iron, Ductile Iron pipes are normally prepared using the
centrifugal cast process. 1be ductile iron pipes are usually provided with cement mortar
lining at the factory by centrifugal process to ensure a uniform thickness through out its
length. Cement mortar lining is superior to bituminous lining as the former provides a
smooth surface and prevents tuberculation by creating a high pH at the pipe wall and
ultimately by providing a physical and chemical barrier to the water,
The Indian standard IS 8329-1994 provides specifications for the centrifugally cast ductile
iron plpes(Similar to ISO:2531-1998 and EN:545-1994), These pipes are available in the
range of 80 mm to 1000 mm diameter; in lengths of 5,5 to 6 m. These pipes are being
manufactured in the country with ISO 9002 accreditation.
Ductile iron pipes have excellent properties of machinability, impact resistance, high wear
and tear resistance, high tensile strength, ductility and corrosion resistance. 01 pipes having
same composition of CI pipe, it will have same expected life as that of CI pipes, The ductile
iron pipes are strong, both inner and outer surfaces are smooth, free from lumps, cracks
blisters and scars, Ductile Iron pipes stand up to hydraulic pressure tests as required by
service regulations, These pipes are approximately 30% lighter than conventional cast iron
pipes,

129

Ductile iron pipes are lined with cement mortar in the factory by centrifugal process and
unlined ductile iron pipes are also available. For more details reference may be made to IS
8329 - 1994 for Ductile Iron Pipes.

6.6.2 DUCTILE IRON FITTINGS

The ductile iron fittings are manufactured conforming to IS 95231980 for Ductile Iron
fittings.
6.6.3 JOINTS
The joints for ductile iron pipes are suitable for use of rubber gaskets confom1ing to IS
5383.

6.6.4 LAYING AND JOINTING

Reference may be made to para 6.4.2 Qaying and jointing of cast iron pipes).

6.6.5 TESTING OF DUCTILE IRON PIPELINES

'Ibe Ductile Iron pipelines are tested as per para 6.4.4 (testing of the pipeline) The test
pressures shall be as per IS 8329 . 1994.

6.7 ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES

6.7.1 GENERAL
Asbestos cement pipes are made of a mixture of asbestos paste and cement compressed
by steel rollers to form a lan1inated material of great strength and density. Its carrying
capacity remains substantially constant as when first laid, irrespective of the quality of water.
It can be drilled and tapped for connecting but does not have the same strength or suitability
for threading as iron and any leakage at the thread will become worse as time passes.
However, this difficulty can be over come by screwing the ferrules through malleable iron
saddles fIXed at the point of service connections as is the general practice. These pipes arc
not suitable for use in sulphate soils. Due to expansion and contraction of black cotton soil,
usage of these pipes may be avoided as far as possible in Black Cotton soils, except where
the depth of B. C. soil is clearly less than 0.9 metre below ground level.
The available safety against bursting under pressure and against failure in longitudinal
bending, though less than that for spun iron pipes, is nevertheless adequate and increases as
the pipe ages. In most cases, good bedding of the pipes and the use of flexible joints are of
greater importance in preventing failure by bending, than the strength of pipe itself Flexible
joints are used at regular intervals to provide for repairing of pipes, if necessary.
AC pipes are manufactured from classes S to 25 and nominal diameters of 80mm to
600mm with the test pressure of 5 to 25 Kg/cm2
AC pipe can meet the general requirements of water supply undertakings for rising main
as well as distribution main. It is classified as class 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25, which have test
pressures 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 Kg/ cm z respectively. Working pressures shall not be greater
130

than 50;() of test pressure for pumping mains and 67{)/" for gravity mains.
For further details, refer to IS 1592-1989.

6.7.2 HANDLING
Utmost care must be taken
retransporting to the
to avoid dam3,oe

transportabon, unloadmg, stacking and

6.7.2.1 Laying And Jointing

The width of the trench should
outside di,lmetcr of
pipe by
usually kept 1 meter above the top
is proVided on the top of the pipe.

throughout the leni,>th and greater than the

on either stde of the pipe. The depth of the trench IS
the pipe.
traffic, a cover of atlcas! 1.25 Incte!

The AC pipes to
laid are
along
trenches on the side or opposite to the
spoils. Each pipe should be
such as cracks, chipped ends, crusting
the sides etc. The defective pipes
be removed forthwith from the site as otherwise
they are likely to be mixed up with the good
Before use the inside of the pipes will
to be cleaned. 'Ine lighter pipes
80Kg can be lowered in thc: trench
by hand. if the sides of the trench
too
ropes must
used. The pipes of
medium weight upto 200Kg arc
means of ropes looped around both the
One end of the rope is
to a
or
into the ground and the
other end of the rope is held by mcn and lS slowly
to
the pipe into the trench.
After thetr being lowered into
are aligned
jOlllting. The bed of the lH.:nch
should be umfoml.

6.7.3 PIPE JOINTS

There are two types of joints

Cast iron detachable jOlllt,

AC coupling joint
(a) Cast Ir01l Detachable Joints

This consists of two cast iron flanges, a cast iron central collar and two tUbber rings along
with a set of nuts and bolts for the particular joint. For this joint, the AC pipes should have
flush ends. For jointing a flange, a tUbber ring and a collar are slipped to the first pipe in that
order; a flange and a tUbber ring being introduced from the jointing of the next pipe. Both
the pipes are now aligned and the collar centralized and the joints of the flanges tightened
with nuts and bolts.
(b)

A.C. Coupling Joint

This consists of an AC Coupling and three special rubber rings. The pipes for these
joints have chamfered ends. These tUbber rings are positioned in the grooves inside the
coupling, then grease is applied on the chamfered end and the pipe and coupling is pushed
131

with the help of a jack against the pipe. The mouth of the pipe is then placed in the mouth of
the coupling end and then pushed so as to brmg the two chamfered ends close to each other.
Wherever necessary, change over from cast iron pipe to AC pipes or vice-\'crsa should be
done with the help of suitable adapters. 1.5. (,S3U 1972 may be followed for laying AC
p1pes.

6.7.4 PRESSURE TESTING

Tbe procedure for the test as adopted is as follows:
(a)

At a time one section of the pipeline between two sluice valves is taken up for
testing. The section usually taken is about 500 meters long.

(b)

One of the valves is closed and the water is admitted into the pipe through the
other, manipulating air valves suitably.
(If there are no sluice valves in between the section, the end of the section can be
sealed temporarily with an end cap having an outlet which can serve as an air
relief vent or for filling the fine as may be required. The pipeline after it is filled,
should be allowed to stand for 24 hours before pressure testing).

(c)

After filling, the sluice valve is closed and the pipe section is isolated.

(d)

Pressure gauges are fitted at suitable intervals on the crown into the holes meant
for the purpose.

(e)

The pipe section is then connected to the delivery side of a pump through a
small valve.

(f)

The pump is then operated till the pressure inside reaches the designed value
which can be read from the pressure gauges fixed.

(g)

After the required pressure has Decn attained, the valve is closed and the pump
disconnected.

(h)

The pipe is then kept under the desired pressure during inspection for any
defect, i.e. leakages at the joints etc. The test pressures will be generally as
specified in 6.7.1 and Appendix 6.4. The water will then be emptied through
scour valves and defects observed in the test will be rectified.

6.8 CONCRETE PIPES

6.8.1 GENERAL
Reinforced concrete pipes used in water supplies are classified as PI, P2 ami 1'3 with test
pressures of 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 Kg/ em2 respectively. I"or use as gravity mains, the working
pressure should not exceed 2/3 of the test pressure. For use as pumping mains, the working
pressure should not exceed half of the test pressure.
Generally concrete pipes have corrosion resistant properties similar to those of
prestressed concrete pipes although they have their own features which significantly affect
132

corrosion performance. Concrete pipes are made by centrifugal spuming of vibratory

process. Centrifugally spun pipes arc subjected to high rotational forces during manufacture
with improved corrosion resistance properties. The line of development most likely to bring
concrete pressure pipes into more general acceptance is the use of P.S.c. pipes which are
widely used to replace reinforced concrete pipes.

6.8.2 LAYING AND JOINTING

The concrete pipes should be carefully loaded, transported and unloaded avoiding impact.
The use of inclined planes or chain pulley block is recommended. Free working space on
either side of the pipe shall be provided 111 the trench which shall not be greater than 1/3 the
dia of the pipe but not less than 15 em on either side.
Laying of pipes shall proceed up!-,'fade of a slope. If the pipes have spigot and socket
joints the socket ends shall face upstream, The pipes shall be joined in such a way to provide
as little unevenness as possible along the inside 0 f the pipe. Where the natural foundation is
inadequate, the pipes shall be laid in a concrete cradle supported on proper foundation or
any other suitably designed structure. I f a concrete cradle is used, the depth of concrete
below the bottom of the pipes shall be at least 1/4 the intemal diameter of pipe with the
range of 1O~3()cm. It shall extend upto the sides of the pipe atleast to a distance of 1/4 the
dia for larger than 300mm.
The pipe shall be laid

111

the concrete bedding before the concrete has set

Trenches shall be back filled immediately after the pipe has been laid to a depth of
300mm above the pipe subject to the condition that the jointing material has hardened (say
12 hours at the most). The backfill material shall be free from boulders, roots of trees etc.
The tamping shall be by hand or by other hand operated mechanical means. The water
content of the soil shall be as near the optimum moisture content as possible. Filling of
trench shall be carried on simultaneously on both sides of the pipe to avoid development of
unequal pressures. The back fill shall be rammed in 150mm layers upto 900mm above the
top 0 f the pipe.
Joints may be of any of the following types

(i)

Bandage joint

(ii)

Spigot and socket joint (rigid and

(iii) Collar joint (rigid and

semi~flexiblc)

scmi~flexible)

(iv) Flush Joint. (internal and external)

For more details of jointing procedure, reference may be made to I.S. 783-1985.
In all pressure pipelines, the recesses at the ends of the pipe shall be filled with jute
braiding dipped in hot bitumen. The quantity of jute and bitumen in the ring shall be just
sufficient to fill the recess in the pipe when pressed hard by jacking or any other suitable
method.
133

The number of pipes that shall be jacked together at a time depends upon the ilia of the
pipe and the bearing capacity of soil. For small pipe upto 250mm dia, six pipes can be jacked
together at a time. Before and during jacking, care should be taken to see that there is no
offset at the joint 1,005(; collar shall be set
over the Joint so as to have an evm caulking
space all round and into this caulking space shall
a 1 : 1.5 mixture of cement and
saml just sufficiently moistened to hold
form of a dod when compressed in
the haneL The caulking shall be so
be di"icult to
the point of a
penknife into it. The caulking shall be
ends in a slope of 1:1. In the
case of nonpressure pipes the recess at
the pipes shall be ftlled with cement
mortar 1: 2 instead of jute braiding soaked in
J t shall be kept wet for 10 days for
maturing.

6.8.3 PRESSURE TEST

When testing the pipeline hydraulically,
shall
kept filled completely with water
for a week. The pressure shaH then be j'!lcrea,;ed
to full test pressure as indicated in
6.4.4.2. and maintained at this pressure during
of test with the pcmrissible
allowance indicated therein. For further detaiJs, rercn,nc:e may be made to I.S. 458-1971.

6.9 PRESTRESS 1m CONCRETE PIPES

6.9.1 GENERAL
While ReC pipes can cater to the
are upto 6.0 kg/em' and CI and
pipes cater to the needs of higher
around 24 kg/em', the Prestressed
fOr,rr,"'" (Psq pipes cater to intemlcdiate PH""LHC range, while RCC pipes would not be
suitable.
The strength of a
is achieved by helically binding high tensth; steel wire under
core into compression. When the pipe is
tension arollnd a concrete core thereby putting
pressurized the stresses induced relieve
stress but they are not sufficient to
subject the core to tensile stresses. The
wire is protected against corrosion by a
surround of cementatious cover coat giving atleast 25mm thick cover.
ThcPSC pipes are suited for water supply mains where pressures in the range of 6
kg!
to 20 kg! em' are encountered.

en'"

Two types ofP.S.C. pipes arc in use tnclav:

(i) Cylinder type: Consists of a concrete lined steel cylinder with steel joint rings
highly stressed wire and coated with
welded to its ends
wi th a
dense cement mortar or concrete.
Recommended specifications for ahove pipe arc covered by Indian and foreign
codes IS: 784-1978 A\VWA C-301
and EN (i42.
(a)

Steel Cylinder Prestressed Concrete Pipes are used in America and Europe
Confirming to AWWA C>301 and in Europe EN - 642.
134

Prestressed Concrete Cylinder pipe has the following two general types of
constmction : (1) a steel cylinder lined with a concrete core or (2) a steel cylinder
embedded in a concrete core. In either type of constmction, manufacturing begins
with a full length welded steel cylinder. Joillt rings are attached to each end and the
pipe is hydrostatically tested to ensure water-tightness. A concrete core with a
minimum thickness of one-sixteenth time's the pipe diameter is placed either by the
centrifut,>aI process, radial compaction, or by vertical casting. After the core is
cured, the pipe is helicaUy wrapped with high strength, hard drawn wire using a
stress of 75 percent of the minimum specified tensile strength. The wrapping stress
ranges between 150,000 and 189,000 psi (1034 and 1303 Mpa)depending on the
Wire size and class. 'T'he wire spacing is accurately controlled to produce a
predetermined residual compressIon the, concrete core. The wire is embedded in
a thick cement slurry and coated with a dense mortar that is rich in cement
content

;\\VWA C301 covers prestressed concrete cylinder pipe 16 in.

(410 mm) m Imide
and larger. Lined cylinder pipe is commonly available
in inside diameters
from 16 to 48 in. (41 I) to 1,220 mm). Sizes upto 60 in.
arc available from some manufacturers. Embedded cylinder pipe has been
manufactured larger than 250 tn. (6,350 mm) in diameter and is commonly
available in inside diameters
48 in. (1,220 mm) and larger. Lengths are generally
16 24 ft (4.9.7.3 m), although
units can be furnished.
The techno)0t,'Y for manufacture of these pipes is now avaiJablc with some of the
Indian manufacturers.

(it) Non cylinder type : Consists

a concrete core which is pre-compressed both in
longttudinal and circumferential directions by a highly stressed wire. The wire
cement mortar or concrete.
wrapping is protected by a. coat
Physical behaviour of PSC pipes
internal and external load IS superior to RCC
pipes. The PSC pipe wall is always in a state of compression which is the most favourable
pipes can resIst high extemalloads. The protective cover of
factor for impermeability.
cement and mortar which covers
tensioned wire wrapping by its ability to create and
main tam alkaline, environment around the sted inhibits corrosion. PSC pipes are jointed with
flexible nl bber rings.
The deflection possible during laying of main is rdatively small and the pipes cannot be
cut to size to dose gaps in the pipeline. Special closure units (consisting of a short double
spigot prece and a plain ended concrete lined steel tube with a follower ring assembled at
each end) are manufactured for this purpose.
closure unit (minimum length 1.27m) must
be ordered specially to the exact length.
SpeCials such as bends, bevel pipes, flanged tees, tapers and adapters to flange the
couplings are generally fabricated as mild steel fittings lined and coated with concrete.
1:)5

 It is worth while when designing the pipeline to make provision for as many branches as
are likely to be required in the future and then to install sluice valves or blank flanges on
these branches. I t is possible to make connections to the installed pipeline by emptying,
breaking out and using a special closure unit but this is a costly item.

6.9.2 LAYING AND JOINTING

PSC pressure pipes are provided with flexible joints, the joints being made by the use of
rubber gasket. 'Ibey have socket spigot ends to suit the rubber ring joint. The rubber gasket
is intended to keep the joint water tight under all normal conditions of service including
expansion, contraction and normal earth settlement. The quality of rubber used for the
gasket should be waterproof, flexible and should have a low permanent set. Refer to IS 784
1978, for laying 0 f PSC pipes.

6.9.3 PRESSURE TESTING

Testing of PSC pipe is the same as given in the para 6.4.4.2.
However the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should not
exceed 3litres (instead.ofO.1Iitres) per mm dia, per km per 24 hours per 30m head for nonabsorbent pipes as per the IS 783 (para 15.5.3 pages 28 & 29).

6.9.4 BAR WRAPPED STEEL CYLINDER CONCRETE PRESSURE PIPES

6.9.4.1 General
Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes (confinning to AWWA C 303 and
EN639 & EN 641) are reported to be manufactured in India. No Indian Standard IS
presently available for these pipes. Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure
a;"
available in diameters of 250 mm to 1500 mm and higher diameter pipes can be
for
working pressures upto 25 kgs per sq. em". Standard lengths are generally;.) 6m. Longer
length pipes can also be custom made.

6.9.4.2 Manufacture
Manufacture of Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes begins with
fabrication of a thin steel pipe cylinder. Thicker sted joint rings are welded at both ends.
Each pipe is hydrostatically tested. A cement mortar lining is placed by centrifi.lg'al process
inside the cylinder. The lining varies from 1
to 25 mm. After the lining is cured by
steam or water, mild steel rod is wrapped on the cylinder using moderate tension in the bar.
The wrapping is to be done under controlled tension ensuring intimate contact with the
cylinder. The cylinder and bar wrapping arc c()Ycred with a cement slurry and a dense mortar
COaling that is rich in cement. The coating (s cured by steam or water.

6.9.4.3 Joints
The standard joint consists of steel joint rings and a continuous solid rubber ring gasket.
I'he field joint can be over Iapping/ sliding, butt welded or with confined rubber ring as per
the clients requirement. In the case of welded & rubber joints, the exterior jOint recess is
136

normally grouted and the internal"joint

mayor may not be pointed with mortar. The
A\v\VA C-303 provides for use of elastomeric sealing ring (rubber joint), and EN 641
provides both elastomeric sealing ring and steel end rings welded together on site. At
present the pipes available in India use steel end rings welded at site.

6.10 PLASTIC PIPES

6.10.1 GENERAL
Plastic pipes are produced by extrusion process followed by calibration to ensure
maintenance of accurate internal diameter with smooth internal bores. These pipes generally
come in lengths of 6 meters. A wide
of injection moulded fittings, including tees,
I
elbows, reducers, caps, pipe saddles, inserts and threaded adapters for pipe sizes upto
200mm arc available.

6.10.2 PVC PIPES

The chief advantages of PVC pipes arc
Resistance to corrosion

Light weight

.. Toughness
. Rigidity

.. Economical in laying, jointing

maintenance

.. Ease of fabrication
Tbe PVC pipes are much lighter than conventional ptpe materials. Because of their
lightweight, PVC pipes are easy to handle, transport, and install. Solvent cementing technique
for jointing PVC pipe lengths is cheaper, more efficient and far simpler. PVC pipes do not
become pitted or tuberculated and are unaffected by fungi and bacteria and are resistant to a
wide range of chemicals. They are immune to galvanic and electrolytic attack, a problem
frequently encountered in metal pipes, especially when burried in corrosive soils or near
brackish waters. PVC pipes have elastic properties and their resistance to deformation
resulting from earth movements is superior compared to conventional pipe materials
specially AC. Thermal conductivity of PVC is very low compared to metals. Consequently
water transported in these pipes remain at a more uniform temperature.
Rigid PVC pipes weigh only 1/5'" of conventional steel pipes of comparable sizes. PVC
pipes are available in sizes of outer dia, 20,
50, 63, 75, 90, 110, 140, 160, 250, 290, and
31Smm at working pressures of2,5,4,6, 10 Kg/em' as PCf IS 4985 - 1988.
Since deterioration and decomposition of plastics are accelerated by ultraviolet light and
137

frequent changes in temperature which are particularly severe in India, it is not advisable to
use PVC pipes above ground. The deterioration starts with discolouration, surface cracking
and ultimately ends with brittleness, and the life of the pipe may be reduced to 15-20 years.

6.10.3 PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING AND STORAGE

Because of their lightweight, there may be a tendency for the PVC pipes to be thrown
much more than their metal counterparts, This should be discouraged and reasonable care
should be taken in handling and storage to prevent damage to the pipes. On no account
should pipes be dragged along the ground. Pipes should be given adequate support at all
times. These pipes should not be stacked in large piles, specially under warm temperature
conditions, as the bottom pipes may be distorted thus giving rise to difficulty in pipe
alignment and jointing. For temporary st()rag(~ in the field, where racks arc not provided, care
from loose stones, Pipes stored thus should
should be taken that the ground is level,
not exceed three layers and should be so stacked as to prevent movement. It is also
recommended not to store one pipe inside another. It is advisable to follow the practices
mentioned as per IS 7634 - Part 1.

6.10.4 LAYING AND JOINTING PROCEDURE

6.10.4.1 Trench Preparation
The trench bed must be free from
projections. The trench bottom where it is
rocky and uneven a layer of sand or ,,1I,IVl;11 earth equal to 1/3 dia of pipe or 100mm
pipes.
whichever is less should be provided under
The trench bottom should be carefully eX:1mUlled for the presence of hard objects such as
Hints, rock, projections or tree rooK In
relatively soft fine grained soils found to be
free of such objects and where the trench
can readily be brought to an even finish
providing a uniform support for the pipes over their lengths, the pipes may normally
laid
directly on the trench bottom. In other cases,
trench should be cut correspondingly
deeper and the pipes laid on a prepared underbedding, which may be drawn from the
excavated material if suitable.

6.10.4.2 Laying And Jointing

As a mle, trenching should not be
out too far ahead of pipe laying. The Lrench
should be as narrow as practicable. 'This may be kept from C).30m over the outside diameter
of pipe and depth may be kept at 0.60 -1.0m depending upon traffic conditions. Pipe lengths
are placed end to end along the trench. The glued spigot and socket jointing technique as
mentioned later is adopted. The jointed lengths are then lowered in the trench and when
sufficient length has been laid, the trench is filled.
138

If trucks, lorries, or other heavy 'r~I"ir

600mm of suitable thickness and retn tll'C'l'rYlf'f'I
distribute the load, J f the pipeline crosses
bed level to protect the pipe,

concrete
(>ill I
2m
the pipe to
2m below

l1nClll'lC.

COt7'lP'IlCI:cd bv
wah wooden
For bending, the cleaned p'pe 's filled
and the portion
stick and pipe ends plugged, The pipe
sand pClurcd out and the
reqllired, The bend is then cooled with
plug
hot
pipe (bend) cooled
Heating in
air over hot
devices arc ,dso practiced, Jomts may
welded, or
arc not
made with solvent cement. Threaded Joints arc also
Jointing
PVC pipes can be made in following

i)

Solvent cement

ii)

Rubber ring joim

iii)

Flanged joint

IV)

Threaded joint

For further details on laying &

1988, IS 7634 - Part 1

of

Socket and
joint is usually
socket length should at least be ,one and hal f
and equal to the outer dia for larger sizes,

tcoem:c can be made to IS 4985

PVC pipes upto 1.501nm in dilt,

outer dl8
sizes upto 100mm

For pipe installation, solvent gluing tS

to welding, Thc glued spigot
connection has greater strength than clln ever
achiclced by welding, The surfaces to
glued are thoroughly scoured with dry
chamfered to 3Un I f the pipes
have become heavily contaminated by
or oil,
cement is appltcd with It
brush evenly to the outside surface of
en,,,,," on one pipe and to the 1!1sidc of the
on the other, The spigot is then inserted
Ifl the socket UP!!) the shoulder and
thereafter a quarter (90~ turn is given to
distribute the cement ()\'cr the
surface. The excess cement which is pushed out
the
must be renloved at once
a
doth, Jointing must be
out in mmmmm
(tme,
of
complete joint not lxing more than (,Ile minute,
should not be (ilsturbcd
m
minutes, Half strength is attained Ifl
!lUnule;;
full in
avoided in rainy or foggy weather, as the
[tun
of water contamination,

6,10.4.::1 Pre-Fabdcated Connections

In laying, long lengths of pipe,
used to join successive pipe lengths of
tbis case must be formed over a steel
1\
and used as the socket connection. The mandrel

connc:ctlOns are
r
"line or one size different, The
m
short length of pipe IS flared at both
is sized such that the internal dia of

ooter
connector, it is puss,u,c

two

connector,

at on~~
means of a glued spig()t
carefully
,w,c"u"u

I'he
SOiSk(;t joint
rmcks and

care to

water is

if
not ex,::ecd

140

pipes can

jointed by welding.

For further details of PVC

IS 78:341975

Partsl8

IS 8008 - 1976

Parts 1 7

IS

Partsl

IS 3076

to:

pipes

[985

4984
DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (

I.UL/$.

medium density Polyethylene

confonnmg to I SO specifications (ISO
!!owever no
IS
for these

pOltabtc v.lat(~t
Further, it

not impart any taste, odour Of

CUIUIH

rnanufacturcd in
1986) f()r carrying pot~ble watc!
arc being used for consumcr
Polyethylene material used for rfl<IKIHLj
l'vlDPE pipes when used for
not support any microbial rm)""1 h
to the water.

The Polyethylene materia! confcnns to Pl.': 80

The MD 1'1\ pipes are colour CO(.leu
with blue StrIpS in sizes rangmg from 211 mm to 11 (I mm dia for pressurc
PN3.2, PN4, P~,16, PNlO and PN16. The maximum admissible working pressures an:
worked out
temperature of 20 dq,,'ICCS
as per ISO 4427. The p'pes arc
supplied in
minimum coil diameter is
18 times diameter of the pipe.
compression fittings made of PI',
UPVC afC also available in Indm for usc
with MDPE pipes. The materials used for the fittmgs arc
suitable for cnnvcpng PU'.dUlt
water like lvlDI'F, pipes. The jointing materials of fittings consists
thermoplastic r('stns 01
Polyethylenc type, NBR '()' ring of Nitrile
of Polypropylene, copolvmer body,
phttcd
rem forcing
nuts and halls of special NBR gasket
MDPE pipes arc Iiglitweight, robust and
rnatcrial for consun"lcr connections,
no joints
roads and
arc

on c()rrodiblc and
can be med a,e
arc supplied in cods,
In fast, Simple and

GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED PtASTIC PIPES (G.R.P. PIPES)

fibre Reinforced Plast.ic (GRP) pipes are now being Inanufacturcd 1n
to IS 1270c). The
range is
.150 mm to 24()O mm. The
& 15 kgs/ sq. em. 'rhc field (cst
arc 4.5,9,13.5,18,22.5
test pressures afC 6,1
8,24& 3() kgs/slJ em. Depending on
and
soil CCH1ditions J {(.Iur
UlI'UC'"
above the erown of the
arc ,lvailablc,
arc (, & 12
however custom

COnhlrtll1l1!>

The

of
uf

I I

out

hafne

Lt:.

fibre
coupling (C;RP)
p1pes.

(Steel) for C
(; RP
are corrosion resistant, have
ligh ICC in weight compared to m(~talll1C
tllm!1num jomts enable faster installation.

It

IS

and Butt

to

strap joint (GRP)

"UCl ace and high strength to weight ratio.

concrete pipes. Longer lengths and hence

R.I'.
are widely used in other countries where corrosion resistant pipes are
\n.l"ue1.l at reasonable costs. (;R]) can
as a lining material for conventional pipes,
subject to corrosion.
can resist external and internal corrosion
corrosion rncchantSt11 is ,;;Jlvalilic or chcrnical1tl nature,
hether
ALLATION

{; Rt'
;\

arc

being light in weight, can be

loaded or unloaded by slings, pliable stripes
can be lifted with only one support
or two
points, placed
F,xcavatio!1 of
of materials is s1milar to that in the
using double bell

in following manner.

bell coupling

should

thoroughly

soap which is

5IlnnIH'(1

into
the pipe to

)U!)IllIE

and

with the

pushed into the coupling lust

between the
as a

joint

reinforced
112

mechanical
such
proprietary joints arc av::uhlblc.

6.13 STRENGTH OF
The stresses in a pipe afC nn,nyy"ll
forces and change of temperature, altho''',!:ll
induces circumferential and longitudinal
in size or direction) or h~q a
circumferential stress without extra
transmit the longitudinal stress, an(:hc)ra;?;es
provided, Longitudinal stress is
and the matcnal in which the line is U\LUL!J,
A pipe must withstand the 11114n~'
provisions for which
been
discussed in 6,17,

External loads generally

trench filling from superimposed
from wind
in the case of
continuous bed and the cover docs not
to resist external loading is generally
best dealt with by the use of
Important usually when a line is
sewer,
or in rock under deep
loads at less than normal cover. The
trench filling
careful bedding
bedding
and around
overt;mp "'''U.cu and in some cases
[),XCC),S!';C

distortion
a
plpC
use of strCll/!;lhemng

limited by
matHs, Uist,c)rl]ons at

(r)r':,nl"":

so as to carry the
"'''''6

or

Joints cannot safely

the load must be
surface of the pipe

slll)j')()ri

subjected, the !'''!ICriU

or water harntner 1;-;
pipe and
contents and that of the
from traffic,
subsidence
Jf a pipe is laid on good and uniforlTl
01"1,,,tl\! ccxcl.:cd the !lonnal, no
strengthening
Loading likely to arise from su hsidcncc is
ptpes,
becomes
providing uneven
()r subjected to
pipes
additional support The importance of good
cannot be
the horizontal
be re(juired,

cause failure of its pn}tc:ct:IVC coating but can be

UI.,'lClf! is only likely to arise in

\ilfhcn a pipeline has to be laid above

over some obstruction, sllch as waterway or
railway, it
either be carried on a pipe bridge or be supported on pillars, In the latter case,
the
must be properly designed to reSist shear, if the full strength of the pipe as a
beam is to be realized" A small diameter plpe 1S usually thick
to span short
with its ends simply supported, but as
lengths of span increase, the problem
beeo'me;s more complex and the ends must
in saddles or
plpes of more than 900mm in
will probably nnwldf'
the most economical design, Structural
in dct;ul in :hc
companion volume" Manual on :,rW('.DIFC
tenlperature of the water in a tTl:lnSnl1ss1on :rnaln varies during the

If

water

IS

14\

ci""vc'ci from underground sources the variation is rdatively small, but if it is

sm:fitz:e soutces and is filtered through slow sand filters, the variation may be as much as
during the year. Furthermore, the te:rnperaJUlre changes may take place fairly quickly
and other reasons, long
rigid mams are to be avoided.
.
joints to take care of
stresses is necessary. Thrust and
blocks are
mnvj(j"d to keep the
curve ln
In small mains, i.e. the mains with
;l11d
joints,
joints themselves
suHicient
although some
may
pipelines with welded j01tlts
to give a lorlgJtmjmal
In about
ground n()!TlJalll'
pipe so that
[LCIUne
to
be
to the ground.
stress IS
water
arc not str,essed, as
concrete blocks so
H)\17('(1

case

PVC is
lengths

PVC pipelines, it sh(m.ld

lS!(.lcraOilC movement can take
steel

REQUIREMENTS
dosed conduits must resist a number of different forces singly or m
head of water to which the conduit can be

(a)

Internal pressure equal to

sut'lccted (see Appendix 6.4).

(b)

Unbalanced pressures at
discussed in 6.16. 18.

(e)

\Vater hammer or increased internal pressure caused by sudden reduction in

closing of a gate or shut down of a pump,
velocity of the water; by the
example, which has been discussed in 6.17.

contractions, and closures which

!)al:i{!lH, traffic, and their own

from
l.':xternal loads in
h"twersl. A
may be
to the
external supports
S"':tIe'rm,'" and .V'\V''';'i'

(e)

Temperature induced expansion and contraction, which is

UlSCUSSCiJ

on

in 6,

pressure, including water

creates transverse stress or hoop tension.
dead ends or
unbalanced pressures and longitudinal
""",. When conduits arc not permitted to ch;mjl:e length, variations 111 temperature Ill"cwlse
create longitudinal stress. External
and foundation reactions (manner
support),
the weight of the full conduit,
atmospheric pressure (when the conduit IS
vacuum) produce flexural stress.
EH.en till

ClU'Ollrc, at

144

conduits
1001wlud.1.tla.l stresst'S are

o xlO"

t) s

transrniSS10(1

e1l:'CI(cS or semlen'c

(a)
canals in
(b)

Rectangles with
""OlllV

(d)

to

ulinars Hl

or

rlotsc

J\1,ltterml high m
pnossrm:s arc rcsistc:d

conslmction m;uenaL

145

6.13.4

into consideration the

anticipated, 1. 5m cover is

re(:()tnn1etl(I(~d

generality sufficient to protect

lines from
cover has to be arrived at ';11'' ' '15
detailed in 6.13.2. When freezing is
lllS';:U""U in 10J 2.

6.14 ECONOMICAt "r'?'te'

6.14.1 GENERAL
When
soutC,' IS
by a
the area of consumption, the
conveyance
the wa.ter over the distance
of a
pIpeline or a
free flow conduit
an appreciable capital outlay. The most economical arrangement
for the
is ,hcrefore
importance.
The avatlabie
from the source to the town
the b"Otmd profile in
should
jf a
flow conduit is
this IS decided, the material
generally help to
the
to
keeping 1!1 view
costs and the nature of the terrain to
Of force rnain independently or in
be tmvcrsed.Evcn when it fall is available, a
combination with gravity main could also be considered. Optimization techniques need to be
for the conveyance main will be based
adopted to help deciSIon,;. The most economical
on a proper
of the following r"ctnf";:

period 0 f design considered or

the design period for
phases of
period.

(a)

(b)

'1'he
ptpe sIzes
considered fi,t
(luan tity to
different pipe materials
cos ts as laid in position.
'}

(c)

period of loan repayment if it is b>reater

and the quantities to be conveyed
hydraulic slopes which can

can

used

the purpose and their rel:l!.n:e

duty, capacity and installed cost of the pump sets required

consideration,
sizes of
pipelines

The recurring costs on

( ;',,1

Ienergy cllarSic

running the pump

Staff for operation of the pump

(iii) Cost of repairs and renewals of the pump

(IV) Cost of miscellaneous c011Sll1nab1e stores, and

(v) Cost of replacement of the pumpsets installed to meet the immediate

lTl]uircments, by new sets at an intermediate stage of dcsibl11 period. The full
desif,l11 period or the repayment period may be 30 years or more while the
146

pumpsets are designed to serve a period of 15 years,

6.14.2

EVAI"UATION OF COMPARABLE F'ACfORS

EvelY alt(:mative, when analyzed on the above lines, could be evaluated in terms of cost
figures on a common comparable basis by:

(i)

Capital cost of the most suitable pipe material as laid and jointed and rcady for
service, including cost of valves and fittings and all ancillaries to the pipeline,

(10

(a)

Capital. cost, as installed, of the necessary pump sets corresponding to the

pipeline size in (i) above,

(b)

The amount which should be 111vested at present such as would yield with
compound interest, the amount necessary to replace the pumpsets in (it) (a)
at the end of their useful life with bigger pumpsets for once or often to
catcr to the requirements during thc: design period or the loan repayment
period,

(iii)

Energy charges; if the pumpsets in (ii) (a) arc designed to serve for, say 15 yc:ars,
the datIl' pumpagc win vary from the initial requirements to the intermediate
demand after 15 years, The energy charges will be based on the average of these
two daily pumpages, leading to an average annual expenditure on encrs'Y charges
('.In such

replacing of pumps under (ii) (b) will, likewise, involve annual recurring energy
charges for the average of the demands during the subsequent 15 years period for the project
de:slgn or the loan repayment period whichever is greater.
The two annual recurring costs should be capitalized for inclusion as a part of the present
investment. For this purl)OSC
it is necessary" to derive:
,
Ca) The amount of the present investment which would yIeld an annuity Ii)r 15
years equal to the annual energy charges on the initial pump sets, and
(b)

The amount of present investment which would commence to yield, over

the subsequent 15 years period, the annual energy charges for the replaced
pumpsets in (ii) (b),

(e)

Apart from the encrs'Y

the other recurring annual charges
comprising the cost of operation and maintenance staff, ordinary repaIrs
and miscellaneous consumable stores,

The present investment which would yield an annuity equal to such annual recurring
charges throughout the design period, or loan repayment period (if it exceeds the former),
would represent the capitalized cost, for inclusion as part of the total investment now
required,
(iv) The addition of the present investment fi,l,'lIres as worked out under (i), (ii) , (a),
(ii) (b), (iii) and (iv) would represent the total capital investment called for in
147

n1tllntcnance arc

an
10

nl()rc.~

COOVCrI:CG into an

lnvesttnen,t itl'unllw'ci
as

1\

rnost
tm:C!llartCc cost

ensure deillred

One of

hmqu:es atc

methods

IS

one m

mlWI~

of

to
eqlclattO!lS

IS

exactly or app:roxlma:tely

pnlnclp:ll mmors

the deterrmnant of

deri\lativt:s afC in'ITcllti,xaled to ascertam wllejlt\tlf a tnaxmmm Of rrummum IS

i\Pt)end.1x 6,5).
dCI:crrnmlng the

cross

mlucmu to

""UV'1

alignments, cost
should all
149

considered to

A~,~".~~,;.~n

the most economical size for the conveying main.

6.15 CORROSION
Cmses of corrosion and the protective and prevt;ntive measures have be.en discussed in
9.8.

6.16 APPURTENANCES
To .
and drain pipe sections ie)f test, installation, cleaning and repairs, a number of
appurtenances or auxiliaries are generallr installed in the line.

6.16.1 lINE VALVES

Main line valves arc provided to stop and reguhtte the flow of water in the course of
ordinary operations and in an emergency.
are many types of valves for use in pipdine,
the choice of which depends on the duty. The spacing varies principally with the terrain
traversed by the Ime. In urban areas with
in the distributIon system, main aim is
to sectionalise the line in order to maintain reasonable service. In larger lines isolating valves
arc frccluently installed at intervals of 1 to 5 ](m, 'fhe principle considerations in location of
the valves arc accessibility and proximity to specml points such as branches, stream crossings
etc. The spacing of valves is a function of economics and operating problems. Sections of
the pipeline mar have to be isolated to repair leaks. The volume of water which would have
to be drained to waste would be a function of spacing of isolating valves.
'fhese valves arc usually placed at major summits
pressure conduits. Summits identify
the sections of the line that can be drained by
,md pressures are least at these pomts
permitting cheaper valves and easier operation. Grav!ty conduits are provided with valves at
points strategic for the operatIon of supply points, at the two ends of sag pipes and wherever
it is convenient to drain the i~ven section.
Normally valves are sized slightly smaller than the pipe diameter and installed with a
reducer on either side. In choosing the size; the cost of the valve should be weighed ah>ainst
the cost of head loss through it, although in certain circumstanct:s it may be desirable to
maintain the full pipe bore (to prevent erosion or blockage).
It is sometimes advisable to install small diameter bypass valves around large diameter
inline valves to equalize pressures across the gate and thus facilitate opening.

6.16.1.1 Sluice Valves

Sluice valves or gate valves are the nomlal type of valves used for isolating or scouring.
They seal well under high pressures and when fully open, offer little resistance to fluid flow.
'I1,crc are two types of spindles for raising the
a rising spindle which is attached to the
f,<ate and does not rotate with the hand wheel, and a non rising spindle which is rotated in a
screwed attachment in the gate. The rising spindJe is easy to lubricate.
The gate may be parallel sided or wedge shaped. The wedge h<ate seals best, but may be
150

damaged by h.nt. For low pressure, resilient or gunmetal scaling

pressure, stainless steel seals are preferred.

may be used. For high

Sluice valves are not intended to be used for continuolls throttling, as erosion of the seats
and body cavitation may occur. If small flows arc required trw bypass, valve is more suitable
for this duty.
Despite shuee valve's simplicity and
action, they arc sometimes troublesome to
operate. They need a big force to unseat
against high unbalanced pressure and large
valves take many minutes to turn open Of dosed, for which power operated or manual
operated actuators arc also used.
of
problems can be over come by installing a
v,ll ve with a smaller bore than the pipeline diametcL
1n special situations vanations of sluice
suited to the needs arc used; needle valves
ale preferred for fine control of flow, butterfly valves for ease of operation and cone valves
regulating the time of closure and controlling water hammer.

6.16.1.2 Butterfly Valves

Butterfly valves arc used to regulate and stop the flow especially in large size conduits.
They are sometimes cheaper than sluice valves for larger sizes and occupy less space.
Butted1y valves with no sliding parts have the advantages of ease of operation, compact size,
reduced chamber or valve house and improved closmg and retardiug characteristics.
'These would involve slightly higher head loss than sluiC(~ valves and also are not suitable
for continuous throttling. The sealing is sometimes not as effective as for sluice valves
especially at high pressures. They also offer a la.irly high resistance to flow even ifl fully open
state, because the thickness
the disc obstructs the flow even when it is rotated to flilly
open position. Butterfly valves as well as
valves are not suited for operation in partly
open positions as the !:,'lltes and seatings would erode rapidly. Both types require high torques
to open them against high pressure,
have geared hand wheels or power dnven
actuators.

Butterl1y Valves with loose

arc sometimes not effective, especially at higher
pressures, Butterfly v;ilves with
can overcome this shortcoming, further the
butterfly
with
liner needs no frc(iuent maintenance for replacement of sealing
nng as
the case
butterfly valves with
scaling ring. The fixed liner design butterfly
valves are now available in India
for working pressures up to 16 kgsl sCJ em.
Presently there is no
for the fixed liner j)lflt(.:rtl'y valves.

6.16.1.3 Globe Valves

Globe valves have a circular seal connected axially to a vertical spiudle and hand wheeL
The seating is a ring perpendicular to the pipe axis. The flow changes direction through 90
twice thus resulting in high head losses. These valves arc norma.lly used in
bore pipe
work and as taps, although a variation is used as a control valve.
151

Needle
are more eX'pelrlSIVe
flow. They
butterfly
damage.
nlaintain constant
maintain a constant
sealing is to

are

but are
for
as they dose, wllcreas sluice V.JV0S
pnllctl:cally shut and may
counter l)aiu!1lCe Wel!gtlts, sp:rm.gs, or actuators to
of the valve or to
at
flow velocities.
snapeu cone into a seat. There is
cone
is
from the
ttXIS Instead

not COrYll'nClfj

In

c(J:ll!lle.:1 to an

water supply
are occa::iOltlluly
or 'ye,,,,.UU.l actuator.

1)IIWJolt! or scour valv,',

slope such
They
into
nllnlnr,d to waste.

at

scour val':JJs is

water.

tlwcm:l:ll

by

to dispose off

SJrUCI:urc, there will usuaUy

stream or drain, it cannot:
to locate a scour

Puml)1l1g out

a low
at the
drain

Sf",!ees or polluted watercourses eXI'iCr,!' U!Hl".li~'

thereby lIK:rCDiS1I1g
undesirable to
aIr

52

or it

is a

valves in the streets, it being the routine duty

a tumcock in the area to air the main, to
minimize the I1sk 0 f serious contamination, is yet another practice.
The following ratios of air valves to conduit diameter prm>ide common but rough
estimates of needed sizes:
For release 0 f air only

1:

For admission as well as release of air

1:8

An analysis of air-inlet valves for steel pipelines, Parmakian takes the compressibility of
air into account and combines equations for safe differential pressures of ,.:ylindricaI steel
pipe, pipeflow, and air flow, in the following approximate relationships:
d" / d = 1.99 X 10'

for

J71% [1 -- (P, x 0.288] - 0.25

(6.15)

fj{:(l)l",)O"%

(6.16)

> D.S3 PI and as

d" / d = 3.91 X 10

for 1'2 :S 0.53 1'1 because air flow cannot increase beyond a critical different-ial
Kg/cm2.
.

0.488

In these equations, da and d arc respectively the diameter of the air orifice and pipe, ~V is
the difference in the velocities of flow on each side of the inlet valve, C is the coefficient of
discharge of the valve, and P 2and PI' are the pressures inside and outside the pipe
respectively, with PI -p 2 not exceeding one half the collapsing pressure as a matter of safety.
The equations apply strictly only to elevations of 304.8m above mean sea level at 40
degrees latitude ( g
9.81 mps) temperatures of 25.32C, 20% humidity, an adiabatic
expansion for which pv" :::: pV1.40, the air occupying a volume of D.S7 cum/Kg.

6.16.3.1 Air Release Valves

Air Release valves arc desib>tlcd specifi.cally to vent, automatically
when necessary, air
accumulations from lines in which water is flowing. Such accumulations of air tend to collect
at high points in the pipeline. Air which accumulat<:s at such peaks, reduces the useful cross
sectional area of the pipe, and theretore induces a friction head factor that lowers the
pumping capacity of the entire line. 'fhe use of air rdc;ase valves eliminates the possibility of
this air binding and permits the flow of water without damage to pipeline.
their inlet connection size, usually 12 to 5D mm
Small orifice air valves are designated
diameter. This has nothing to do with the air
orifi.ce size which may be from 1 to 10
mm diameter. T11e larger the pressure in the pipeline, the smaller need be the orifice size.
The volume of air to be released will be a function of the air entrained which is on the
154

average 2% of the volume of water (at atmospheric pressure).

The small orifice release valves are
by a
ball, or needle which is attached to
a float. \X/hen a certain amount of air has "ccumulated in the connection on top of the' pipe,
the ball will drop or the needle valve will open and
the
Small orifice release valves
are often comhined with large orifice air vent valves on a common connection on top of the
pipe. The arrangement is called a double air valve. An isolating sluice valve is normally fitted
hctwl'cn the pipe and the air valves.
Double air valves should be installed at peaks in the pipdinc, both with respect to the
horizontal and the maximum hydraulic gradient. They should also be installed at the ends
and intermediate points along a length of pipeline which is parallel to the hydraulic grade
line. It should be borne in mind that air may be dragged along in the direction of flow tn the
pipeline and may even accumulate in
falling slowly in relation to the hydraulic
gradient Douhle air valves should be fitted every 1/2 to 1 KM along descending sections,
especially at points where the pipe dips steeply,
Air release valves should also be installed all along ascending le06lihs of pipeline where air
is likely to be released from solution due to the lowering of the pressure, again especially at
points of decrease in gradi<ollt. Other places where air valves are required are on the discharge
side of pumps and at high points on largt' mains and upstream of orifice plates and reducing
tapers.
Air-Relief towers arc provided at the first summit of the line to remove air that is
mechanically entrained as water is drawn into the entrance of the pipeline.

6.16.3.2

Inlet Valves

In the deSIgn and operation of large steel pipelines, where gravity flow occurs,
considerations must be given to the possibility of collapse in case the internal pressure is
reduced below that
atmosphere. Should a break occur in the line at the lower end of a
slope, a vaccum will in
probability be formed at some point upstream from the break due
to the sudden rush of water from the line. To prevent the pipe from collapsing, air inlet
(vaccum bre;tking) valves are used at critical points,

,ul

These valves, normally held shut by water pressure, automatically open when this
pressure is reduced to slightly below atmosphere, permitting large quantities of air to enter
of any vaccum. In addi60n to offering
the pipe, thus effectively preven6ng the
posi6ve protection against extensive damage to large pipelines, by prevention
\'acuum,
they also facilitate the initial filling of
line by the expulsion of air wherever the valves arc
installed,
Air inlet valves should be installed at peaks in the pipeline, both relative to the horizontal
and rdative to the hydraulic gmdient. Various possible hydraulic
including reverse
gradients during scouring, should be considered.
are nonnally fitted in combination
an air release valve.
155

2962 UA&EI97--.,3A

rC(tllCCll pressure within reaLSonaible

is always in movement
SCi.lCI.lul,erl

mamtenance on a regular
to permit
use.
a pn,SSILlre

type
rel~lIa[()r

are

on a
is facilitated if the valve is
without taking the
on
main pipeline, a bypass can
can be hydraulically controlled or motor
aq1ueejw:t mams.

US1:allltn.g valves are

to mamtam anl:O!!1<w.cally

Df()C(!ed

to pressure re,jwcmg
on the upstream
of

Ball valves or ball float valves are

10 maintain 12 constant level in a selvice ,'''''CC'l!

or ele:vated
or standJplp.e.
is the most effective and it IS
deslgr1ed 10 ensure
piston are nearly balanced. Ii'or severe
onrr2Itl,., con,cl!tl:ons, a more expensIVe W;<;UlC
will give bettec service,
to
in the reScrVOll' and pcmlits the
water on a nsing level and to
olsao'varrta)l;c of
system is that
can be avoided by anan.g,11!lg
to lUllCtiO!) in a
auxiliary LV llUrlel
the water reaches
hall will rise fairly quickly
the fully open position to
valve
until
water level
the reservoir
auxiliary tank, at w n.H:h
the water will drain away
fully open POs!tl,cm.
method the valve is not in a state of
,UTi.,o.S! ClCllll:.UHIOllS movement
ercIsic.n of the seats ace avoided.
cases

follows the water

addl!IO!lal water on a falling

vdocity
ex",,,:us a predl:.ternlincd valve

in

case

gr,:)und IS not

to sul)si,clCllCC

out.

an mten''''''Trf
a sluice valve occurs in
a smaller power

to
opl~ra!ted

bypass valve alongside the main valve

provision of automatic control arrangements for
followed by the ~maller bypass valve at a
the main valve to dose first at a faitly rapid
much lower speed.

6.16.13 VENTURIMETERS
These are used to measure the flow in line

are discussed in 4.3. L L

6.16.14 SPACING OF VALVES AND INTERCGNNECTIONS

The pipeline should be divided into sections by
to avoid the necessity of emptying
the whole pipeline in case of repair, each section being provided with an air valve and
scouring facilities. The need for scour should be particularly borne in mind when layout of
the pipeline and siting of the valves is finalized, as they cannot always be arranged tt1 the best
position due to likely difficulty in disposing
the discharge. '1bey are necessary for scouring
the mains and hence should be in proportion to the size of the main.
It is desirable to have valves close together in more densely built up areas. Ease of access
to the valves is also important as the time taken in shutting of a valve in an emergency may
be mostly
in reaching it In gravity mains, automat1c valves, self-dosing if pipe bursts,
as well as to prevent excessive
of
may also be provided for protection to
watcr.

Where
is more than one pipeline, they should be interconnected at each site of main
vaJ,Ycs. so that only shortest possible length of one pipeline need be put out of commission
at a time. Inc interconnection will entail
negligible loss of head if its area is not less than
twothi.rds that of the largest main.
are
two or fnore
1flVcroonl~ccted so
shut.
through a scour can
summit, the danger 0 f
from trapped ;ut

in parallel, the scours

the other
the master

much reduced.

rT1:un
arc con veoient
or emptying of a pipeline and
tectin?,
teC$ on each side
essential In
on each side of the main
OC.[()l:e atternpting to
it up.

nL\.C',>

1S

than

to

on large conduits. Tbey are helpful during

most useful positions afe at
lSttCaJl1 of main valves. 'rhey are less common on cast iron and
and concrete jines.

manhoks are spaced 3()() to 600m

6.16.Hi INSULATION JOINTS

are
and

stray electric currents along mc:tallic

to in!wduce resistance to
flow
use
help in
control of electrolysis. Modem insulation joints
158

tubber gaskets or rings and of rubber

introduce appreciable resistance.

cov(~red sc<:t!c)!1S

of pipe jf they are sufficiently long to

6.16.17 EXPANSION JOINTS

Expansion joints are not needed if the
joints themselves take care of the pipe
movements induced due to temperature changes, which is mostly the case for long buried
pipes without any bend or dip. Steel pipes laid with rigid transverse joiats particularly in the
open, must either be allowed to expand at definite points or ils motion be tigidly restrained
by anchoring the line.

6.16.18 ANCHORAGES
Anchorages are necessary to resist the
of the pipes to pull apart at bends or
other points of unbalanced pressure, or when they are laid on steep gradients and the resistance of their joints to longitudinal (shearing) stresses is either exceeded or inadequate. They
are also used to restrain or direct the expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under
the influence of temperature changes. The unbalanced static pressure at ends computed by
tht~ expresslOn 1/2 n d 2 p sin a/2 with the two component pressures in the direction of each
pipe leg being 1/4 nd2 a p (where d =: dia of pipe, a =: degree of bend and p the water
pressure in the pipeline) is compared with the magnitude of the resistance of the pipe joint
(which is 14.06 Kg/ cm2 for lead Joint) and 'l11chorages are designed to resist the balance
force. Horizontal thmst F at Bend := 2 A ~ sin a/2, where ~ == internal pressure in Kg/ em2 ,
A area of pipe in sq cms, and a is angle of deviation of pipe in degrees"
both horizontal and vertical they may be
Anchorages take many forms. For
designed as concrete buttresses or 'Kick blocks' that resist the unbalanced pressure by their
weight, in much the same manner as a gravity dam resists the pressure of the water that it
impounds. The resistance offered by the pipe joints themselves, by the friction of the pipe
exterior and by the bearing value of the soil in which the block is buried may be taken into
consideration if the cost of the block is to be a minimum. Steel straps attached to heavy
boulders or to bedrock are used in place of buttresses where it is possible and convenient to
do so.
The unbalanced thrust may be counteracted by longitudinal tension 111 an all-welded
pipeline, Or by a concrete thrust block bearing against the foundation material. Tn the case of
a jointed pipeline the size of the block may be calculated using soil mechanics theory. In
addition to frictional resistance on the bottom of the thrust block and the circumference of
the pipeline, there is a lateral resistance against the outer face of the pipe and block. The
maximum resisting pressure a soil mass will offer is termed the passive resistance and is given
by
sin B
1+SinB]
ip = r1I
---.-"
+
(6.17)
[
s
l-smB
sin B

159

'''1.''"&

re~istance of

}'1'. = r, H2

_.

Ys

J.,i<tClal

resistance

La1ler,CIl resistance

soil density in T/ m',

,,

Prolcct:lOn of

.-

depth in m,

angle of

cohesion of soil in

in

-. o for
for soft
H

height of

L=

the length of thrust

1"n,

1be active pressure is

developed jf the force on which it is aClmg is
thrust block should be cle,m""ed
coincides with the
unbalanced stresses. 11115 !nay best
centre of the
Anchor blocks
" LS.S330-1984.

to move away from

of action
the pipe. This
gTalphl(:ally or by taki!lg
can also be designed on

Thrust !)!()C~:s are needed not only at ch:3.l1!scS in vertical or horizontal alignment
pipeline, but
at fittings that may not
able to transmit longitudinal

as

flexible C01.1p!lngs.

When
a pipe parallel to an en,Y'"
deprive the ('Y;"Y;" pipe of the needed SlllJp()rt.
the original pipe \vhile the work is calTied out

simplest

a bend would
the flow in

SOI.utl.on

a new thrust

15

!60

FIGURE 6.1 : THRUST AT A BEND & THRUST BLOCK

162

6.17.2 COMPUTATIONS
Maximum water hrunmer

P!(;SS'llre (",hle:h

occur at the critical

by

time less than TJ is

Hmax

Where,

VeiDC!,V

acceleration

of pressure wave

mm/s,

to grav!ty in

normal velocity, in the pi,lcline,

sl1cl(1en rl:l'" m: m

1425

kd

Ee,

Where,
k

bulk modulus of water (2.07 x

diameter of pipe in m,
wall thickness of pipe in m

modulus of elastici,) of

Table 6,7 gives values of E that

mateo'll in kg/nl
for differ"nt

TABLE 6.7: V ALVES OF E FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS

,,-~~---~~~~,---.

Materi:tl
Polyethylene - soft

(Kg/m ')
1.2

Polyethylene - hard

9 x10'

PVC

Concrete
Asbestos Cement

:0 xlO'

Reinforced Cement

3.1 xl09

Prestressed Concrete

:'\.5 xl0 9

Cast Iron

7.5 x10"

Ductile Iron

1.7 x10 10

Wrought Iron

1.8 xl0 10

Steel

2.1 xl010

163

failure, m:am.talIl pumplllg

to an ",,!em suffi{:iellt to nr('Vel1.1 e:{CeSSI!

or near

Size

outlet end of the line. Depending on

be an air chamber, a relief valve, or an
water spill out
the pipeline above some
Ylrf)'l';S;()fI
the outlet end
not
there and at the same
tow'ud the pump.

pres:mj'cs ;rnrnlve,:l
/"iUiL'U~:!1

concerns

from tlle power LH\.LlU or ,;"''"""0<'

pO\)i!,:r mterruption, the
acts to
can
:J'Hr!"';'" closure before '''''''''',0
i1\;ULm:u

un a ''''lI1IN:h,;ck,

can st:iU"t.

el{h,,<c,,d with an orditlafV

of flow is stopped at the

""''',,1.[

:t

t110re

supplement is
whIch may
chambers sometimes perform
the connecting pipe.

air in "if chambers should be recognized in considering

III S(jme cases, restricting the
between the
of a given size of air
but will
it by 10% to 40%,

A
cushion can
as an auto:nutic '\vatcr accurnulator, 'The
effective
depends 011 the switching on and
water absorbs some of the compressed air that
switchingoff ImC',"UT'C' U\vu . !' to the
fomls the aircushion,
to be introduced into the vessel from time to time. This can
done by means
compressor or,
case of small units, a self-priming pump
with water
which is capable
latter entering through a small adjustable
intake in the pump SllCTiOn branch.
The effective ~"!.Ja'.l!y
n6cc,:sarv for an automatic pumping plant is
pc,:m,ssl'ble switching rreqwem:y
the electric equipment and by the pump
pump capacity must
such as to cover, by itself, the highest
cOnSlUnptlOn expeCH:Q..

Pumps with
head / flow Ch:Wlctenstlc
is switched on.
1S "C'ClU"C the flow is
so a wave with a head equal to
dosed

"!l,Wi'r

By partly dosing

delivery

induce high starting pressures when tlle

(or zero) when the pump is switched on,
1S generated.
UUmll'

starting, the starting pressures can be

166

If

pumps supplying an Unl)wtected p!Tleb.ne

ptpeline
is relatively
the water coiUlnn may C:mse
to which P",SS1:1re
separation may thus occur a.t
rel:w:ned as a positive wave the water
ur:ue:;s some mr:tll0d
nomllllly have to be cieSH,ncd
lines
\vater h~,u:n1ner
nlay
lines
mayan economic solution, Suttable
(teV1C:es ::lfe

:\.5

or even W',lte:r
nf'c~,':ufe ,v:tve lS
113rmncr C),ver

iO(:31:tOns

111 Ill!!,')',".

soon as

nle
momentum ch:ln~~e
water hammer pIH';110n1(.:n(:.)l1
the
kinetic

,s nrevlel:rted so

it is allo\\'ed
and
with

toglliUlJa

tn so-me cases
water h:t1Ttn)Cr analvsis is usually nc,ce::s:t:ry

of

developed

usually
mc)st
by varying the (jeslgn Dan1.m(~!C:l:S

AD"'''' L(JIC1~T:[OlN" FOR VARIOUS DEVICES

I f the rotational inertia of a centrifugal pump and motor continue to wrate

pump for
while after power failure, water hammer pressure transients may be reduced,
rotating
motor and entrained water will continue to feed water into the potential vacuum on
the delivery side, thereby alleviating the sudden deceleration of the water column, 111(: effect
is most noticeable on low head, short pipelines,

ff:

After the power supply to the motor is cut 0 the pmnp will gradually slow down until it
can no longer deliver water against the delivery head existing at the time. It the delivery
is still higher than the suction head it will
force water through the pump in the reverse
forward direction, provided there is no
Of
direction: with the pump still spinning in
control
on
delivery'
the pump. The pump will rapidly decelerate
gather
momentum in the reverse direction, and will act as a turbine under these conditions. 'TIle
reverse speed
will increase until it reaches runaway speed. Under these
conditions
is a rapid deceleration of the reverse flow and water
overpressures
will

a
caJ.CUlan~(l

following DCl\\,I;:!

of the pump, the reverse How will be

occur. The pressure changes at the pump
graphically or by computer.

reduced considerably if reverse How through the pump was

r0~,Ol,,~1 was prevented,
maximum head rise above op,er'ltU:lg head eH)
ap'proximatl11yeQluai to
lowest
below B o'
"'''~l'rt"i'nirlO
1n

rcc'UClf

whether the pump inertia will have an effect

water hamrne! pn:SSllres

merna

I MN 2/WALH" ex(:c(;,js 0.01, the purnp ,

may reduce
lO';". Here M is
moment
inertia of the pump, N is the speed in
'w.m.'" 0 f \li/ater in

no.r-1"'0h,'

pump to increase the moment

cticalblv beavy,
it should be
ID
The effect
pump inertia can be

most cases

prl:)tccting a pumping main against water hammer

(6.3. The reflux Of non-return valve
pumps
norma! pumping conditions
suc:t1on head and the
diffr:rence would
sto,ppmg the
hr:ad m the
below
case water would

1i1staUed in parallel with

W()WU (lISe!!;1n', only i.ll
same d1!:ectmn
higher
a
W()U(l

tend to

170

drawn through the bypass valve, The pressure would therefore only drop to the suction
pressure less any fl~ction loss in the bypass,
return wave over pressure would be reduced
correspondingly, Fig, 6.4. gives the maximum
minimum head at pump after power failure,
This method of water hammer protection cannot be used in all cases, as the delivery pressure
will often never drop blow the suction pressure,
other cases there may still he an appreciable
watcr hammer overpressure (equal in value to
initial drop in pressure), This method ;s used
only when the pumping head is considerably less than cvo/g, In addition, the initial drop in
pressure along the entire pipeline length
tolerable, The suction reservoir level should
also be relatively high Or there may still be
separation in the delivery line,
Normally the intake pipes dl'itw directly
constant head
IIowever, there may
be cases where the intake pipe is fairly
and water hammer could be a, problem in it too, In
these cases a bypass reflux valve would, 111 a
to that described above, prevent the
suction pressure exceeding the delivery Of,P"',"'"
Water may also be drawn through
period that the delivery head is below
the suction head, especially if the
dC';lf!;!lCd for high specific speeds, as is the case
with through flow pumps, In some cases
reflux valve could even be' omitted,
th''fw,,,,h a stRhonary pump, A constJl!lt bleeder
although there is normally a fairly high head
line led off to the suction reservoir with a smaH,~r d,iarneter pipeline cw also be connected to the
water hammer effects, Tbis may result in
pump outlet after the slUIce valve to
wastage of energy,
(ii) Surge Tanks

1ne water surface in a surge

IS
to atmospheric pressure, while, the bottom of
the tank is open to the pipeline, Tne tank acts as a balancing tank
the flow variations that
may occur, discharging in ca.se of a hL'ad
m the pipe, or filling in case of a head rise, Surge
tanks are used principally at the head of
although tbere arc cases where they
ea.n be applied in pumping systems. It is seldom
the hydraulic grade line of a pumping line ;s
low enough to enable an open tank to be
It may be possible to conSlmct a surge tank at a
peak in the pipeline profile and protect the pipdine between the pumps and the ta.nk aga.inst
is relatively large, it could be treated as
water hammer by some other means,
the discharge end of the mtermcdiate
wd thts section could be treated as an
pipeline,
mdependent pipeline shorter in length
The fluctuations of the water
in a surge tank following power failure may be
studied analytically, The fluctuations in tank
may be dampened with a throttling orifice, In
this case the pressure variations in the
truty be more extreme than for the unrestricted
orifice,
maximum heads at pump
failure is presented in Fig, 6,4, A differential
surge tank includes a small diameter riser in the middle of the tank, The tank may have a varying
are more applicable to hydropower plant
cross section or multiple shafts, Such
pumpmg systems as
are useful for dampening the surges in cases of rapid load variation on
turbines,

171

FIG. : 6.4 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM HEADS AT PUMPS AFTER POWER FAILURE

172

INtET
FLOAT
VALVE

OVERFLOW

SCOUR

our tET
RrYF LUX

ALliE

DISIClHfAR.GE TANK

as
would no:rm:lHy
on sulJsequent

to

function of II discharge
preventiug water column seT)ar,m()n.
of the pipeline (or a subsccjucnt
two
II may

lower than the hydraulic grade line it

operating conditions is isolated
subjected to atmospheric pressure but
to
of a
tank.
first rise along the pipeline and possibly
will be more efficient in reducing pressure
hv,dntul"c grade line, It should be connected
olsenaq;;c from the tank into the pipeline if the
tank, Normally the reflux valve
bore bypass to the reflux valve,
Instaliicd to fill
tank slowly after it has

pump stoppage,
and the discharge
action of the head
neces,sal'y to prevent reverse motion of the waler

173

\.,UlWUll

Will~ll

l.:UWU

cause warer namme-r over pressures by ttlstalltng a retlux valve

111

the line.

A discharge tank will only operate if the water surface is above the lowest level to which the
head in the pipeline would otherwise drop following pump stoppage. For very long pipelines
with a number of successively higher peaks, more than one discharge tank may be installed along
the line. The ranks should be installed at the peaks where water column separation is most likely.
The lowest head which will occur at any point beyond a rank as the down surge travels along the
line is that of the water surface elevation of the preceding rank.
best position for discharge ranks and inline reflux valves is selected by trial and error and
experience. In a case with many peaks or major pipelines with large friction heads, a complete
analysis should be carried out, either graphically or by computer. In particular, a final check
should be done for flows less than the maximum design capacity of the pipeline.
'DIC

Even though a number of tanks may be installed along a pipeline, vaporization is always
possible along rising sections between the tanks. Provided there are no local peaks, and the line
rises fairly steeply between tanks, this limited vaporization should not lead to water hammer
overpressures.

6.17.4 AIR VESSELS

If the profile of a pipeline is not high enough to use a surge rank or discharge tank to protect
the line, it may be possible to force water mto tile pipe behind the low-pressure wave by means
of compressed air in a vessel. The pressure in the vessel will gradually decrease as water is
released until the pressure in the vessel equals that in the adjacent line. At this stage the
decelerating water column will tend'to reverse. However, whereas the outlet of the air vessel
should be unrestricted, the inlet should be throttled. A suitable arrangement is to have the water
discharge out through a reflux valve that shuts when the water column reverses. A small orifice
open bypass would allow the vessel to refill slowly. (Fig 6.6)
A rational design of air vessel involves calculation of the dimensionless parameters, as
follows:
Pipeline parameter =: p::::: CVr/ 2gHo

(6.22)

.
I
2C o C
Alf vesse parameter= p --'-Q.L

(6.23)

Kc =
Coefficient of Head Loss such that K.: Ho is the total head loss for a flow of Qo into
air vessel. (Ref. to Fig. 6.7 to 6. 10) C is water hammer wave velocity, Vo is initial velocity and
Ho is absolute head (including atmospherie head), Co is the volume of Air, L is the length of
pipeline.
174

AIR
COMPRESSOR
...... ===t
WATER LEVEL
FUPPER
'-LIMIT SWITCHES
LOWER
- -- --- ----

WATER

OUTLET
REFLUX

TH ROTTLED
INLET

ISOL A TlNG
VALVE
P U M P~---"t...

Va

.......

REFLUX
VALVE;
f'

FIGURE 6.6 : AIR VESSEL

6.17.4.1 Design Of Air Ves~el

The pipeline parameter, (;'is calculated from the maximum likely line velocity and pumping
head, and the corresponding chart selected frum Figs. 6.7 to 6. 10 for an assumed Kc value i. e.
0.0,0.3,0.5 or 0.7. The value of Air Vessel parameter corresponding to the selected line is used
to read off the maximum head envelope along the pipeline from the same chart.
The volume of air, Co, is calculated once the air vessel parameter is known. The vessel
capacity should be sufficient to ensure no air Where escapes into the pipeline, and should exceed
the maximum air volume. This is the volume during minimum pressure conditions and is
S(HO/Hmm)1/112.
The outlet diameter is usually designed to be about one-half the main pipe diameter. The
outlet should be designed with a bellmouth to suppress vortices and entertainment. The air in
the vessel will dissolve in the water to some extent and will have to be replenished by
means of a compressor.
175

20 XI 40
SSEL
AiR
PARAMETER
SUR.GES IN PUIIIP DISC:HAFtGE

=0

no

capacity of the vessel is also calculated from the expression.

(6.24)

1200 to 1500 Q/Zp

Where,

effective volume in

discharge of pumps in Ips

perrnissible number of switching operation per hour for three-phase
motors:
(1015 for squilTel-cage motors direct in line,
610 for squirrdcage motors with star delta starter,
6-10 for motors with rotor starter,

Permissible number of starts for motors as per IS 325 is 3.

A worked out example

at Appendix 6.7)

6.17.4.2 In-Line Reflux Valves

Inline reflux valves would normally be used in conjunction with surge tanks, discharge
or Air vessels. Following pumps shutdown, the tank or vessel would discharge water
into the pipe either side of the reflux valve. This would alleviate the violent pressure drop
and convert the phenomenon into a slow motion effect. The reflux valve would then arrest
the water column at the time of reversal, which coincides, with the point of minimum kinetic
enerp:y and maximum potential energy of the water column. There would therefore be little
momentum change in the water column when the reflux valve is shut and consequently
negligible water hammer pressure rise.
There are situations where water column separation and the fi)lmation of vapour pockets
in the pipeline following pump stoppage would be tolerable, provided the vapour pockets
did not collapse resulting in water hammer pressures. Reversal of the water column beyond
prevented with an in-line reflux valve at the downstream
the vapour pocket could in fact
extremity of the vapour pocket. The water column would be arrested at its point of
minimum momentum, so there would be htde head rise.
Vaporization would occur at: peaks in the pipeline where the water hammer pressure
drops to the vapour pressure of the water. If the first rise along the pipeline was higher than
subsequent peaks, the vaporization would be confined to the first peak.
In locating the reflux valve, allowance should be made for some lateral dispersion of the
vapour pocket. The valve should be installed at a suitable dip in the pipeline in order to trap
the vapour pocket and to ensure proper functioning of the valve doors when the water
column returns.

177

O,g

06

cr

::>
n.

O,S

I/)

::> ::I:

x<[

0.4

~'-

'
,

\
\

"-

'( ~

i\.

"

" "I'..

~.,

'-

_.,

Y"

j'.

'

0,1

"

a
~
z

0.2

,"-

0::

..... "'

0
0

::c

0.4

:E

o.

<[

03

~,
~

0.6

--r

./

...

I-"'"

,:>~

I ,I

'"
3

,.
,

v
/

'/

-i,...--'

;t:~

.,

,..,.,

'"

-r... '"

:::: I !

- ' .....
,,_.,

,,-,"

"-

0,1

I-

,..

.... -

02

r~

.,
.. "(

03

W"

7
I.!)

.. f-

,.,J

0,8

ILl

'"'",1""

,ti/"()::3

,-

"'"

4 5 678010

1f2t;
OoL

20

30 40

60 80

AIR VE.SSEL
PARAME.TER

FIGURE 6.8 : SURGES IN P1JMP DISCHARGE LINE, Kc" 0.3

178

A small diameter bypass to the reflux valve should be installed to permit slow refilling of
the vapour pocket otherwise over pressures may occur on restarting the pumps. The
diameter of the bypass should be of the order of one-tenth of the pipeline diameter. An air
release valve should be installed in the pipeline at the peak to release air which would come
out of solution during the period oflow pressure.
It is common practice to install reflux valves immediately downstream of the pumps.
Such reflux valves would not prevent water hammer pressures in the pipeline. They merely
prevent return flow through the pump and prevent water hammer pressure reaching the
pumps.
Normally a reflux valve installed on its own in pipe-line will not reduce water hammer
pressures, although it may limit the iateral extent of the shock. In fact, in some situations
mdiscnminate positioning of reflux valves in a line could be detrimental to water hammer
pressures. For instance if a pressure relief valve was installed upstream of the reflux valve the
reflux valve would counteract the effect of the other valve. It may also amplify reflections
from branch pipes or collapse of vapour pockets.
In some pumps installations, automatically closing control valves, instead of reflux valves,
arc installed on the pump delivery side.

6.17.4.3 Release Valves

There are a number of sophisticated water hammer release valves (often referred to as surge
relief valve Of surge! suppressors) available commercially. These valves have hydraulic actuators
which automatically open, then gradually close after pumps tripping. The valves are normally the
needle type, which discharge into a pipe leading to the suction reservoir, or else sleeve valves,
mounted in the suction reservoir, The valves must have a gradual throttling effect over the
complete range of closure. N cedle and sleeve valves are suitably designed to minimize cavitation
and corrosion associated with the high discharge velocities which occur during the throttling
process.
The valves are usually installed on the delivery side of the pump reflux valves and discharge
directly to the suction reservoir. They should not discharge into the suction pipe as they
invariably draw air through the throat, and this could rea.ch the pumps.
The valves may be actuated by an electrical fault or by a pressure sensor, The valve should
open fully before the negative pressure wave returns to the pumps as a positive pressure wave.
As the pressure on the top of the piston increases again the valve gradually closes, .maintaining
the pressure within desired limits. The closing rate may be adjusted by a pilot valve in the
hydraulic circuit.
If no ovcr pressure higher than the operating head is tolerable, the valve would be sized to
discharge the full flow at a head equal to the operating head, where reliability is of importance,
and if water hammer is likely to be a problem during a partial shutdown of the pumps, two or
more release valves may be installed in parallel. They could be set to operate at successively
lower delivery heads.
179

IJJ
UI
Q:;

:'>
11'1

0.'5
0

Il.
:ll

::r:

)(

'Ji

0.2
01 ~.

w
tJ)

0.\

0:;

:ll
VI

0.2

0
0

0.3

)(

:I:

~ij
20

30 40 610 80
AIR VESSE.L
PA~AME.TER

FIGUR.E 6.9 : SUR.GES IN PUMP DISCHARGE LINE, Kc = 0.5

l--I~++ ,+-+~t-+"1+-'1---4~+'H+-i

g,

0 1 t--+~,

0, 2

~'~r-+-+-!

+-~'-l'+H1i~'~-+~

--l--I-4"+'++-+~'i

20

I.Q

60 80

AIR VE.SSEL
PARAMETER
FIGURE

10 : SUlRGJ~S IN PUI\~P DISCHARGE "U~''''' Kc = 0.7

181

could be disengaged to prevent their operation.

The types of control valves available as release valves for pumping lines normally cannot
open in less than about five seconds. Their use is therefore limited to pipelines over two
kilometers in length. This method of water hammer protection is normally most economical
for cases when fhe pumping head greatly exceeds cvo/g, since the larger the pumping head,
the smaller the valve needed.
A less sophisticated valve than the control valves described above, which has been used
on small pumps installation, is fhe spring..loaded release valve. The valve is set to open when
the pressure reaches a prefixed maximum. Some over pressure is necessary to open the valve
and to force water out.
Where a relief valve is power operated and actuated by a relay so as to open before
reversal of flow takes place, over pressures can be held down so as not to rise more than 10
to 20()!') above nornlal operating pressure, although there may be an initial drop in pressure at
the pump down to atmosphere or below. With the surge relief valve open, however, all
succeeding reversals are dissipated through fhe open valve. The pipeline fhen assum~s a
penstock condition and fhe surge relief valve must be dosed very slowly to prevent penstock
surge. With large diameter lines for low pressure water service the economic justification for
rather elaborate protective devices is obvious since without them the lines would have to be
designed for shock pressures considerably in excess of the normal working pressure. This IS
particularly true in fhe case of concrete pipes, or of thin-walled steel pipes. With thin-walled
steel pipes where the pressure may fall below atmospheric under shock conditions, it may be
necessary to provide vacuum breakers to prevent collapsing of the pipe.

6.17.4.4. Shut-Off Effects On Suction Line

The effect of power interruption on the pump suction line depends on the arrangement
of the suction piping. Nofhing of much consequence will occur where the suction line is
short and considerable suction lift has to be developed by fhe pump in order to get water
flow to it. In the case of a booster pump, however, where water flows to the pumps suction
through a long line under pressure, the result of a power interruption is much like what takes
place in a discharge line and the measures taken to cushion shock are similar. To be most
effective, a suppressor in such a booster pump suction should be placed close to the pumps.
1be booster pumps problem is frequently encountered in connection Witll tile intermittent
filling of standpipes such as overhead sprinkler tanks, pressure tanks in tall buildings and
locomotive filling tanks in railroad yards. In cases where frequent fillings are required, the
shock-pressure problem may be most annoying and corrective measures are clearly called for,
especially if the pumps suction is taken from a branch line off a distribution network 'which
may be adversely affected for large distances back from fhe pump. As an alternative to
installing suppressors in such cases, consideration should be given to providing automatic
means for slowly closing a valve in the pump discharge before power is cut off.
182

Another pump-suction problem involving surge on a large. scale is encountered in water

works intakes where the pumps may be fed through a conduit extending for several
kilometers from some lake or reservoir in the mountains. In order to look after surge in the
case of a sudden power interruption, it may be necessary to provide ample relief valves of
gravity overflow, discharging to a receiving basin of generous proportions.

6.17.4.5 Reciprocating Pumps Or Hydraulic Rams

Reciprocating pumps cause pulsation problem not encountered with the continuous
action of centrifugal pumps. Owing to the irregularity of flow through a reciprocating pump,
more or less water hammer develops in the suction and discharge lines and cannot be
suppressed entirely with vacuum Of air chambers. For this reason it is advisable to design the
suction and discharge lines of reciprocating pumps for something like 50(\10 in excess of the
normal working pressure and to provide ample air chambers at the pumps. Shock conditions
obtaining with hydraulic rams are decidedly worse than with reciprocating pumps and
generous provision shonld be made in the design of their piping. An allowance of at least 21
kg/ cm2 extra beyond the working pressure is called for with rams.

6.18 SPECIAL DEVICES FOR CONTROL OF WATER HAMMER

'The philosophy is (i) to minimize the length of the returning water column causing water
hammer (ii) to dissipate energy of the w';tter column length by air cushion valve and (iii) to
provide a quick opening pressure relief valve to relieve any rise in pressures in critical zones.
These objectives are achieved by the following three valves.

6.18.1 ZERO VELOCITY VALVE

The principle behind the design of this valve is to arrest the forward moving water
column at zero momentum i.e. when its velocity is zero and before any return velocity is
established.
The valve fitted in the pipeline consists of an outer shell and an inner fneed dome leaving
a streamlined annular passage for water. A dosing disc is mounted on central and peripheral
guide rods and is held in the dosed position by one or more springs when there is no flow of
water. A bypass connects the upstream and downstream sides of the disc. The springs are so
designed that the disc remains in fully open position for velocity of water equal to 25% of
the designed maximum velocity in the pipeline.
With sudden stopp~>e of pumps the forward velocity of water column goes on
decreasing due to friction and gravity. When the forward velocity becomes less than 25% of
the maximum, the flap starts closing at the same rate as the velocity of water. 1b.e flap comes
to the fully dosed position when forward velocity approaches zero magnitude, water column
on the upstream side of the valve is thus prevented from acquiring a reversed velocity and
taking part in crearing surge pressures. The bypass valve maintains balanced pressures on the
disc and also avoids vacuum on the downstream side of valve if that column experiences
183

(0
(ii)

to

loss of head

stn~a!Yl,I1fl.{~d d{~s!gn.

6.18.2
The PO!1Clp,!e
separation, entrafl
controlled pn;SSlJre so as to dissipate
cushion is thus rm)vldc,d,

pum!)ing Inrun nllnnfY

the air
U<Hm
effective
o water coilunnn.

til'.-l'CJlftt on

scr)anltie,n 1S
float, a sprmg

at locations where water column

normally
by a

Ival,Jeu

When
IS suclden
111
main. With diffenmtial pressure,
into the main.
the pn~sslllre
doses
column till
poppet
through poppet
of
water coilu!11!1.

to powe:r b,d",,'p partial vacuum is erc'aled

opens and aCliiTIlliS outside
"Inmg loaded
b(ICOltn(:S near atrnosohcrH
rcturtling water
is

prt:deteritnirled

PUI"UU:

thus dlsslp:atlrlg

on

two

same stem.
stem is
and is thus
m
water rnam Iflcrcases
working pressure. If
differential pressure overcomes the
allows water to
through both

the

a certain
opens
reduce thc:

On account of the light spring,

surge pressure to
desired limit

6.19 WORKING OF THE

Every
for limiting water surge
power
failure. Locations of the valves have
on the
the analysis
water column separatioo. Air cushion valves are located where separation of water
15
indicated. Zero velocity valves are so placed
the entire length of water column is suitably
divided in spite
differing gradients
than one valve may be
.
in such cases.

Opposed Poppet pressure

v,"m'<

are 'YI""P"""V placed near the air cushion

volw'<

or
184

if hl1rlhi", limiting of

upstream side of the Zero Vc;lo,:rty

required
safety

on

pressure

IS

6.19.1 CHOICE OF PROTECTIVE

best method of water
a pumping line will depend on the
hydraulic and physical
of
accompanying Table 6,8 summarizes
the ranges over which va!1OUS
are
1h:: most influential parameter in
selecting the
of
pjr)elll~e p,ara,me;!e! p cvol gIlo' w11cn the pipeline
panl1neter IS
1, a
passing the pumps may
smaller values of p it lwrnml'_ rlccess;ary to use a
tank, a discharge tank in
coml:)iI1Iatl:Ofl
an
an all: vess!;!, or a
valve, The protective
in Table 6,8 arc
of increasing cost, Thus, to
the most sltlraltlJe dCVlce. one ~H.CC,j"
until
variables are within

It

In

ret'!uclng the requincd Catpal:Jty

amUVS:l5

same line, 111i5 possibility

involves more than one
totatlOl)ial itWit" of
pump often has a slight
A comprehensive water hamm.er
f f'rotC(:t!I.m devices In combination is cnvi'''I..,.,ed.

to use t;vo or HlOfe prot(x:tlve

ignored as
most

PC,SSlDlC

if a

would

m"tn'"

DVD;!"S

refILL" valve

PROTECTION

IUI"'i'

> 0.01

Pump

on

iM.P'.IV'.IVI":l~

SUMMU1{Y Of' METHODS OI'

(In approximate
of mClreasillg

fl0'\!1(','<

(CVn I

Some water may also be,

drawn through pump

>

Approximate

Nonnally used in
conjunction with somc
other method of
protection. Water column
separation possible

185

Method of protection
(In approximate order
of increasing cost)

Remarks

Required range of
Variables

"--,-------""-"--Pipeline should be near

hydraulic grade line so
height of tank is practical

"-,,--""~--

Surge tank

H small

Automatic release valve

(CVo /

glIo)2

(L/C)2

Discharge tanks

(Cvo/gh)2

Air vessel

(Cvo/gHQ)2

> 5secs

> 1

< 1

Pipeline profde should be

convex downwards.
Water column separation
likely.

h :::: pressure head at

tank) Pipeline profile
should be convex
upwards

Pipeline profile preferably

convex downwards.

The example in App. 6.7 gives the methods of analysis and calculations for water co!urnn
separation and computation of Air Vessel size.
Moment of Inertia of rotating parts of pump, motor and entrained water
(mass x radius of gyration2)

M
N

Pump speed in rpm

Wt. of water per unit volume

A :::: Pipe cross section Area

L

Ho
h

Pipeline length
::::

Pumping head
Pressure head

Water hammer wave velocity

vo =

Initial velocity

Pump parameter,

Pump rated efficiency

(expressed as a fraction).
186

METHODS
I1t111

water frcatnlCn! lS

trcaltTlcnt

rnaintal11 \vatcr

'""""H'S

1S

con~3U1n(:r

'I

on

nature

u;;c.

raw water

C(Ofl()nl1C'\

fn

case
waters
water has turblChty below
disinfectIon by chlorination IS adopted
W(ltcr contains CXCCSS1VC

ilcmtmn followed by
filtration and disil1 fcellon

CO!1vrntional trcatnwnt including pt'(lchlorin'lti'lm,

rapid
waters laden with
unO)11 vcntional

10 to 15 N'l

chlorination arc

flo\\'

and rn"hl";''''
L (f),
or

( III

not

sand
can also be
with excessive hardness

ftltrate
m
1,1

solids, demineralisation by iO!1,cxchange may form a part of the domestic or mdustrial

water treatment units as in Fig, 7,1 (h),

7.2 AERATION
Aeration IS necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and the
atmosphere, In water treatment, aeration is pract1sed for three purposes:

a)

To add oxygen to water for imparting freshness

water from underground

sources devoid of or deficient in oxygen,

b)

Expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other volatile substances

causing taste and odour e,g, water from deeper byers of an impounding resen'otr;
and

c)

To precipitate impurities like iron and manganese

some underground sources,

ill

celtain fonTIs e,g, water from

7.2.1 LIMITATIONS OF AERATION

The unit operation of aeration requires significant he,ll! of water, The water is rendered
more corrosive after aeration when the dissolved oxy"cn
content i" increased thOUi~.).h
in
" t.':I
'.
certain circumstances it may be otherwise due to rem(wal of aggressive carbon diox1de, The
designer should carefully consider the merits of other altcmatives because of the additional
cost of lifting which may be involved in aeration, For taste and odour remo\'al, aeration is
not highly effective but can be used in combination with chlorine or activated carbon to
reduce their doses,
J

7.2.2 AERATION PROCESS

Gases arc dis sol ved in or liberated from water until the concentration of
gas in tbe
water has reached its saturation valw;, 'Tbe concentration of gases in a liquid generally obey,;
Henry's law which states that the concentration of each gas in water is directly proportional
to the partial pressure (product of the volume per cent of the gas and the total pressure of
the atmosphere) or concentration of gas in the atmosphere in contact with water, The
saturation concentration of a gas decreases with temperature and dissolved salts 111 water.
Aeration tends to accelerate the gas excbange,
The rate of exchange of a gas is governed by the area of interface between the gas and the
liquid, the thickness of the interlayers, time of contact, the partial pressure of the gas in the
overlaying atmosphere and the dCSl'fee of under'saturation or oversaturation of the gas in the
liquid,
To ensure proper aeration, it is necessary:
a)

To increase the area of water in contact with the air i,e, if the water is sprayed, the
smaller the droplets produced, the greater will be the area available, Similarly, if the
water is being made to fall as a film ovcr packing material in a tower, the smaller
the size of the packing material, the greater will be the area availabk

188
2962 UA&E/97 .,,~.'~ bB

I. STOR

6. SEDIMENTATION

2 CHLORINATION (PRE)

7. SLOW SAND FILTRATION

3.AERATION

8 RAPID SAND FILTliAT!ON

4.RAPID MIXING

9. SOFTENING

FLOCCULATION
MIXING

~-

SLOW

10. CHLORINATION (POST)

II. DEM INERALlSAT ION

FW.7.1 : UNIT OPERATIONS IN WATER TREATMENT

189

agitated so as to reduce the thickness

the rcsi5tancc offered to the rate of

b)

To keep the surface of the liquid

of the liquid film which
exchange of the gas; and

c)

To increase the time of contact of water droplets with air or to increase the time of
now whleh can be achieved by
the height of jet in spray aerator and
increasing the height of bed in the case
packed media<

)"'J;l1lUV

concentration or partial pressure of the

\Vhere oxygen is to be dissolved in water
pressure
the gases in contact with water
oxygen may be inctcased by increasing tbe
For this reason air injected into a main
pressure is a reasonably efficient method of
increasing the amount of dissolved OXVQl~n<
The exchange of brases from water to air or from air to water which takes place at the air
water interface can be described by the following fClrmulae:

(7.1)

(Gas absorption)
and

c)

Ct

+ (C s

(k A
V

(72)

(Gas release)

\X/here,

c,

actual concentration of the

A!V=

ratio of exposed area to the volume of water;

c,

gas saturation concentration;

in the water after a given period 't';

gas transfer coefficient (having dimension of velocity);

Co

concentration of gas initially present in the water; and

aeration period<

The gas saturation values of H,S and

atc generally 0 and 0<5 mg/l when exposed to
normal atmosphere having partial pressures
gases of 0 and OJJ3 percent respectively<
Because of the low saturation values, removal
and CO 2 by aeration is practicable<
If the initial concentration of the gas to
removed from water is much above the
saturation limit, sizeable reduction in the concentratJo,n of the gas by aeration is possible.
190

7.2.3 TYPES OF AERATORS

There are two main types of aerators depending upon the mechanics of aeralton:
a)

those forming drops or thin sheets of water exposed to the atmosphere i,e, water
exposed to come in contact with the ambient air; and

b)

those forming small bubbles of air which rise m the water i,e, air is brought in
contact with the water.

IS

Spray, water-fall or multiple tray, ca:sc!!oe and mechanical aerators can be considered
under type (a), while diffusion aerators fall
type 0)),

7.2.3.1 Spray Aerators

Water is sprayed through nozzles upward into the atmosphere and broken up into either
a mist or droplets, \Vater is directed verticaHy or at a slight inclination to the vertical. The
instaHation consists of trays and fixed nozzles on a pipe srrid with necessary outlet
arl'angclncl1ts.

Nozzles usually have diameters

10 to 40 mm spaced in the pipe at intervals
of 0,5 to 1 m or more, Special (patented)
corrosion resistant nozzles and sometimes
plain openings in pipes, servmg as orifices, are used, The pressure required at the nozzle head
is usually 7 m of water but practice varies from 2 to 9 m and the discharge ratings per nozzle
vary from 18 to 36 m 3 /hr, Usually aerator area of 0,03 to 0,09 m'/m 3 /hr of design flow is
provided,
The time of exposure of the droplets, the
can be calculated from the following formulae:

required and the flow from each nozzle

u =, C, .j2gl;

(7.3)

q=C"a.[2gh

(7.4)

I "

2Cv

.fiii.
g

Si IlX

(7.5)

T'otal head of water at the nozzle;

:=

:::: Acceleration due to gravity;

::::

Initial velocIty of drop emerging from the nozzle;

Cv

Coefficient of velocity,

Cd

"" Coefficient of discharge;

:;::: Discharg<, rate from each

191

= Area of cross-section of nozzle opening; and

= Time of travel or exposure and x IS

the horizontal.
t

angle of inclination of

for a gJven value

h (2
9.
The vertical jet gi"'es the longest
head of 6 m), while the inclined Jets can
interference between faUmg ""'1'0.
can influence the path of the trajectoty of
drop and allowanct: must
for
effect. The dimensions of the tray must
into account the velocity and direction of the
The size, number ;lIld spacing of nozzles,
wind to ensure that no water is lost by
aeration time and interference between
sprays, as already explained arc also he:tors
governing the aeration efficiency. Spray aerators ate usually (luitc efficient with ""snc","
transfer and can be expected to remove 70 to 90';.'0 of CO 2 and 91) to 99';1" H,S
the appearance of a water treatment plant. They require large area and consequently uifficult
to be housed readily and pose operating problems due to corrosion and choking
the
nozzles particularly during freezing weather.
The diameters of the pipe grid and oritlces should be so designed as to ensure a unifoma
5 percent) through all the nozzles in
grid. The
discharge (with a maxanum variation
loss of head in the pipe is kept low compared to the loss of head in the nozzle. Theoretically
numerous small nozzles capable of producing atomised water could be used. Practically.,
however extremely small nozzles are to be avoided because
doggmg and consequent
excessive maintenance needed. Common friction formulae arc used in the estimation of loss
of head, excepting that the pipe with nozzles has to be considered to be carrying uniformly
decreasing flow.

7.2.3.2 Waterfall Or Multiple Tray Aerators

Water is discharged through a riser pipe
distributed on to a series
trays or
from which the water falls either through small openings to the bottom or over the
of
the trays. \\!atcr is caused to fall mlO a collection basin at the basco In most aerators, coarse
media such as coke, stone or ceramic balls,
from 50 to 150 mm in diameter arc
placed in the trays to increase the efficiency. For iron removal (sec 9.5.2) this may
beneficial. The trays about 4 to 9 in number (with a spacing of 300 mm to 750 mm) ate
arranged in a structure 1 m to 3 m high. \x/ith the media, good turbulance is created and large
water surface is exposed to the atmosphere. By the addition of more trays, the tim,~
contact can be increased. The space recluircrnents vary from 0.013 to (}042m' per m'/hr o[
flow. Natural ventilation or forced draft is provided. Rernoval cftlciencies varying from 65 to
90 percent for CO, and (iO to 70 percent
been reported.

7.2.3.3 Cascade Aerators

In cascade aerators water is allowed to flow downwards after spreading over .
surface in thin sheets and the turbulence is secured by allowing the water to pass through i1
series of steps or baffles. The number of steps is usually 4 to 6. Exposure time can be
increased by increasing the number of steps
the area to volume ratio improved by adding
baffles to produce turbulence. Head requirements vary from 0.5 to 3.0 metres and
requirements vary from 0.015 to 0.045 m'/ml/hr. In cold climates, these aerators must be

in

housed with
provision for ventilation. Corrosion and slime problems may be
encountered. The gas transfer efficiency is less compared to the spray type. Removal of gas
varies [tOm 20 to 45 percent for CO 2 and upto .35 percent for H,S.

7.2.3.4 Diffused Air Aerators

This is an obverse of waterfall type aerator. This type of aerator consists of a basin in
which perforated pipes, porous tubes or plates are used for release of fmc bubbles of
compressed air which then rise through the water being aerated. As the rising bubbles of air
a lower average velocity than the falling drops, a diffused air type provides a longer
aeration time than the water fall type for the same power consumed. Thes(~ have hi~her
initial costs and require greater recurring expenditnre. Tanks are commonly .3 to 4.5 m deep
and 3 to 9 m wide. Compressed air 1S injected through the system to produce fine bubbles
which on rising through the water produce turbulence resulting in a continual change of
exposed surface. Ratios of width to depth should not exceed 2:1 for effective mixing and the
desired detention period varies from 10 to 30 minutes. 'Ibe amount of air required ranges
from 0.06 to 1m' of air per m' of water treated. The air diffusers arc located on one side of
the tank. The power requirements of blower vary from .3 to 13 w / m'/hr.
The air should be flltered before passing through porous diffusers. Oil trap is also
provided before diffusers. Diffused aerators require less space than spray aerators but more
than tray aerators. Cold weather operating problems are not encountered. The aerators can
also be used for mixing of chemicals.
Compressor power requirements may be estimated from the air flow, discharge and inlet
pressures and air temperatures, using the following equation, which is based upon the
assumption of adiabatlC conditions:

(7.6)
where,
p

Power required in KW;

Absolute inlet pressure in atm. (noffilally 1 atm);
Absolute outlet pressure in atm.;
Gas comtant (8.314 J/ mole, oK);

Airmass flow in Kg/ s;

Efficiency of the machine, (usually 0.7 to 0.8); and

T1

Inlet temperature in degrees OK

7.2.3.5 Mechanical Aerators

are not normally used in water treatment because of the availability of more
econoffilcal alternatives but find application in waste water treatment.
193

AND FEEDING
are

(105m.!!,

m such a
the d.,,:charl~e rate.

rate can

chanm:l, it
en"" section of maximum
as
location at which the chemicals an,

should

'I

'fhe carl;lCtty of
at
lna:l(!mUm
0.3 m is necessary. Dissolving
",.cuu"'" tanks should

irvofc'd

in or as ncar
chemicals.
of the chemical

to allow the

or

should

W()rKCrS

may
194

or cement or cement concrete

be

fH"'C~"

or pc'rforatiof1lS both at the

or just above the solution

holes to provide a spray of water to help

perforated
For plants of medium and
dISsolve the chemicals, may be placed
concrete
with a pipe manifold having
should preferably be C011.stltucted
at
or at sides
cherrlicilis.
a

Preparation Of Solutions
It is
to ensure that all the chemilC8l1s arc
before the solution is put into
operl1ltic.n and the homogeneity 0 f the
solution is
TiltS can
solution or by
on,m'!" mixing either by
arr or l"l;m,UlaLlllg
manual mixing
me;chamcal "19.4U"'L For plants having calXlC;rUt,s not exceeding
ad':lIYtcd ensunng proper mrxmg

as well as the solution

the
solubility
are
in norm.al pelctlcc
facliltate the choice of
equipment
solution ""''''1','' of alum which is the most
coagulant shall. not be more than
for
operations and 10% for
open!IlC)!IS with efficient mixing, It may be
desirable to dilute down to 1 prior to addrtl011, For other chemicals, reference may
f\p,pendlx 7,10 which gives the
used
mechanical mixing. With
stf(Cng1hsarereCOlTllru;!1cled.

to
point
application by
and straight as possible,

rncans

(o,nrams 5.8 to
water
as ag2um;t 17'% for crystalline
pnce.,!, Since its use
'OlUDua tanks, it may
plants especially if
arc within a reasonable trucking
pr'JdlJClng works, flela-llrC)OI eqLllfllnl:;nt such as
or stainless
plpmg IS nec:css:ary
tral:lsf.:,ort nal.1U!!Hg and storage,

7.3.1.4 Solution Feed Devkes

Ile,net'S are used to
of chemical
1I1tO water,
rate
chemical solution of
str,cnl~ttl pnspllrecl in the solution tank is measured
an orifice rotameter,
displacement pump or by weirs, The
eCl'llIpmc;t1t should be simple 111
and corrosion resistant

is the most common devICe used ft)! measuring the rate

flow
contained in a
of corrosion resistant, constant level
an orifice.
either variable size or constant
the required sIZe to give the desired
to allow setting for various

81-7:(:;

rate
sy~'tt'lns,

automatic

could
practiced which assures
is not nrc)ne to human etrors, The principle must be

em1!'!'l)i

measurement of some attnbut"s of the water such as the ratc of flow, pH,
chlorine r"',lU'.lal.
of water can fluctuate, it is
to maintain the flow of chemical in a
fOlxl!:tlc,n to fhe How of water
which a proportional feed device is necessary.
ME:aS1J1E:tll<,nt of the water can be done in a nUnUJCI of ways, the simplest possibly being the
bucket or a
with
meter which provides a positive methm.l of
measurement
is applicable to the
installations only. The more common
lllz;;,sunag (levle:e is a weir, ventu ri tube or
plate described in Chapter 4.

is based on the

a flow regulator directly or through a relay

the empirical calibration of some link
in
system and care must always be
to see that such arrangements are properly
adjusted for they do not depend 011 a state of equilibrium.
";)l.'UHlI" unit This

most
method of control is one that depends upon tl1e matching of two
lacto!s, one of which is associated with
measuring unit (control) and the other
with the flow of chemical. For example, a venturi tube will produce a differential pressure
bearing known relationship to the flow of water through it 1f it is desired to control the flow
of a chemical solution, then some similar measurement associated with the flow of a
chemical solution must be compared with the differential pressure and means provided for
adjusting the flow 0 f chemical so that the two factors so cOlTtparcd are mutually in
equilibrium. Such a
is basically stable.

7,3,1.5 Solution Feeders

'rhere are Sf"!f:tal types of solution feeders, some of which are discussed below:
(tI)

Pot Type chemical Feeders

The pot type chemical feeder is a simple

of equipment for feeding alum or alkali into
water. The chemical, in large crystal or lump
is charged into fhe feedmg pot A special
cOll1tains an orifice plate which creates a pressure
orifice fitting, placed in the raw water
into the orifice fitting.
differential pipes which connect the
This pressure differential causes a small stream of water to flow from the high pressure
side of the orifice plate through a pipe
a regulating valve, into the bottom of the
chemical feeding pot and this forms an
stream of the chemical solution, formed in
the pot, to flow out of the top of the pot
the raw water line on the low pressure side
fhe oritlce plate.
same pressure
acts across
regulating valve as across the
the flow through the regulating valve, at any
is a definite fraction of the flow through
the small stream of chemical fed to the raw
the orifice. Consec!uently, the rates of flow
of the raw water:. These find use in small
water an' directly proportional to the rates of
plants because they do not pennit a
rate and the feed rate cannot be also
chec],cc(l Sediment tanks arc usually employed with these feeding Jines.
Since

196

chemical Ic<,d':fS

more accurate
s!:rength IS
weighed
batch
\vater in
Chtrmi:cal in a specified VOJlUlT1C
SOlIUllOll, when required, IS
Into the
'1""'''" gravity of
rhenl!C:"' solution is hHrh<:r than that of waieL
dt:;placerrlerlt tank is "'''F'''''"'U UmlVClj'(I!V to waste through a
d~j1nirp

an'lount

water In

at the side of the

chemical
ellen11C:11 solution thus

in it a
float, which is so
in water, This float indicates, at all
recharging is necessary,

that
the

A
creates a

fitting, placed In
water linc; contains an orifice plate which
differential in the
the displacement feed tank to the
T'his pressure differential causes a
stream of water to flow from one
of
greater part
stream Bows through a secondary orifice
the
valve into
of the displacement feed tank, ,,,I,,,,,,,
snlallcr UllUlJWll an adjustable
it
dowl1wardlv an
stream
chemical solution,
stream
chemical
IS
when it discharges on the other
of
orifice into the water
this O!~ficc and this diluted chernical
solutlon is fed into the raw water line on
side of primary orifice, This dilution
serves to make the density of fhe effluent
approach the density of fhe influent
flow
than is possible with
thus assuring a greater degree of aO::l.l1'IICV, at
a
orifice control,
the same
differential acts across
pnmary
as across
the flow through the needle valve at
is a constant traction of the flow
the primary orifice, As the rates
of the chemical solution arc directly
proportional to the rates of flow of the raw water, this type of
is applicable to water
of varying flow rates
Sediment tanks arc usually employed with
pres,;ut:c sloution chemical feeders to
out of the fceding line, In cases, where
COrn)SlVC chemicals arc handled, special
solution chemical
ate employed,
(c) Electro-chemical I'eeders

water flows through an

raw water meter
an
circuit to
start the feed control unit through
The feed
15 a mcchamsm
{'Iesrgpecl to lower the swing dmwoff pipe at a rate which is proportional to the rate of flow
raw water, Jt consists
a motor, a
'
mechanism, two d1'llms on which
are wound, a manual
a switch for operating an alarm
stopping the feed at low level in the solution
and a dial for indicating directly the
of solution removed from the

(d) Gra7'Uy Orifice chemical feeders

b'1l:tvity orifICe chemical

in application to those cases where the

flow rate of the water being treated is constant
solution from the
solution
flows by gravity, through a strainer and
a float valve, into the /\,',11('("
IS iJrrl1tf,d

197

soIIU1:1!Ol1 in the orifice box always at the same level so

constant head. By gravity, the chemical solution
that the adjustable O1't11c;c operat,:s
flows from
box through the adjustal)le O1"tti(:e to the point of application.
Che float valve

To stop and start the chemical and water simultaneously, a float sWItch may be used in
settling basin to
a solenoid.operated
on the orifice box discharge and an
0tf'Ctl"..,dtv controlled
on the raw water
the flows of raw water and chc'ffiical
solution are stopped whenever the level of
water in the basin has reached a certain
height. \Vhcn the level has fallen a certain
the float switch closes an electric circuit
thus starting simultaneously the flows of raw water
chemical solution.
Instead of being connected to an
float switch may be connected so as to start or
stalrt!ng or stopping
the ch',m:ical fec:der.
The amount of chemical solution fed to
means of the adjustable orifice located in
Instead
the chemical solution
discharged in to a pump suction

lJL>Wl.Ht'

controlled valve in the raw water line, the

a taw water pump simultaneously with

raw water may be varied over a wide range by

of'l!hre box.

trr2lVl1:v to
point of application, it
be
it is pumped t.o the point applicatlOn.

(e) ReciproclJting .Pump chemical Fer?ders

'I'his method of feeding chemical

a motor driven reciprocating chemical pump.
Inc pump withdraws a chemical solution, or suspension
suitable strength, from a tank
and discharges the solution 01' suspension to
point of application under any desired
Ofcs"urc. The feeding pump may be
to treat either a variable or a constant flow of
water.

The chemicals to be fcd are

'"!UtlC''' tanks. If the chemical to be fed is
relaivcly insoluble, a high speed motor"drivcn aglta:t(~r maintains uniform suspension through
out the full depth of the tank.
the
a clear solution! a dissolving basket is
fumished
mechanical agitator is on11tt!ed

W Variable rate proportional feeders

If the rate of
water being treated
proportional feeding of chc"micals is
necessary, ]"his is carried out
the amount of cherrucal fed by the
pump. 'fhis pump is a proportioning and ml:tcl1ng
which delivers a definite volume of
chemical with
stroke. A water meter
an electrical coutactOt is placed in the raw
water line. 'Ine contactor closes a circuit
a given volume of water flows through
the meter. The closing of the circuit
motor
the reciprocating pump, which
then operates to deliver a given volume
until an electric time switch breaks the
thereby stopping the pnmp.
itself approximately every thirty
seconds, at maximum flow, with the
approximately twenty seconds aft",r
each contact. The amount of chemical
accurately proportioned to the flow of
water regardless of variations in the rate
because both the volume of water treated
D'~!lw(,cn meter contacts
the volume
added to treat the water are accurately
m(;aStme<i. IIf)w>:~v('r this suffers from
particularly when used with alum
solutions, the water is subject to an
seguence. It is better to
198

chemIcal pump run continously and to

with a mechanical device.

tTI{)OrIlal"e

the stroke of the pump either manually or

For a number of chemicals fed slflmtata,neo\lsiy, one meter control serves to operate any
number of pumps.

(2) COllstallt rate feedillg for ullifoml flow

If the flow of water bemg treated is 10\lsta1.lt
the set dosage. \'Vh{'~1 the flow of water ceases,
so as to shut off the flow of chemicals.
feeding is automaticall y resumed.

chemical pump operates continuously at

chemical pump is stopped automatically
flow of water begins again, the chemical

(3) Adjustment offeeding rates

Two methods are available for adjusting
ratc of chemical feedmg. Firstly, the length of
the pump stroke can be changed to
rate of feeding of a given strength of solution
over a wide range'. Secondly, the strength
the chemical solution Of suspension in the
chemical tank can be changed when a new chemical charge is made up so as to provide a
different chemical dosage for the same
the chemical pump.
The method of adjustment of
chemical fceding rate varies with the type of
proportioning pump used. The single
pump varies the fceding rate by a simple screw
adjustment, which changes the length of the plunger stroke. The duplex pump varies its
feeding rate by screwing the adjusting
toward the liquid
the pump to
increase the capacity or away from the
to
the capacity.
The reciprocating chemical pumps can
with ball check valves on both
suction and discharge, thus assuring maximum efficiency of displacement, non .. clogging and
sclfdeaning features, elimination of air
the minimising of wire drawing of
seats. The check valves arc readily
to
ball checks and seats, without .
disconnecting either suction or discharge fllf)jnf>.

7.3.2 DRY FEED

Dry chemical feeders mcorpofatc a
hopper which sometimes serves as a storage
hopper also mounted above the feeding
device may consist of a rotating table
and scraper, a vibrating trough Of an
displace'f or some equivalent method of
moving the chemical from the point where It leaves the feed hopper to the point of
discharge. The rate of movement of the chemical determine the quantity to be discharged on
a volumetric basis. Gravimetric feeders are also available in which the quanttty discharged in
a unit of time is continuously weighed and
of operation automatically controlled to
mamtain a constant weight. The feeckr may
desif,'Ued for constant rate operation or for
feeding chemicals in prop01tion to the rate of flow of water. The dry feeders with a
completely enclosed feeding mechanism
many advantages over the solution feeder like
accuracy of feeding, reproducibility of feeding rate for any feeder setting with a stepless
adjustment of dosage in a wide feeding
A single feeder serves as a spare for a group of
feeders handling different materials and
height of chemical in standard or extension
hopper has no effect on
ratc, \Vhen
rates of chemical feeding are desired, one
hopperful of chemical win allow the
to
several days unattended.
199

Chemicals stored in a stctCC:-Sl{leci ho",nc1"

ounCL Chemicals which
tlnw,,,c by a vtl:)fator
soda
arc made
it produces
most
displaced from the bottom of
equally spaced naclrt.lotlS
on
and
exact volume of chemical. fls
pocket is stretched
as
cht:nucal is dropped into a mtxmg
or
paddles in
M:Klllneci

to

,,,''v, r

downward to a dischatgc opening at

te1"1(1<,"(:V to arch or stick, such as lime and
n1()ulllc:d on the side
at a
of chemicals arc sliced
an endless belt with 1l11:eg;1"allugs !!1
insure that
POCK("t is filled with an
f",",,:;ml it passes oveor a pulley where
then under this pulley so
all the
lanlber. i\ jet of water ;;d,nitjf'rl tar19:enti:illv
"b'1tatlon nel;clecl for
or

0'11,,1('s

I'

""'I"F~C

hopper is usually const:rw:tcd "I~m'e

stota,:c hopper is usually "ttamn"j
height of such hOI)1'(115,
at an
to neMine

to
handled is
hopper.
ny'ho">1m, once a day or once a shift
cmo nmv

storaD:e of rh,pmJc"ils
time.

I\pper"GlX 7.10

7.33,2 Chemical Storage

chemical store should
of
flooding should also

constnlction, properly dramed. Special

PlicUILH1Url$ al,Tm'llSI

For chemicals purchased in bags,

on
floor
the store room
arranged, i\ height of stack not exceeding 2 m IS recommended,
"hp''''''':lt,
should
obtamed in moisture-proof bags
in air tight containers.
All plants,
small ones, should
sufficient to provide a
factor,
depends upon the location of the plant as
the
made with the suppliers
In cases
week's storage

chemicals
at all times, a supply
months is advisable but this
source of supply, ll'"nSillo'rr t'lCll.1tll~S
'U:PP'Y of chemicals.

the major storage is Drr)V!lclcd

should be
ncar

away frorn the

eqlllpmc:nt, a

Dampness may cause severe caking even m chenllcal such as ailltl1'It1I1Jm sulnhatc WlllUl
usually are free from such troubles. (lutek
ttnl(lrlal.lv expands on nnJiCll1f'cd Slomt ;"
containers if
may even burst
as nr:wrJe,',ocl acl:W:lted

Llue,,'"

WlllUI are likely to cause

stored in Sellar'ale rooms,

200

Storage of acid materials ncar alkalis is

as
contact 2"C11Cl:at,es
heat resulting in combustion. 'This is aho true
oxidising chemicals such as
mlJ{ec! with activated carbon, Hence they
isolated, It is advisable to store chlorme
cylinders separately as gaseous chlorine in contact with activated carbon leads to severe
hazards,

7,.3.3.3 Handling Of Chemicals

a single person
by
hand
the aid
mechanical enn",';"'''':'!'S such as
eqUipments,

Oridinarily a 50 kg corltarner
carts. Heavy con tamers should be
tmc'ks, monoraill pulley, cranes and

Chemicals such as chlorine ,

chloride, sodium hydroxide, sulphuric
ammonium chloride, ammonia, suplhur
and sodium bisulphite should be handled
equipment, specially designed to
in their handling to a
Care
should be taken to prevent the
or bumping of the containers
For
lifting, cranes should be preferred to rotleS,
Sufficient

with access
"",~",',jp" for handling bulk
veluc:lcs and cranes likely to be

Rolling of CVIl!1ClerS,

barrels

and drums on

SfC,faJ"'''

aH()\v,n,'

should

Chlorme, ammonia and sulphur

are tOXIC
m
concentrations in
aIr.
care must be
in their "''''H,l'U
bisulphate may !,rivc off sulphur dioxide
may cause corrosIOn
spilled Ferrous
sulphate mixed with lime is likely to
enough heat to start combustion,
chemicals are used, special care
to
given to ventilation arrangements (IS;
3103-19(5). In the case of chlorinatton rooms, ventilation is specially
at
bottom
and should be provided by exhaust fans,

7.4 COAGUlATION AND llLOCCULATION

The terms 'Coagulation' and
pre,ce:;s of removal of turbidity caused

fine

used indiscriminately to de:5Cribe

colloids and organic colour.

SW;P(:nsiOl~S,

'Coagulation' describes the effect

by the addition of a chemical to a conoidal
dispersion, resulting in particle destabilization. Operationally, this is achieved by the addition
of appropnate chemical and rapid intense '
for
uniform dispersion of
chemical,
'Flocculation' is the second stage of tht formation
settleable partides (or flocs)
destabilised colloidal sized particles
IS
gentle and prolonged mismg.
In modem tenninoloh'Y, this combination of mixing (rapid) and stirring or ag:tatron(r;!ow
mixing) that produces aggregation of particles is designated by the single term 'flocculation'
It is a common practice to provide an initial rapid or flash mixing for dispersal of the
coagulant or other chemicals into the water foHowed by slow mixing
growth of floc
takes place,
201

7.4.1 INFLUENCING FACTORS

Both these states in flocculation are gr<=llt!y influenced by ph),sical and chemical tfltC'"
such as electrical charges on particles, exchange Cc"I,)''',lLY ,,"[I'Irlp size and concentration,
water temperature, electrolyte concentral1o,ns

7.4,1.1 Coagulant '-""''''0''

Although
IS some relation
turbidity of
raw water and
coagulant dosag-e, the exact
can be del:errnirlcd only by
thus determined,
with other factors
as time
mixing and water temperature, The
the amount: will

use of the minimum quantity of

will usually
flocculation in any
15 to 30 minutes
temperatures

summer and
the freezing

to

effective in producing good

a faitly
stirring periods varying
minutes in the colder months, as water

to

Addition of coagulants in excess

determined minImum quantity may mcrease
bactericidal efficiency, It is, however, usually rnorc economical to use the rnlml111Jlm quantity

coagulant and to depend on

11l:j!111C<Cl"Ill

Very findy divided suspended matter

necessitating a larger quantity

IS

to cOIlf:};ualte than coarse

turbidity, The
relationship to

!nore

capacity of the particles of

flocculation,

n:llT!'ues.

7,4.1.2 Characteristics of Water

The characteristics
fmmation of noes,

water

natural waters

considerable
C:(,l'(;un

adjustments

on
m

acidity or alkalinity of

\vater.

7A.1.. 2.1 Optimum

There is at lea,t one pI I zone

water in which
flocculation occurs in
1'hc shortest time with a I,rlvcn
or m a gIven trme with
minimum dose of coal,'Ulant Coagulation
carried out within this optimum zone
using alkalis and aCids
correction
necessary,
many waters,
those which arc low in colours and well b11
and having pI! in the optimum zone, no
adjustment of pH is necessary- However, in waters
low mineral content, or in the presence
of interfenng organic matter, constant
is needed for pll adjustment j7 ailure to
chemicals and may be reflected in the
operate within the optimum zone,
a result of studies of the effect of pH on
lowered quality of the plant effluent
coagulation, it has been found that "the more
the water in total dissolved
and
less the alum added, the narrower becom,,,

r!1 the case of coagulation with alum,

over the alkalrnity ,s

important
only should the water contain sufficient alkalinity to completely react with the aluminium
sulphate but there should be a sufficient
to ensure that the treated water IS not
corrosive, A consideration of the re'aCllon
alu.rn H
202

(molecular weight of AI, (SO.),. 18 H 20 :;;; 666 rt'quires three molecules of calcium
bicarbonate rCa (HeO,),! x 3 ::: 486 for complete reaction.
I f the alkalinity is expressed in tem1S of calcium carbonate, the theoretical requirement of
666 parts of "filter alum" works out to 300 parts of alkalinity, i.e. approxin1ately in the ratio
of 2:1. This reduction of alkalinity should be taken into consideration and sufficient alkalinity
should be added to the water, if necessary. For this purpose, hydrated lime Ca(OB), is
usually added, or "soda ash" (Na,CO,) may be used when the increase of hardness is to be
avoided.
When ferrous sulphate is used as a coagulant, the pH should be maintained above 9.5 to
ensun' complete precipitation of the iron. This is done by the addition of hydrated lime. For
. sometImes
.
k'nown as ...Iron an'd I'fme process " .
reason, t h e process IS
t IlIS

7.4.1.3 Coagulant Aids

Coagulant aid is a chemical, which when used along with main coa.l"ulant, improves or
accelerates the process of coagulation and flocculation by producing quick forming, dense
and rapid~settling floes.
Finely divided clay, fuller's earth, bentonites and activated carbon arc the most commonly
used materials as nuclei to floc formation. The particles may become negatively charged
making them subject to attraction by the positively charged alummium ion.
Activated silica, i.e. sodium silicate activated with aluminium sulphate, sulphuric acid,
carbon dioxide or chlorine, when applied to water, produces a stable solution haviug a high
negative charge which unites with the positively charged alum or other floc to make it denser
and tougher. It is especially useful for dear water that do not co<li,>ulate well with the usual
processes. I t has a wider range of use in water softening.
Polyelectrolytes which arc polymers containing ionisablc units have been used
successfully as both coagulant aids and coagulants but care should be taken to guard against
their toxicity. They are soluble in water, conduct electricity and are affected by the
electrostatic forces between their charges. Cationic, anionic and amp holy tic polyclectrolytes
have been used; the cationic being able to serve as both a coagulant and coagulant aid while
the other two as coagulant aids primarily. Polyelectrolytes create extraordinarily slippery
when spilled on floor and are difficult to clean up.
Toxicity of any polyelectrolyte has to be checked before it can be used as coagu.lant or
coagulant aid.

7.4.1.4 Choice of Coagulant

In selecting the best coagulant for any specific treatment problem, a choice has to be
made from among various chemicals, each of which may offer specified advantages under
different conditions. 'rhe common coagulants used in water works practice "re salts of
aluminium viz. filter alum, sodium aluminate and liquid alum and iron salts like ferrous
sulphate (Copperas), ferric sulpnate, ferric chloride and chlorinated copperas which is an
cCjuimolecular mixure of ferrous sulphate and ferric chloride being obtained by chlorinating
203
2962 UA&E/97-16A

not

P''''OIUiC tn soule
part1c:uhlf water should

\vater

10 /\f,pemjlx

Vol

Volume of water to whicb

is applied, m'.

Where head loss through the plant is to be cons(;rved as much as possible and where tbe
flow
300 m' /ht, mechanical mixing also known as flash mixmg, is desirable. Multiple
provided for large plants. Normally a detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is
units
adopted
the flash m.b(cr. H.ead loss
0.2 to 0.6 m of water, which is approximately
equivalent to 1 to 3 watts pe, m' of flow per hour is usually required for efficient flash
mixing. Gravitational or hydraulic devices arc simple but not flexible, while mechanical or
pneumatic devices are flexible, but require
power.

7.4.2.1 Gravitational Or Hydraulic Devices

In
devices, the rc:quired turbulence is
or pressure. Some of the more common

flow of water under t,rravity

are dc"crrlJc:d below.

OU'U,,11<;U

(a) Hydraulic jump Mixing

is achieved
a combination of a chute followed by a channel with or without a sill.
chute creates super critical. flow (velocity :, to 4 m/s),
sill defining the location of the
hydraulic
and
gently sloping
jump. Standing wave flumes
measurement of
z;an
be used in' which the hydraulic jump
takes
at the throat of the flume.
hydraulic jump mixing, loss of head is
appreciable (0.3 m or
and the
is brief. This device though reial,vel'v
mflexible, is
and free from moving
This can be used as a standby in large plants
to the mechanical mixers while f(n small plants, this can serve directly as the main unit
Typical residence time of 2 seconds
G value of 800 5' have been reported. overflow
weirs
also been used for rapid mixing head loss of 0.3 to 0.6 m across the
has
been H'r)(wt,yj

(b) Baffled ChamleE Mixing

In this method, the channel section (neglecting the baffle) is normally designed for a
velocity 0[0.6 m/s.
'rhe angie subtended by the baffle in
channel is between 40 to 90 with the channel
wall. This angle should ensure a minimum vel.OC11V of 1.5 m/s while negotiating the baffle.
the channels are
masonry, stone m,\:,Cl1uy or
main walls
reinforced cement concrete finished smooth to
growing of weed etc.
batHe" arc
made of concrete or brick, finished in
same rmmner as
channeL /\ mln1111u:m
board of 1. 50 mm is normally provided.

(c) Other Type a/Hydraulic Mixing

Sudden drop in hydraulic level of water over a weir can cause turbukncc and chemicals
can be added at this "plunge" point with the
diffusers. Similarly in pressure conduits,
the chemicals can be added at: the throat of a venturi or just upstream of orifice located
within the pipe. In this system, no effective control is possible even though mixing
place. Rapid mixing can also be obtained by injection of chemicals preferably, in the
end or delivery end of low lift pumps
the turbulence is maximum. In this system also,
the detention time is brief while the cost is low.

205

7.4.2.2 Mechanical
There arc two devices, the usual one
water and the other mixing with the aid of a
or
impellers arc commonty employed in flash mixers,
400 to 1400 rpm or more. The blades are
suun.l7 axial currents. 'rurbine types and
mechanical Hash mixer unit, a detention
powered mixing devices should be capable
Power requirements arc ordinarily I to 3 watts
are deep, circular or square tanks. The usual
10 OA and tbe shaft
of propeller
of the blade.
1S
for proper dJspersaL

rapid rotation of impellers or blades 1fl

impingement over a plate. Propeller type
with high revolving speeds ranging from
on vertical or inclined shaft and /-,'eneratc
are also used. In the design of a
to 60,sec. is provided. l'he relatively high
velocity gradients of 300 5' or more.
of How. Uswllly, the flash mixers
impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2
100 rpm imparting a tangential velocity
of tank height to diameter of 1: 1 to 3: 1

Vertical strips or baffles, projecting 1/10 to 1/12 tank diameter, at mm1flmm of

along the walls of the tank
vortex ftmnation or
n"Hvmo- cmllllHj{,r can be piliced
rotational movement of water about
below the chemical feed floor ensuring
feedJines. The usual mechanical
agltat:or drive is an electric motor with cont1nUO!l duty, operating through a reduction
Good results are achieved by adding the chemical just near the tip of the blade Of the
in the tank Mechanical
consumes
little head
water and
When
circuiting l!1 the
one tTIore
eKterm) t on,,,,,,r input and
constant

ch,:ml!cal IS am.n"u. An aU.xma,y omlnn

at

the auxiliary
mixing channdsmay be obviated by
or with a
impeller through
tCC:IUlI'C!11erlt of

.m:,u"",,,,,

turbulence occurs.
w()ch:rl out in acc:orcial1ce with 'rable 7.1.
nr.elf:ra'hlv with
(instead of vc:mLlIl)

Devices

em is injected or diffused into water

compression, it normany 0""""'1115
isothermaIl y and the resultant work done
used for necessary agitation.
practice.
0 f velocity gradients and contact
are not common in water
arc in the range of 3000 to 5000 sand O. 5 10 O. 4 sec. respc(:t1v
Taking into account the various types
mixing devices velocity gr:l(11cnts and
detention times, the following equation is m., ,n",<cyj'

2790

r'DS

(7.8)

\vhere,

Velocity gradient, s
t

Detention time, S

206

In the fidd, it has been

time reduces much
increase 111 the value
C.
the
of
constant reduces with
increase in G value. Equation 7.8 is based on this field
Variation in the value
G could be from 300 Sl to 5000 51

7.4.3 SLOW MIXING 01{ STIRRING

is the hydrodynamic
'~"""J sct:tleat}IC floes (orthokinctic
contact with the micro floes formed
111
tanks and filters.
tnl){1!llg

nn'KI:SS

which results in
fC)111lation
large
by bringing
findy divided matter
mixing. These can
subsequently removed

nUL"",

7.1

RECOMMENDED DETENTION TIME AND NET POWER REQUERED

Detention
c

.)

volume

60
50

300
360

40

450

30

600
720

'Jon

20

flow llir
1.2

104

162
288
415
648

14
1.8
24
2')
}6

Power caIculations arc based on water temperature of 3()OC (ft =O.8xlO ; N.S./m 2)

Design Pa.rameters
The mlr: at which flocculation
depends on physical and chemical parameters
such as charges on particles, exchange: capacity, particle size and concentration, pH, water
teronr1l"ratw'c electrolyte concentration, time
tloccu!ation, size of mixing basin and nature
HllXllIl!' device. The'
of
and other unknown factors which \'81")" widely
different waters, is not yet fully understood. InformatlOn on the bebaviour of tbe water to be
ncarby plants treating similar water and by laboratory
treated can be had by examination
tcst1l1g using Jar 'fest.
physical forces of slow mixing of the coagulant fed water and adhesion, controlled by
ChelYltCIl and electrical forces are
to a large extent in influencing the flocculatIon

Slow mixing is meant to bring the naf"IIf":ics to collide and then agglomerate. The rate of
collision am.ong the particles is dependent upon the number and SIze of particles 111
su,;penS10n and the intensity of mixing in the
chamber.
tinac'rate orn.",'"
provided for flocculation to occur is
in addition to
of agitation and the total number of
number of collisions IS mr")(lrll0fla to G.l where t is the (ktentiol1 time: of the

flocculation

'$ 11

207

flocculation basin. The product

is nondimensional and is a useful parameter
design and operation of flocculation.

the

desirable values of Gin :\ flocculator vary from 20 to 75 SI

G.t
2 to (ix104
for alu111inium
1 to 1.5xlOs !()r ferric coagulants. 'nlC usual dClten.tIC,n time,
minutes. Very high G
tend to shear
provided, varies from 10 to
building to size
will
G values
them
able to
provide
8.h"tation to ensure complete floCC1.!l1l:tlO!l,
'111C

Another useful
is the
and the Hoc volume conccntratmn
floc
unit volume of
parameter G.Ct
to ce"bl111 extent
(Volume
opportunity of
particles but the usefulness
pararncltef is not yet fully
the
established, The values arc of the order
100.

'1'0 ensure maximum economy in the input

power and to reduce possible Sh!;arlln.l1: of
partIcles
formation, tapered flocculation is sometimes practised. The
G in a
tank is
to
from 100 111
firs t
to 50 Of (i0 lfl the second
and then
m
brought down to 20 $' in the third
direction
flow.

7.4.3.2 Types Of Slow Mixers

Similar to rapid mixtl1g units, these can
categorised under gravitational or hydraulic,
mechanical and pncumatic. The hydraulic
uses the kinetic
water flowing
uses the
through the plant created usually by means of baffles, while mechanical
energy which produces agitation of water.
(1) Gravitational or Hydrtlulic Type Flocculators

Several types of gravitational or hydraulic f1occulators are used in practice.

(a) Horizontal Flow Baffled Flocculator
Fig. 7.2 shows the plan of a typical horizontal flow baffled flocculatm. 'fhis l1occulator
consists of several arounckhe-cnd baffles with in between spacing of not less than OA5 m to
penni! cleaning. Clear distance between
(tnd of each baffle and the
IS about 1.5 times
the distance between the baffles, but never less than O.6m. Water depth is not
than 1.0 In
and the water velocity is in the range of 0.10 to 0.30 m/s. The detention
is between 15
and 20 minutes. The flocculatm is well suited
very small treatment plants. It is easier to
drain and clean, The head loss can be changed as pef requirement by altering the number of
baffles. 'fhc velocity gradient can be achieved in the range 1O-100s1.

(b) Vertical Flow Baffled Flocculator

Fig. 7.3 shows the cross section of typical vertical flow baffled flocculator. The distance
between the baffles is not less than 0.45 In. Clear space between the upper edge of the
barnes and the water surface or the lower edge of the baffles and the basin bottom is about
1.5 times the distance between the baffles. Water deptb varies between 1.5 to -'I times the
distance between the barnes and the water velocity is in the range 0.1-0.2m/s. 'nlC detention
time is be!:\veen 1020 minutes. This flocculator is mostly used for medium and large
treatment plants,

208

DRAIN

DRAIN

r,

t I

I +
I

---

"
I

hf

t i
I

ELEVATION

FIGURE 7.S: ALABAMA TYPE FLOCCULATOR

211

t
I,

~! I

II
"

ill

1\

III

\1

III'

III

ll~

I,

t
t

(~

! t

~~~~,J~~~,~J~~~~.JSSI~~
SMAll OPENINGS

FIG. 7.3 VERTICAL FLOW BAFFLED FLOCCUlATOR

FIGURE 7.4: JET FLOCCULATOR

210

m; and

m; depth :::: 2.50 to

of unit chamber::: 0.75 to 1.50 m; width:;;: 0.50 to

detention time;;::: 15 to 25 min.

(e) Tangential Flow Type

tank with
corners
\l\!ater is introduced tangentially at an indinatiDn In a
to induce a circulatory motion, thus
in turbulence and mixing. Chances
short
circuiting atc high and intimate mixing may not
obtainable.

(j) Pipe Flocculators

turbulence during the flow through a
can create velocity f,'fa:dlc:n
flocculation. 'The mean velocity gradient is calculated

(7.9)
in which Q ;;::: flow rate, nl/s; Vol = Volume

oflength L

jl 2

mm"

in pipe of lenf,rth I ; hi = -.!!..

\Vbere v

:=

pipe; d ::: diameter of pipe,' m.

Velocity, m/s; f:;:: friction factor for

(2) Mechanical Type flocculator

Paddle flocculatOts are widely used
7.6 shows two types of meeh:m
type flocculator with paddles. '1'he design
are: depth of tank:::: 3 to 4.5 m; detention
of flow :::: 0.2-0.8 m/ s normally 0.4 m/s;
time, t '" 10 to 40 min. normally 30 min;
total area of paddles =: 10 to 25'1.) of the
area of the tank;
of peripheral
:::: 0.20.6 m/s; 0.3-0.4 m/s is recommended; range of velocity
G
velocity of
= 10 to 75 5\
of dimensionless factor
:::: 104 lOS and power consumption; 10.0 to
36.0 kw/mld,
velocity to settling tank where water has to flow througb pipe or channel
= 0.15 to 0.25 m/s to prevent settling or
floes. For paddk f1occulator,
velocity gradi(~nt is given by

(7.1 0)
p(vol)

In which en ::: coefficient of drag (0.8 to 1.9),

water in the f1occulator Cm}), VI' ::: velocity of the
water adjacent to the tip of paddle (m/s).

area of paddJe (m'), Vol '" volume of

of paddle (m/s), Vw =: Velocity of tbe

:=

The optimum value of G can be calculated

(J28 t .c
opt

= 44 xl 05

In which
::: optimum velocity gradient, s "
concentration (mg/ 1).

(7.11)
t '"

time

flocculation, min.; and c

=:

alum

213

mm
11 ROWS OF

5PLATES

EACH

--

FIGURE 7.7: SURFACE CONTACT FLOCCULATOR

In large plants, it is desirable to provide more than one compartment in

to
it must
the effect of short circuiting. While translating laboratory jar test data to plant
be borne in mind that the good mixing conditions a ,-ail able in the laboratOty cannot be
simulated in the plant.
The paddles can be driven by
motors or by turbines rotated by water fall when
sufficient head is available. The direction of flow is usually horizontal moving parallel or at
right angles to the paddle shafts. 'The shape of the container also affects the process of
flocculation. For fhe same volume and height of water in the containers of several shapes
such as circular, triangular, square, pentagonal and hexagonal, it was
that the
pentagonal shape g,we fhe best performance,
Introduction of stators in the f1occulator helps to improve the performance of
flocculation.

(3) Pebble Bed Flocculator

The pebble bed flocculator contains pebbles of size ranging from 1 mm to 50 mm.
Smaller the size of the pebbles, better is the efficiency, but faster is the build up
headloss and vice-versa. The depth of
tlocculator is between (U to 1.0 m.
214

veJloc!ty gradient is given by

(7.12)
In which
hf

Head loss across the bed (m);

a;;::

Porosity of bed;
flocculator (m~; and

L -

Length of tlw bed (m)

The main advantage of the pebble bed flocculator is that it requires no mechanical
electrical power. The operation and maintenance cost is also low, The drawback
of this flocculator is that there is gradual build up of the head loss across the pebble bed and
needs periodical deanmg by simultaneous draining and hosing,
(4) Huidi:<etlBed Hocclllator

In a fluidized flocculator the sand bed is in

fluidized foun, E:ven a 10% expansion of
sand bed is enough to create the required turbulence without chocking the media, 'fhe
size IS between 0, 2 to 0, 6 mm and depth of sand bed is between (),3 to 0,6 m 'Ibc flow
of water is
This flocculator also docs not require any mechanical eqUipment or
electrical
Further, there is no build up of the head loss across the bed,
(5) Pneumatic Flocculator

a pneumatic f1occulator, air bubbles atc allowed to rise through a suspension, This
creates velocity gradient useful for flocculation, 'rhe velocity t,'fadient can be calculated from
I

0.236 ljDp [VOI,:L]2

JI
Vol

(7,13)

In which

chamcter of air bubbles (m);

(V 01 A/Vol)= volume of air supplied per

water volmne.

f1occulator needs air compressor and

problem of dogging of diffuser is quite
common. It is less efficient than the paddle -flocculator and therefore not commonly used,

(6) Surftlce Conttlct Floccultltor

The surface contact floeculator was studied experimentally in India to overcome the
111hcrent problem of choking, which increases the head loss over a period of time in pebble
flocculatots,
'The surface contact flocculators consist of studded plates, placed in a zigzag form along
the dtrection of flow, An experimental flocculator, shown in Fig, 7,7, comprised of 55 mild
steel plates, 140 mm x 60 mm in size, arranged in 11 rows of 5 plates each, These plates were
fixed at 45 to a base plate in zigzag fashion, 'The flocculator was tested in a continuous
215

RWl

SLU

RWL

II,\WWA11lIlUllVRL

(:w

Cl.'I!AM WATDl

Slll~

SLUOO!! 1l1ANKl!T L1i!lllL

SWP

SUIIOOlI! WASTI! I'll'll

FI(:mR~E

7.8(AI : SLUDGE BLANKET CLARIFIER

216

of

contact flclcc:ulatc)!

m<)(i:ulc can

to

or
mm

f!,1'2!.tinf!, can

r:ecent

C<1I)11:11IE!cd
t'mnrf'I'llir,mll

it is

flO'CCUlIHc,r lS
cost
typical
impellers, LalJorato!ty Cl{peotrtcnts

come
!s m

cnvu:onmcnt

21

blanket so that the newly formed insoluble salts precipitate directly on the sludge particles
already present. In this manner a completely flocculated system is constantly maintained and
a type of sludge is produced which seilles very rapidly and results in completely "cracked"
water. At the same time, the ftltering action of the blanket traps the fincr particles.
The c1arfication zone extends from the top of the sludge blanket to the surface of the
liquid. Upon emergence from the sludge blanket, the water passes through this clarification
zone and is collected for use.
.
From time to time the excess sludge is withdrawn either by gravity or by pumping.
larger tanks, it is advisable to provide mechanical scrapers for removal of the settled solids.
Several designs of the "Solids Contact IJnits" are available(land they are fundamentally
similar in design in that they combine solids contact mil\ing, flocculation, solids liquid
separation and continuous removal of sludge in a single basin. The general design features
are:

i)

Rapid and complete mechanical mixing of chemicals, raw water and suspension of
solids;

ii)

Provision of mechanical means for constant circulation of large volumes of liquid

containing the solids being used for contact. This is achieved either inside the tank
by an impeller in the inner compartment or in the outer compartment used for
settlement. In other types, the solids from the clarification zone are removed and
mixed with the raw water in a chamber located outside. Rapid sludge recirculation
ensures quick mixing with incoming water; and

iii)

Operation at higher than conventional flow rates.

As the efficiency of this type depends on

f()mlation of a sludge blanket, skilled and
delicate operation for control is needed. The turbidity of raw water that can be applied to the
Solids Contact Unit is limited to 700 to 1000 NTU. These are not advisable for the high
al",,,w laden water. A typical sketch of
plant is shown in Fig. 7.8 (a). The different
problems involved in the conventional clarifier arc 111 connection with the dosing and mixing,
desludging and the stability of the blanket
attempt was made in India to overcome these
inherent defects, through a modified sludge
clarifier, shown in Fig. 7.8 (b).
The velocity gradient of the sludge blanket can be calculated from

,[pg(.,
=, .- .)s 1X1

(J

fl

. ').

a II I Vol

(7.14)

In which S, specific gravity of floes; u=porosity of blanket; h

Vo!. ::= capacity of clarifier (m\ and Q ::= rate
How (m' Is).

= depth of blanket (m);

(9) Tapered Velocity Gradient Flocculator

In a tapered velocity gradient Hocculator, the water is intially subjected to a high velocity
gradient and finally to a low velocity gradient, thus generating dense, large size and tough
floes which in turn settle more quickly.
218

of direction

223

c)

no

rotati.l1lg m

1I1"1",n'nt of
trusses
arc
di,rmet<;r are
use
with

sludge handled, storage

sludge is likely to contain
for
periods; otherwise,
scttllllg pro,;ess, Depths commonly
Bottom slopes
"'UIP'"

of "'''J,''

is solely a fimction of
15 indlcp,cncl,ent of the depth of the
o'W'cver. contact opportunities among
in<:reasi.ng
flocculent particles having
The range of surface
of sedimentation
Particles
normally
removed
Range

silt and
2-8

flow

stnlctures must (0 lIfll/r,n1,lv drs;tribute

suspended particles over the cross
angle to flow within II1C'!lv,d,
tanks and into vanous tanks in parallel (i0
Hum,," longitudinal or radial flow, if high romoval
uniforrn dl!stribtlticl!1 of flow, the flow being divided must
bCltwl:en inlets on inlet openings must be small in
encounter

sec'l'lnn at

227

b
N

part
between
towards the .
the difficulty
launders,
varymg
the filters.

assists

gr,~ar.ly

in

loadings afe
clal1f:led \vaters can

Sludge is nOfITl"llv rerl101Jed

pipe will depend
provide tei!CSCOPIC ",<C',;e ul"na'ge aU'lm:c;crncI1t

continuous re!noval
are
continuous and pn:Jp(:r colleclt!on
1 in 10.

The ",,,ver CC'1cn"".)

the area to be scrap(ld
slowly to complete one rel101utlDn
the scraper should
around 0.:3
m', of tank area.
Sludge and
water 'W.JWU
pollution jf discharged into water courses.
For sludge blanket
to horizontal to ensure S!Tux)th
be less than
special slurry weirs are provided with
continuous bleeding of the excess ""uKe.
SpeCial types of consolidation
consolidate the sludge and recover water

S!I(.lm.g

mm. are sOlnetinles

r'lT<"Wiidcd

non-mechanised horizontal
slope about '[ 0% from the sides
longitudinal CC11tr:al
slope of at least 5% from the shallow
deiSpll!
drain is normally located. Manual cle""lm.>
high pressure hoses. Admitting settled water

230

bottom of t11e basin

slope of not
\vater
\fanous tn"thcH)i' II.ct UC

dt5:PC,slIl

cu:c:rents

cuneut

should be
or on "c,u~," drying

the incoming ",""'r

flow.
currents short circuit
be
short

mathc:rmctlcally cxrm:sscd as

(7.21)

rate

to achieve an etlIC1,enl:Y of

basin !)Cldc)rnnat1CC

1/8
good
o
pcricmnancc, 1
performance 1 for
poor
vlattH:m.atlcal analysis of 10llgttuc!.mal n1!Xllng in settling tanks indicates that
ro:unulted by
between
mean and modal
sh()(tcizcu:itin.g cl:laract:eristH:s of
are usually measured by addition of a slug of
electlcoll'!e or tracer
observing the e!Tle!:J~ezlce of this tracer substance with passage
ue'IUCll'l.y distribution
the
with respect to time is plotted.
identify the central tendency of the
mean flow-through
,.fractIOn distribution
its variance. The ratio of fhe median
or
between fhe mean and fhe modal (or
l i l t Ul'M') to the mean indicate
or efficiency of the basin. The lower the
unity or the higher
value, the lesser the efficiency and the more
sh(,rt,clr<:uiting. A well dt,si&'l1ed
capable of having a volumetric efficiency
adllic:ve hefh',,' clarification, the
teC,,'r,c in settling basin should be as close as
to ideal plug flow. A narrow
rectangular tank approximates plug How
peripheral feed circular tank and centre
than
shallow 1\;;<.U",O'U'"
231

Filters can be classIfied according to (1)

beds (3) the
(4) the
Depending
direction of flow
up flow, biflow, radial flow
have been
into Ca)
micro-strainers. The gr::m'll"''' U1COI1UIll
(usually tri-media) filters. Sand,
or granular activated carbon have
widely used as
is widely ,wadable,
force to overcome the fractional (eSista11er
force of gravity or applied pr'e,"un:
and pressure filters. In
fourth catel!~Oty
Lastly dependent upon
flow rates,
Filtration

are cmSSlfle(l

mU11icipal water supplies flc.rnm.lly IS ar1,:olmr)i1,:hr.d

(a) slow sand

or

(b) rapid sand filters

Both
these types
The rapid sand filters

constant rate

7.6.2 SLOW SAND

7,6.2.1 General
tr:t'{'l,ttnent
Slow sand filters can provide a
waters
turbidity 20 NTU) when land,
san.d are
chemicals and equipmcms arc dillicnl! to nrOCl,HC
pei'sol'rncl to operate
rna1ntaJ.Jl
arc not available locally.

scrt!!T1Crrtatton Of
When raw water turbidity is high, Sll1Clp'le ".n'"tn'"
primary filtration will be necessary to reduce it to within de,,!'" h)l"
and flocculation h'ave also been
to
Orl,I'''''I! turb1d ,vaters Witi")u!
adverse effect on filtrate quality by slow

7.6.2.2 Description
A slow sand filter consists of an
about 3.0 m deep rectangular or
shape and made of concrete or masonry
The box contains a supernatant water
a bed of filter medium, an undcrdrainagc Sv,:tcln and a set of control
and appuirtrlnrlm:es"
The supernatant provides the driving
to overcome ft~ctional resistance in
several hours to the incoming water bett)!e it

'Ine fllter bed consists of natural sand

and uniformity coefficient (U.C) of:3 to 5.
be not less than 0.4 - 0.5 m. As a layer of
cleaned, a new filter should be provided
will then become necessary only once in

the water to flow through the

bed and
of the system. It can also provide a strmlge
the sand surface,
an effective
(E5.) of
efficiency, the WlCKnc'"
tnm sand will be removed
an i"itL'!'! sand depth of

tJ1H1

to

n1rn

sho121d
time the
13
l. 0 m. ',-c:sall1(J'lnt!

RAW WATER INLET VALVE

RECHARGE VALVE

FILTER SCOUR VALVE

Ii: -

FILTERED WATER OUTLET VALVE

FILTER TO 'NASiE VALVE

FILTERED WATER VALVE

SUPERNATANT DRA!NOUT VALVE

FLOW MEASUREMENT

VENTLArlON

SCHMUTZDECkE
I)

B~-r.~1

10

0"

'V' NOTCH

FIGURE 7.14: BASIC ELEMENTS OF S!,OW SAND FILTER (SCHEMATICI

The undcrdrainage system supports the sand bed and provides unobstructed passage for
filtered water to leave the underside of the filter. The underdrains may be made of unjointed
bricks laid to form channels, perforated pipes or porous tiles laid over drains. Graded gravel
to a depth of 0.2 -0.3 m is placed on the underdrains to prevent the sand from entering the
underdrains and ensure uniform abstraction of filtered water from the entire filter bed.
A system of control valves facilitates regulation of

in the filter at the time of cleaning and backfilling when

after c1eanmg.

rate and adjustment of water level

filter is put back into operation

7.6.2.3 Purification in a Slow Sand Filter

In a slow sand filter, water is subject to various purifying influences as it
through the sand bd. Imputities are removed by a combination of straining, sedimentation,
biochemical and biological proce~sses. Shortly after the start of filtration, a thin slimy layer
called the 'schmutzdeclw' is formed on the surface of sand bed. It consists of a
variety
of biological organisms which feed on the organic matter and convert it into simple,

to

InOle new mOlccls l.!llrnecl1:d.tc;ly,

(It)
cornrt''l.on

(e) DePlth

Some
cost
be guarant.t:ed

of
walls upto maximum
or rcpain:d without

Inlet
structure

1S

an important comnoncnt

and
raw water

to cause
to ta';111tal.c r'DutwlC
this IS
by lo~verml!'
and
the top layer of 1020 mrn of
water through the filter bottom takes SI"ICfal
(JCS1g!lCCj

oroVld,,,L By a proper deSign,

com!.Hfi.ed tn a

71S).

d1<:illrh:ln("

and

FIlTER SIDE

WALL KEYED TO THE

FLOOR TO PREVENT

DRAIN VALVE

ENTRY OF RAW WATER

INTO UNDER DRAIN

DRAINOUT BOX

!c","~

WOODEN PLANI<5
THICK)

VEL
,

':: "

DRAINOUT BOX

UE,Pl H GAUGE WITH flOAT

OUTLET VALVE
END
MWL IN fILTER

(U.

G.L.

fiLTER OUTLET

--

RESERVOIR

: OUTI#E'l' CHAMB!l:R
(c) Outlet

outlet structure ulCo'rp()cates means

sand ,,-r""'(IfW

In small lIllI"lS. the

with a weir. The sill of
This
filter operation j'rIdCPCIi1dt,nt
occurrence of negative
nl.lsmg its oxygen content To facilitate
provided m the chamber (Fig. 7.16).

separated by a
in the
bed.
in the dC(l,r \vater storage
and
filtered water
opening
1$

overflow outlet

(Ii)

\vater

on the

backfilling with

""'>Cll

SCUD)
in

239

rate

Ii! i!:lriC,n

at

treatment

rescrvotr
rate 11.1 tratl0f1

earl1Pl'

raw \vater is
at a dedrnillg rate as

nrw \vater >t'''UlI is

level. W!1h,,,,, dccllmng tatc hltratlion

water level

stttncl1n.g over
bed
a
filter is needed.

the

nse to

240

'1' is
rnl11tfl1Urn

!S

241

The c(luation for D, when re~arranged, shows that 2 nb

minimum filter cost is to have the sum

(n + 1)1, or the condition for

length (clual to the sum of the breadths, It can

be shown that this is true whether filter umts are arranged

each sick

=:

111

a single row or as blocks on

expression for the minimum cost is found by

a central gallery. The

suhstituting I ':C]tL 7,26 and 7,27 for I

~.

KAA + 2KAJ2;.i(;11Ij)

The values of I</\and f<p) can be

out

w(

any place based on prc\'ailmg pnces for

construction materials, For N agpur, rnelia (1

( . = 500A + 1660 (J2A(;lti)

(IJ)

r,29)

Economy of Scale
!\ !,eneral cost model for the filter
t')

r30)
\\'hcrc '/\' IS the total arca of the illtl'!' beds, K is the cost per unit area of filter bed
construct'Ol1 including wails, and 'a' is the exponent that represents the economy of scale

Eiunt.
The cosl data

i(H

the parameters K and

vaf10US values of II, can be used to determine

of the function

method of least squares, The resulting

''1uallo11 Ii ll' N agpur (1 'Jill) IS t~vcn by:

(7,31)
J ,argc

economicS of scale arc assoCIated with small values of the: exponent Until the

(.'xponent decreases to abnut OJ) or 0.7, there ls no cconotnic tnccnt1ve to ovcrdesign. Thus ,
nT, 11IIIc sa\'ing is accompilshed by mcrcasing the size of the: project in order to provide
~t'n'lCC'

o\'cr a

long tinlC into the future.

(c) Cost of Slow Versus Rapid Saml Filters

Thnc IS a {)FeneraJ mISconception I'hat slow sand filters, becausc of their relativelv, laro-cr
b

area, arc cxpensi\'C I lowcvcr, this is not always

true~

Comparative cost analysis for slow and

rapid iillch has shown thai that slow sand filters arc cost effective, espeCIally for rural and
smaii comrnunit) waler supplies, The eCOllorntC capacities have to be determined for specific
S!tll:ltlor" uS1Ilg

local cost data before decIding on the choice between the two types of

Iii lers,
242

lU>Ln'U

SUMl\1ARY GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN

SLOW SAND FILTERS

-~-:------'~----'-"~"-~'~-~--"---~--~--

Description

Recommended

Recommended
value

period
water

Areas upto 6501200

upto 1

,200t) 6

of filter

Effluent weir

above

tOm

2,7m

20,30mm

bed

7.6.3 RAPID SAND FItTERS

7.6.3.1 Filtration Process

The rapid sand filter comprises of a
sand
as a single medium wanular
matrix supported on gravel overlying an undcl'drainage system, The distinctive features of
rapid sand filtration as compared to slow sand filtration include c,ucful pretreatment
raw
water to effectively flocculate the colloidal
use of higher ftltration rates and coarser
but more uniform filter
to
of filter media to trap influent solids

243

(,ceurs

1,

rC(juired

fIlter.

rn_cJiurn) drn;

particle

'Ian
adsorption.
IS
medium. Pretreatment of filter mtlucn
of attachment
and consequently
ilU'C'j'.Jar.c pretreatment before ftltration to
Dimensionless parameters
mechanisms and mathematical "'1u<I.mms
particles based on physical

v;.tn()U$

to
as

tr,l,tlsp()rt

the
1',

p and !(

rnWIVI

10

WI!

gr,eal er care In cc,mlilJn!linl!

(,A'(,,,,,;,,,, size uptn 1

supplied
large
gn,latlsr than
1
conslsllm!
minimum of
i,'

.0.,5.:>

Dimensions
between the
a pipe gallery
a nlln1hll
installations,
depth of 2.6m
I

Hl

inl:lu<dicli!, a
tn
or concrete
101:atI0115 where SC3.Sl1nal extremes of hin",,,,,,j''''''
roofing over the
the nrlPTztin" IYlillen,

sand is d",hflMi
Sieve Size 1n

ensure

stn.lCture. Except in

waler

Ml,,,,,l,,nl It

is not

to provide

over.

Effective size
Uniformity In size

!lc!e!l!.

to

IS

IS

specified by
60'/0

steve Size

is

effective size,
quality of

Shape, size

(a)

be of hard

and

(e)

17 nor
cent

(e)

Soluble

(f)

than 1

weight

not eXl:ccd S.ll'Y"

!!1

weight

content should be not

(g)

be in

to

shall not ex,:ec:d

IS:8419

1) 1977

e""Hew

7.6.3.7 Depth Of Sand

Usually the sand layer
a
the coarse medium is used, delco'~r
over filter varies
1 and

to 0,75 m,

standing
water
the water level should be: at

0,5 m so that when atr 1J1l1dlng

levels

(), 15 to

higher rate filtration

are enC()l,llllxn:u,
",.,'wulr',' to overcome

7.6.3.8 Prep<ll'iI,tion Of l'Utel'

'I'he
to
coefficient:.
a sieve anal}'s;;;
that must be removed in
to meet
PI' the percentage
stock sand that is >,H;mc
equal to 10"1(, of the usable sand and
the desired 60
SIze
The pcrcent2lge of suitable
between
d, sizes will

in terms
coarse and

SpsICltieU

To meet the specified composition,

Hence the percentage fl" below which

- PI ) because
sand,

can contain 0.1

of a sand below d"
is too
to usc is

P4 ::: PI - (),l PI ::: p, - 0.2 (Pc -- 1',)"

Likewise, the percentage

Ps

~"p,
=:

1S

too coarse

+ AO% of usable sand

P2 + OA

2(p,- P,)

=:

P2 +

18

-- 0,15 1',

use is

In',!VICIl.cy curve,

sand rnll"S"!

'The sizes

arc /I!"feCrn

\\7i11 have to

separated out

may be done by sieving. The finer

Ic) the

the

to

rCln,,'v('u in it sand Wllslicr deSIgned to

out the D3.rtlCJ(CS
size smaller than
tmuntatl\llrg v(le,citv ttl the
flow washels slightly
than tbe hydraulic suhsl(lence
less than
Slze itrc
out with
value com:SClolH.llllC to d 4,
snch that all

7.6.3,9

Holtoms And
collect the filtered water
to chstnilmtte
the same amount
may

the
of

4'tl110Ullt of cleaning.
former is the governing

,atJIllCllC1

the bottorn or
b()tttWl

n'~;ullu

\vith :,trainers .,,,.>esc

rate of wash is
the

111

perforated on
bottorn ~a false
plate 1100r supported

I'lith

such as
mtcrvals or a

and constructed. Porous

on concretc:
however, arc

UI)"tICU

by

alumina whIch can penetrate through the

!nl'tlute

bed winch

In the Case of

with latera!
cl'rnent} concrete or
pert0n1tlo1lS or Olllll"," IS destroyed
IllClm'UIU

;tVstell".

manifolds, lwaders and laterals arc

ma teriaL Th e
() f

cast

(((lnal to the
loss is set betw"uI 1 to cL5m, i\
lS

m:c!('miaic

'TIl" t()llowmg

rna)'

water has a 10\\1 pIl

IS

corrC.lsrvc

i\,C Pipes

\vhcn the fOrrceJl0n

has to
ewJcllCv to dissolve in-vay in the pr'(""n(.r of

treated waters,

used m

laterals.

The
nn

for

vary fnHB :)
vertICal axts of
of ') mm to 200 mm f()t

!'CllOliUJ.Ol

rna)'

at a sllght angle
80 mm

DCr:it)r;tlUlHS

Ratio of tota1 arC';:! of nedr,ra!

in the undcrdttJ1u
shuuld not exceed (L::) for ucmHII'LlIms
12 mm and

sl,'S1,rm

to total

area of lateral

Cf(}SS

to 0.25

perforations of 5

tlHTL

t( )t;11

area

to diameter of the lateral shOUld not

'pllcmg of (.ni1n" and shall be ?)OO mm.

entire
elL The

The cross s{'ct1onal area of t.he

should
10 rnmirmzc fnct10nal losses and to
for
of distribution of \vash \vatcr in
'lite (ClItm! mamfold wilh lateral

ahout O.3%:fhe

of length

rlo"CI" apl)roX!!11at'~s the

1.5 to 2 Umes
total area of the
It is usefu] to check l.lw ueSl~Jl
the under- drains.
svelte!n is shown in hg. 7.18,

247

WATER
TAN

EFFLUENT LEV

DURING FILTERING
WATER LEVEL~+;r~~
DURING
!:J-',~~*~~-"-.tl~+
BACK 'NASHIN!3
INFLUENT

DRAIN

HOtE IN TOP

OF EACH LATERAL

DETAIL

Size 1(".nllTe,: 1.

.H~ejer(lnc:c

or n1.0rc

}",mlL.,

cast tron

'Inc troughs are designed as free

,a1l1111' wetrs or

troughs with level invert, the discharge

formula

=:

Cl1ll:Hll1V

snlill~"n

111

3 '
mls

[7.32)

1.376 bh"2

\'\11crc b is the width of the trough in m

h is the water depth in m.

7.6.3.12 High Rate Backwash

a pressure that sand should expand to about
at which the wash water is applted is

Back wash should be arranged at

13(J150% of its undisturbed

Normally, the rate at which

water is applied, where no other agitation is provided, is
36 m (GOO lpm/m')
a period of 10
'rhe tendency in design is towards higher
rates of washing, prtmarily because of the
sizes of sand being
which require a
application of water for equal
surface
auxiliary means is
maX!1num fnction that
which ate
to move and expimd can offer
IS
wbmetgcd
in water. 1
beyond this pomt, may
lead to the carryover of the grains
For high rate wash, the
pressure in the undcrdrainage
washwatcr rcqU1rcment
being 40,s() m/hr for a
of (, to 10 minutes.
daeet
an overhead storage tank or
water if the
\\/atcr rnotors arc not
must be sufficient to supply wash water to two

supply of
purnpin>; or by rU)f)10(y
overloaded.
at a

rnon,',

7.6,3,13
,ilyt",,;! and
washing will
The upper
the filter bed
to the f<.mnatiol1 of mud balls,
spots 111
These ttOubles atc
overcome by
wash
can be accomplished by slimug th(: expanded
filter bed
with rakes,
jets of water directed mtn the suspended
or pneumatically with air,
HUllll1' or rnOf(:
latter
h\/o !ncthods being COtnnlon, arc

(II)

Hydraulic !::iljr;tel'll
1 The fixed
diatneter arranged VelU\."'lV
pipes arc to be situated to 1),1
shall be located on the
piping horizontally
to 0.1 tTl 0 vcr !.he sand
of 0.3 m approximately
entry of the filter media,
2. The rotary
shall consist
mm at adccluate
over

than
mITl in
ends of the
;]nOnn:1'rJl"et over
sand
and nozzles
!\n alternate lixed type may consist of
OJ; m approximately at a
of O.()5
h()ri~orl!al pipes shall
perforated at intervals
units to prcv'cnt

PIpes not

0.6 to

m.

un1ts suspended at a height

bed tn provide complete

50 to
jet nozzles

250

shall
to rotate at a rate

\\'L'l.tcr Ci:1USCS

arrns

7 to 10

area).
the

been

levels.

a run. I t is
Under no
Clf'CUIIlstan.ccc, a

not ex,ccc,ej

m most pn'llL'.

turbidity not
there should
no au binding
of sand with the
it

251

",,un

bed even after wasmng UHJKaU"

balls and their retention in
of
At the commencement of the
run

not ex<:ec,d
.U,,)'.hY

In

HydrilUlics Of Filtration
h, through a clean filter

of depth 1 can

(7.33)

h
I

"\)I30j!lltC'
'"
V1SCOSl'(yo'f' wa t cr,

II

.5 under most

dimensionless

of water, (Kg/m')

:=

(N.s)'
til

v -

CrClSCO!1lC velocity of filtration, (m/ s)

_.

clean sand bed. dllncns"orlies

f
A

'T

\vater

area of the grains (m')

-~".

the bl'tains (m')

h)r unisize

'mi'nC",

A
V

medium particles of

6
d

on-,,'ler,'C;)i grains. sphericity is defined as

;;c,ua"

surface area of the equivalent volume

of non-spherical
'rhe sphericity, \11 assumes values
1.0
0.98 f()t rounded grains, 0.94 for worn grains, 0.81
sharp grains. 078
0.70 for crushed
sand medium

stratified beds, as obtainable in rapid sand filters after back washing, the
IS
sum of the head losses in successi,'c sand
If!s
ntttmll!1l 0 f sieved size di, the head loss IS lsi\'cn
h
I

k Ii (l - f)2
- - v
g' p..
fJ

--,~"'"'"'>

For unstratified beds e.g, slow sand

the head loss

252
2962 UA&EJ9?~~198

7.6.3.1Ii Hydraulics

Backwashing

rate granular filters arc backwashcd to remove the impurities lodged in the medium
matrix.
hydraulics of backwashing concerns with the determination of head loss across
the filter bed dunng backwashing and to estimate back-wash velocity at any rcguircd level of
expansion and cO!1commitant porosity of expanded bed.
As the water 1S applied in upflow mode to a granular medium or media, frictional resisgrains due to skin friction and form drag The initial effect at low
tance IS offered by the
vel!ocltHIS of flow is to result in reorientation of
particles to minimize frictional resistance.
l)a(ll"v;),,11 velocities, the filter beu uoes not expand and its porosity docs not change.
or rmlSsurc urop is a linear fuction of upwaru flow velocity at low velocities.
As the water vclocitv is increased, the frictional resistance also increases till it reaches a value
cClua] to the I-,'favltational force acting upon the filter /:,'fains. Any further increase in the
vdocity of water fluidizes the filter bed resultmg 111 bed expansion and increasing porosity of
filter bed.

across filtel'
state

maXImum frictional resistance that can

offered by the filter grains in fluidized
thctr submerged weight The heau loss across the filter bed in fluidized condition is

IS

l-,'1ven by

e'luatlOn:

(7.36)

hI, :: hcadlo;;s across filter bed dUring l:lal:lnVllS

I,.

height of the expanded bcd, (m)

mass density of the filter

(Kg/m~

mass density of water, (Kg/ml)

p
(

(m)

I":

porosity of expanded bcd, dimensionless

Since the gram Hllumc docs not change before and during backwashing,
(1 f)J

=:

(I

01,

%) can be rewnttcn using (:'1' (737)

p
(b)BstilTUltion ofIJac.kW:lsh Velocity

(7.38)

Several approaches arc available for computation of back-wash velocity to achieve a

desired degree of bed expansion and attendant expanded bed porosity Of to estimate bed
expansion and expanded bed porosity at a t~ven backwash velocity.
According to one of the approaches, .first minimum fluidization velocity (vmU which is the
superficial fluid velocity required to initiate fluidIzatIOn of the bed is computed from the emptncal llonhomogcnolls equation:
253

0.0038

lnrn

or
04
I

,u
I II

rntlst

l1YIPOlthcticai "',',''''101' paltJeiic IS

n is computed
4.
I

to

254

can

to

ltl l1f(;IalUl'C

V is

til"

dl
dv!

dl

velocity within pores

v
dll

head loss pcr unit length

dl

II" is given by

combining cquauons (7.47) and (7.46)

I

i I~ gl" dli )'.12

r IJI\~;'JT
The Yc!Ocity within pores can be expressed
v'

K,,(fe)"

and =

cih iPL:J') (\
Co

dl

y=K[f~nl_

f,"]1!2

fe)

.50)

.S 1)

where K = [Ilg Ke(p, plus]

Differentiating E~el 7.51 and equating to zero:

Optimization of the equation for

, by differentiating the equation and
equating to zero yields the following eXipre/SSlon for the porosity of maximum hydrodynamic
shear:
fe

fl C.

__

(7.52)

According to this equation, the maximum hydrodynamIC shear occurs in a fluidized bed
at porosities of 0.68 to 0.71 for typically
filter sands which corresponds to an expanslOn
of 80 to 100/1). However, the curve of
hydrodynamiC shear versus porosity is quite flat,
indicating that washing at porosities different from the theoretical optimum does not result
in a major decrease in the efficiency
cleaning process. Optimal cleaning has been observed
in some cases at expansion of 16-18% only.
It has been found that there is lack of abrasion during water backwash and th"re!m'e
backwashing with water alone is .
a weak cleaning process.
cleaning,
abrasion resulting from collision,
grains is achieved by auxiliary process like surface
wash or air scour (Section 7.6.3.13).

7.6.3.18 Appurtenances
Filter appurtenances include manually, hydraulically or electncally operated sluice valves
on the influent, effluent, drain and wash water lines; measuring devices such as venturi
meters; rate controllers activated by
device; loss of head and rate 0 f flow 1,>auges;
sand expansion indicators; wash water controllers and indicators; operating tables and water
sampling devices; and ejectors and sand washers; wash water tanks and pumps.

(a) Rate of Flow Controllers

The primary purpose of rate of flow controllers is to regulate the flows of liquids in the
lines and specifically, in filter plant, to maintain at all times a uniform rate of filtration
through each filter unit. Without these control features in the filter effluent lines, raw water
will pass through the sand bed at different velocities, higher when the sand bed is clean and
lower when coagulated deposit has accur ,tlated on its surface.
256

avoided if
ratc of flow also must
Sudden
maintained in an unbroken and efficient rnndihl")f1 Any changes in rate must
predetermined
must not be
Such unfavourable
may
by
use of rate
can

\vcir or a venturi

controlled by means

COl~ltroll<~f may be
of (lOtmle
Rate
SC(:tH)n,
diaphragm
rhaITlhl'f
arrangement,
ventun
conststs
co'unter"w,eighttld
.6'TOUp
out-let
stmight line flow
the unit is ",uuw

Water flowing through the venturi section produces different

at
malll
throat, due to the difft:rencc of veloCities at these points" Since
ma1l1
and throat
to the upper and lower halves, respectively, of
diaphragm
alC reflected directly on the piston, moving it a certain
between the
being exerted" Since (lc)wm,""uTl
piston is greater than upward pressure from below, a dc)\vm'fard
countcr"weight on the long arm
the beam
This balance of counter-weight and piston load regulates
the maXllTIum rate of discharge through the controller"

the controller, by virtue

its throttling

uses

all

lfc:rcnce in raw and filtered water which is not required to overcome fnction

of head through the sand mereases,

head, etc, and as the
""""ne:d by the controller diminishes by a corresponding amount
the cnure
Openll.l()!1, therefore, the rate of filtration remains practically constant
to

it must be emphasized that rate

flow controllers require
and rnaintenance to ensure that filtration is done at constant ratc\ These
rate of filtration is adopted,

arc nn11tl:,,<1

(b)

gauges are essential to the operation of the modem filter

accurately
rate of flow through each filter box and to determine the
are available in n1flUUS
at any given lIme during the filter run,
of flow and loss of head, both indicating and recording or as
units,

1>1

to 1TICaSUrc

of rate

These gauges use the float and mercury prmciple for the conversion of
pressure into measurement of loss of head df rate of flow, '11re primary
dtfferential
producing device req"ired for the rate gauge usually is the venturi section
effluent rate
controller, connections to the high and low pressure sides of the
cylmdcr bC111g
to the main and tl1roat sections of the controllcL The differential pressure for the gauge b
the difference between the water level in the filter box and the pressure head in the
pipe, pressure connections bi~jng led from these sources to the high and low pressure gauge
cyJinder taps.
2~) 7

much
less

tnstturncnts.

is

The

,'llIwfCn

lliilisation
of

to coar;;;c

to overcornc

above
filtration and
concepts IS
conti1cilng the
\vater
having t'naXiH1urn
pore sIZe and pore
Unpurit1cs.
\vatcr 1r,,,,'"
into the filter
II comes in contact
containing smaller pore sizes
resulting in ITmm',,] of even very fine
particles. 'fhis leads to better-quality filtrate and
greater utllisatton () f lower byers to remm'c impurities. The dual media and multimedia
fihers WhlCh arc
increasingly used
at higher rates of filtration with

258

per filter run compared to

m,"/I't;! filters are

C(],!ltaul!llg two ",,",,"" normally

111 dn'\\'11W'ar,d OlIeCllon

c:\,>c,j,C

arc

12'aUi"es to mdicatc
below

\X"it.h a view to rnalntain coarse to

Sizes
\vlth in-and
sizes
arc
The
top
j,1t""m:c; depth of fi.1ter bed, two media of
COil] having larger particle size over a layer of
consists of a lower density mah'nal
like silica sand having
diameter
111 lad;a
available. the CO<lCiC medium
consist
high grade
usc after
bituminOUS coal or Cll. "I:!CU coconv t
field trials, The ttcctlve S1ze
coal (specific
1A) IS usually
Imm (lUiS .6 mm
with unifom1.ity
(lLC) uf Ll to lS Depths of CU to
excessive head Joss build up and t hest:
0.4 m have
reported to be satisfactory
besides
flocculared impurities, The finec
can flocculate
usually cormst, of (U .~ 0.4 m thick silica sand (specific f,'1'3vity 2,(5) with
etl,cctj\C size of around
mm
to OJ; mm
and uniformity coefficient
1.3 to
15

basic principle in designmg the dual

bed is to have coal as coarse as 15
consistent with solids removal to prevent
blinding but to have the sand as fine as
possible to provide maximum solids [(:mova] subject to the constraint that the finer sand
should not be present in the upper layers after backwashing in appreciable (Juantit),.

259

I n addition to lugh l,Yfade bituminous

crushed coconut shell has been effectively
filters.
used as coarse media in dual
sm~
from 1.0 to 2J) mm with depths of
03 0.4 m. The uniformity coefficient i,
specitic gravity 1 The sand used in
conjunction with crushed coconut shell
bclwe,en 0.44 to
mm
with uniformity codficient below 1
1'1,,1'111""" \l30
0.4 m
Water treatment plants with capacities fatlgin( 1""""(,,,,
employing dual media filters using crushed coconut shell and
Anthracite coal has
in dual media filters. I t is n'C'(wn;Yl{'"
that
0.4 -0.75m of anthracite coal
effective size
be
.0 to 1.6 mm (specific ',",lV1h! 1AS- L
used above a sand layer, 0.150,30 m.
fff',' 1,,'(, size of sand rnay
between 0.45 to 0.8
mm with 0.45 mm being preferred. The
with
gravity of

7.6.4,3

Design Of Media Depth

Media SiZ'E;S

II) Design of Media Depth

The efficiency 0 f removal 0 f

media grains. For a ftlter of depth
sphericity Ijl

"lfTiCil'S

is a function
the surface area of the
of N particles of average size d and

(7,

(7.54)

The equation can be employed to desilo'11

rate rtiters

f=()A~,1V

mally specified, l~)

I:::

depths of filter. r,'or example, for typical l11gh

2

Since the effective size

0.8 and(!i} (iSO, A

G80 c()rrc~;po!1ds to

'" 950 where dw'Yo is the effectIve size,

sand is nor"

Figures can be developed for predetermined value of A, based on pilot data, between the
effective size of medium and filter medium depth for different values of V. These figures can
be used to estimate depths of various combinations of dual media.

(b) Design of Media Sizes

The dual media filters, consisting
coarse but lighter mcdiuri. particles on top of finer
but heavier particles, must retain their stratified character dunng backwashing and resettling.
Equal expansion during backwashing for
media comprising of coal and sand indicate
equal fluidization velocity for both media, It can be shown that
1

11/1
1j/ u

)["-1
,

pll

(7,55)

the
.';litll!' within the lower
well as during expansion determines the

largest grain w1thin

upper
(coal)
] t follows that mixing during settlmg as
!aX!!nLlm allowable ratio of the grain sizes in

two

and no '
the ratio of maximum diameter 0 f coal to the
equal settling can be
mmirnum diameter
that will ensure
equal expansion
1.5 and its sphencity
aD()VC mentioned
a
of
0,70
and density of sand of (l85
2,65, this
1S
j'1'110,'/'

0,85

2,26

::0

2,3

0,70

If
tanes

intermixing is to be adnicved
minimum diameter of sand for

must be more than

coarsest
ara,ct(;!1stIC of coal and sand given,
S1ze

7.6.4,A, Filtration Riltes And Filtrate

Dual -media and multimedia futers
successful,ly operated at rates of filtration
2
ranging from 15 to 20 m' I m Ihr with
filtrate quality, Field trails in India usmg
high grade bituminous coal indicate that even
inadccjuate pretreatment of filter: influcnts
as obtainable in Indian conditions,
rates of 16 m'/m2 /hr could be recommended
with
nm
at least 12 hours,
higher: rates of filtration upto 24 m'/m 2/hr
could
employed if proper
15
Filtrate turbidities are generally less
than 1 NTU
coliform removal is around
In general, it
be recommended to op,er:lte dual media
at higher rates of 1.5 to
3
2
2
12 m /m /hr, The backwash rates of
to 54 m'/m /hr (700-900 Ipm/mz) have been
employed to dean the filters,

7.6.5 MULTIMEDIA {<ILTERS

The multimedia filters normally contain
media such as anthracite coal, silica sand
and
with specific gravities being around lA, 2,65 and
The
of media may
vary from 2 mm at the top to 0, 15 mm at tLc bottom A typical t::imedium fllter may contain
OA5 m of coal with an effective size of 1A mm, followed by 0,23 m of silica sand of effective
size of 0,5 mm and 0,01< m of garnet sand having an effective size
0,3 mm,
Media of polystyrene, anthracite, crushed flint sand, garnet and magnetite whose specific
gravities are 1.04, lAO, 2.65, 3,83 and 4,90 respectively ate being tricd,

7.6.6 PRESSURE FILTERS

7.6.6.1 General
Based on the same principle as gravity type rapid sand filters, watet is passed through the
filter under pressure through a cylindrical tank, usually mad~ of sted or cast iron, wherein the
261

underdrain, gravel and sand are placed,

are compact and can
moved to site, Economy is possible in certam cases by avoiding double pumpmg,
Pretreatment is essential, The tank axis may be either vertical or horizontaL

7.6.0.2 Disadvantages
Pressure filters suffer from the follOWing disadvantages:

(a)

treatment of water under

seriously complicates
and flocculation of water to be filtered,

UlXl1ig

(b)

In case of direct supply from

contact time for chlorine,

(c)

The water under filtration and

to observe the effectiveness of
washing process.

(d)

Because
the inherent shape
filters it is difficult to nn lV'lle
water gutters effectively designed so that the material svashed
discharged to waste and not Hushed
to other portions
the

(d)

It is difficult to inspect, clean and replace the sand,

pressure

pn"'I.HC

filters, it is not possible to

nnwlclc aOCCI'"<lllC

arc out of
wash oc the degree of db'''''''''UH

filters,
(e)

Because the water is under

pressure on the discharge main .IS
disturbed ViOlently with disastrolls

at the
end, on occasions when
H;l""lC,CU suddenly, the
to the filter effluent.

In view of these disad,'antages,

filters are not 1'('('n1'",,''''11
water supplies, particularly for large ones, They may be used
s\vimn11ng pools,

DIATOMACEOUS EARTH. FILTERS

Diatomaceous firers, are not advocated for publiuc water supplies,
restricted to temporary and emergency water supplies of a limited nature
arrangements are not easyor feasible,

is

The medium consists of diatomaceous earths which are skeletons of diatoms mined
from deposits laid down in seas,
The filtering medium is a byer of diatomaceous earth built up on a porous septum by
recirculating a slurry of diatomaceous earth until a firm layer is formed on the septum. The
prccoat thus formed is used for strain1l1g the turbidity in water, For this, diatomaceous earth
is applied at 0.5 to 2,5 kg/m" of septum, Some times, when the turbidity is very high, the
diatomaceous earth will have to be added to the incoming water as body feed, Body feed is
added at three times the solids when organic slimes ate present Filtration rates range from
7,2 to 18m'/m2 /hr.

262

A[)lJ1TH)NALMODlFICATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL RAPID GRAVITY

TERS
'ctJjU~""U

And Declining Rate

Filtration by Influent

In (nlW"!) H
trnlh"

Splitting

rapid sand filters, constant rate

loy\? 1S nlaintaincd by installing a rate
nn the efllucm line,
rate of flow controller can be 'juite COlTlplcx
m;lmte!Ia!lCe Costs,
systems have been proposed which arc

to build, operate

tna1ntal'l1.

methods is rate
by influent flow spEtting which IS depicted in
71 \), The
influent is divided
among all the operating filters in senes by
means
a weir at each filter inlet. The sIze of the filter influent conduit is kept rdatively
head loss is not significant
the water level docs not vary significantly
length of the conduit Th!s helps J!l maintaining nearly same head on
of the
welt
Influent is ("Jually split among all the operating filters. The filtration rate is
contn
lom!iy for all the filter units by the inflow feeding ratc. At the bCIc':1nning of filter
nm
filter is put into serVice, the level of water in that filter is mirumnm.
and head loss builds up, the wstcr level mes !11 the filter till it
the maX1!lmm pcmllsSlblc level
the filter bed, which may be,
example,
c'll.mi to
len:l of ;n!lucnt weic The filter lS
out of service for backw3shing.
(

system include dtminatlOn of ratc controllers and slow and

m rates due to f,'fadual risc
fall
water level above
bed '.vith
t his

INFLUENT
"..." . ,"' .......,- !Sj,~~ . WEIR BOX
-INFLUENi

l<'IGURE 7,19: GRAVrrV FIL'fEllt ARRANGEMENTS FOR RATE CONTROJJ BY

INI<'LUENT FLOW SPLITTING

harmful effects on filtrate quality in COffitJarlSOn to ftiters having rate of flow controllers, To
completely
possibility
head in the filter, the effluent control weir
must be located above filter
as
m
FIgure,
only dlsad'varltal:,e of
filter box which is L 5 to 2

In

influent
splitting system
more than in co;nv(;ntlnf1!al filters,

IS

the additional depth of the

(b) Declinil1g

is also referred to as variable dec;lmmg rate filtration, In this system, the filter
mflucnt enters below
water le\'d
ftlters and not above as in the case of
influent flow splitting
described in
7,6,8.1 (a), A relatively large influent
header (pIpe or
serves all the
a relatively large influent valve is used for
each individual ftIter, This results in
small head losses in the influent header and
influent
water level IS essential1 y
same in all operating filters at all times, The
essential features for variable declining ratc filtration system are shown in Fig, 7,20 No rate
of
controllers are used in this
During the course
by a series
being served by a common
as
the filters
dogged,
through
dill'If,',t filters decreases most rapidly, This causes
redistribution
load among all of
increasing the water le\'e1 providing the
additional head needed
handling additional flow,
the
capacity lost
the dittier
filter"
The advantage claimed
this
obtained with constant-rate filtration,
constant, rate operation,

include sif,Yflificantly better filtrate gmtiity

head needed than tbat rcqum:d for

Another
of declining rate filtration is
"controlled-head" operation, In tillS type
of filters, the filter effluent lines are connected to a common header, A fixed
is built
washing, will take an UllClUC
into
piping for each filter so

COMMON INFLUENT HEADER

OR CHANNEL

AVAILABLE
HEAD LOSS

,\

.?'.
"

DRAIN-

~IFICE :~~

SHORT VENTURI
FOR PLATE' tNOICATiON ONLV

l<'IGURE 7.20: GRAVITY FILTER ARRANGED Fall VARIABLE DECLINING RATE

FIL'fERA1'ION

264

the flowo The filtered water header

regulated by a throttle valve which
discharges to a filtcn,d water reservoiro Costly rate controllers arc replaced with fixed orifices
and, therefore, would make the units economICal particularly in large water works involving
batteries of filterso The quality of water produced by the declining rate filters and filters
controlled by conventional rate controllers arc reported to be almost the same For equal
duratrons of filter nms the total output per day from a declining rate filter is higher than that
3
in the conventional on eo In a group of filters operating at an average ratc of 6 m /m' /hr,
fixed orifice will be so desih'1Jcd that a
filter will begin operation at ()
hf while the filter next 111 line for backwashing wiIl have slowed down to about 3 m 1 /m' / he
Usually the depths of filter boxes for
rate filters are more than those for the
ones. These would permit
runs and consequenl reduced wash
water reqUlrementso The possibility of "brc,lk through" resulting in increased concentration
suspended solids in the effluent in filters with rate controllers is avoided in tlws systt:nL
0

7.6.9 UP-FLOW FILTERS

In up-flow filtration, the water is passed under
in an upw,rrd direction through
the coarser medium f()llowed by finer medmmo Thus larger size suspended solid particles arc
retained in the larger interstice:; of the
part of bed and as the water percolates
upwards, it receives a progressive polishing until it
in a fullv filtered condition at top
of the filter beet Thus the entire depth of
is made cffecti\'t' in removal of suspended
solids and as a result low head loss and longer filter runs could be L,,,pectedo Bc"dcs, many
other advantages arc c1armed for up flow filtration stich as eliminatIon of the rate controller
of
heado Unfiltratcred water can be used for washing filter since the
minutes of How through the filter
washing has to be necessarily nm to waslco
Filter depths as low as (H) m and as high as L5 m have been successfully usedo Although
wash water rate and consumption arc greater per wash cycle than the conventlCmal tiiter,
wash water used as a percentage of finished water is much less IX'cause of low loss of head
and long filter mtlSo But initiallv compressed aIr scouring is desirable to chslodgc the
impurities collected in the lower portions of
The only disadvantage is Hwdrzation of
the top fine layers of the sand bed whIch
III
deterioration of the f,ltrate clualtty.
Complete bed fluidIzation occurs when the headloss cCltlals the depth of bed. Control of
hcadloss is much more significant than the
vdoc;tv through the filtCL II 15 dCSlrabk
that the hydraulic gradrent through the upf]o\\,
bed is restricted to IL60

7.6.10 GRID OR 1M MEDIUM TYPE FILTERS

The problem of bed fluidization in an upflow
is clrminatcd 111 this type by pnmdrng
a 'grid'o The grid IS a system of parallel
plates placed within the bed a few Ccnl11.netcrs
below the top of the mediumo This grid proVides suffteient resislance to prevent expansion
of the bed and breakthrough or channelling at relatively higher rates of filtrationo The exact
mechanism of how this plate grid restrainl1 sand expansion has not been proved but it is
believed that the upward now of water causes formation of inverted arches of sand which
bridges the gap between the adjacent vertical plaus Being in compression, I hcse arches arc
strong enough to resist the upward force of Itcjuid being filtered ending to break through the
bcd, thus mmimising fluidization of samt (
thr: grid spacing is 1110 [50 trrncs t he size
2(;5

of finc sand at
top of the bed,
the filtered \vater per mn
fin]f
that
rates ofl
depends on quality of water to

below through
layers of sand, \,\/ith the sante 11ycinlUilc

hltNc'd

and the

applied on top and

to the cen Ires 0 f

hcadloss across both

upper and
is hydraulically
hence the efflucnt
,
4!
top portIon pre,ents
f,ltc"'" collcct1on system bemg placed
1mV)))'" rate,
IS 18 m II m 2/
, downward ratc
Ilz\opted is 54 to 66 rn' / tn' Ihr for a neric"i of 6 [ll!l1utCS. Initial cost IS
lS-30().I"
plpmg,

rate
rate
to

are

1110t'C

complicated,

no rate contto'llclcs.

varies and through

period

5 to 10 minutes.

FLOW
is

1n

Cnilll)ln anu m,rmeates

Chemically tneated water enters into a CI'1111'OI
sand
is collected through pcnp,hcral
out
the shelL
to 3 compartment at the top
continously drawn from the hottom
<:vI1l1(1"r while the washed water rom",.,,,
where it is
the sand StnKmg

TFRS
operate without butterfly ,,11,-,s pilot mcch'tnlS
rate conu un
and air compr,eS,'Ot'S,
have two
the
As the '
water IS admitted to the
it
and causes the water level to rise in the backwash pipe,
loop,
with a 2 meters differential,
30

u)

he ,

is discharged through the

\vater

wash pipe. A syphon breaker ends the washcyc1e. The filter

automatically, at
proper time at a given loss of head, without any mechanical
or nncr"llr,l' La.OlCS.
There is no maintenance from a mechanical standpoint. of view. These
low turbidity waters and for small installations.

7.7

DISPOSAL OF WASTES FROM WATER TREATMENT

PROCESSES

Disposal of wastes from the water treatment

has
with the availalnlity of technology and the need
protection of the envLronlTlcnt
Treatment of waste solids adds to the cost of construction and operation of treatment plants.
\Vastes from water treatment plants comprise of:
(a)

sludge from sedimentation of particulate matter in raw water, floccnlated and

precipitated material resulting from chemical coagnlation, or residuals of excess
chemcial dosage, plankton etc.;

(b)

wastes from rinsing and backwashmg of filter media containing debris,

precipitates, strainings of orhranic debris and plankton and residuals of excess
chemical dosage etc.; and

(c)

wastes from regeneration processes of ion exchange softening treatment plant

containing cations of calcium, magnesium and unused sodium and anions
chlot~des and sulphates originally present m the rcgenerant.

7.7.1 DISPOSAL METHODS

In continuous sludge removal, the feasibility of discharging of water treatment plant
sludge to eXIsting sewcrs nearby should be considered. For lim.e softening plant 'IUUg'i..:,
reclamation by calcining and reuse can be explored [8.4,2.1 (a) (3)1. Sludge from cianh,.:at,.nn
units using iron and aluminium coagulants can be dew,ltcrcd by vacuum filtration
as the conditioner, to a cake that can conveniently be trucked for landfill.
be still greasy and sticky. Recovery of alum
sludge by treatment with sulphunc
offers possibilities of reducing the quantity of
to be handled. Sand
arc an
acceptable method for dewatering certain tY)1<;" of sludge from settling tanks or
further disposal by landfill. Simple lagool1mg
bring about a reduction m
bulk of the sludge to be handled and fmther disposal as landfill is neCCiSaf\',
water
from tiltcrs can sometimes be recycled back to the plant inlet which can possibly Ilnm(lVC'
settling and tiltration. Reclamation of backwash water from tilters can be
111 areas
water scarcity. Simultaneously this reduces the disposal problcm
the waste.

7.8
7.8.1

PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES
SLOW SAND FILTERS

The following standards of perf(lflnanCe

(a)

The filtrate should be clear with a

(b)

The filtrate should be

from color

or

on

head

on.

:not
11),

\l,'atcr treatrnCtlt P!:()(:C'iS(:S lS

concentrations to deal with possihle

the property

raprd and simple analytical techniques in the

amenable to
by
neemrt the control of disinfection process.
concentration range,

MECHANISMS 017 DISINFECTION

11":<.r\at11Sl11 of killing the pathogens
on the type of microorganisms. In
or inactivation 0 f onlam
LJillll'H'C

dCI()Cr"b

largely on the natnn:: of the disinfectant

mechanisms are proposed to explain the

to edl wall.

of

pcnncabiLitv.

the colloichl nature

cdl protoplasm.

lnactinttion of critica'! enzvlne "",teIT1 responsible for metabolic activities.

wall leads to
lysis
death. Alteration of cdl permeability refers to
of select!\"(: permeability
cytoplasmic membrane and causes outflow from
vital nutrients, as nitrogen
phosphorus.
of cell proteins
to destruction
1nacti,<ltlO11
critical enzyme activity vital.
:;urv;""l is normally brought about by oxidizing chemicals.
C(IIOU

n01TI1ally proceeds m a! least two steps:

of the disinfectant

cell waU and

OF DISINFECnON
the following
conC:UltralJon

of or1',:1111O;n

to be destroyed.

c(HlcTntratl{)n

water to be treated.
time available
of \vatcr.
AND CONCENTRAflON OF OHGANISMS TO BE

SCfYC

(j.

to
the different
action
arc
convenient'

res1stant
(letcl:'C\"

wall before it can react wrth the enzyme

have different cell struclures and different
must necessarily vary. Among intestinal
coliform group and hence the latter can
of disinfection.

T/O

Vimses appear to be more resistant than bacteria

require longer pcri()(i';
contact a's
well as higher concentration
disinfectant
arc relati\'cly resistant but fortunately arc
not of such si!,'l1ificance as pathogens, Cysts art
reSistant The condition !11 which
the organisms occur may <t!so affect the
dismfccti01L Thus, when the 1""'I('r;,1
are clumped together, the cell inside
the
disinfectant The density of the or!,>anisms
IS so
high that there is a deficiency of available
Such a condition
occur m
disinfection of sewage but is not usual in water ",nr'"

8.4.2 TYPE AND CONCENTRATION OF

The efficiency of disinfcctlOn will obViously depenCi on the nature of the
added chemical undergoes several
the disinfectmg actlOn is
so
exerted by the end products of
reactions is lilli'C.'"
by the character of the water and
that
of the act;yc
different conditions will detennine
type
Higher the concentration of a chemical
higher is
orgamsms,

8.4.3 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL

TREATED
Organic matter and certain oxidising
active products for disinfection. Embedded
be sheltered from the action of disinfectant

water reduce
in sllspended m:llcnals

the

m
)!V~rr""lS

111

water

8.4.4 TIME OF CONTACr AVAILABLE

'.
'rhe destruction of organisms increases
pract'1ce, the contact period is limited by the
30 minutes,

contact time available for disinic:ction, In

the plant
is llsually not

Adequate period of contact is availabk, in most plants be,:mlSC the chlorinated water has a
considerable detention in the clear water reservoirs
it is supplrc(l
in small
plants where such storage is not provided, the contact n,'",,"" is determined by
time
for the water to flow from the point
chlorine to the point
of
water by the first consumer. If the minimum contact time is not available the dose of
disinfectant should be suitably increased,

8.4.5 TEMPERATURE OF THE WATER

Rates of chemical reactions are speeded
increased, The higher the temperature, the mote

as the temperature
IS
destruction of organisms,

15

8.5 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS GOVERNING

DISINFECiION VARIABLES
The kinetics of disinfection is affected by ""feral vanables as enunciated in sectIOn 8,4,
The effect of some of these disinfectIon
can
quantified by empirical
271

rnam vanabl($

rates

cases, To

if m is

Virus

contact

272

or j,()<)

In

ILORINE AND

C()rrnatl()11
)ftnC 1'->

to

()f

8.6.2. CHLORiNE-WATER-REACTIONS

8.6.2.1 Free Available Chlorine

Chlormc rcacts with water to from hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and Hydrochloric acid
(lIel) acc:or.:img to
equation:

~~'7"

HOC! +

cr

This hydrolysis reaction is reversible. The hypochlorous acid dissociates into hydrogen
Ions
") and hypochlorite ions (OC!) according to the equation:

IT + OCI
15
reversible.
cblorine may be defined as the chlorine
eXlistlng !11 water as hypochlorous
and hypochlorite ions. The undissociated HOCI is
about 80 tol 00 times more potent as a disinfectant than the OC! ion.

above reactions are dependent

the pH of the water. \Vhen the pH value of
Both
the chlonnated water is above 3, which is normally the case, the hydrolysis reaction is almost
complete and
chlorine exists entirely in the form of HOC! The influence of pH on the
second reaction as waters with pH value
disinfectant action, thccl"cfore is governed by
below 3 are very rarc. Ii"rom a consideration of the second equation, it is evident that as the
pH increases, more and more HOCl dissociates to form OCI ion. At pH values of 5.5 and
below it is practically 100'/0 unionised 110CI while above pH 9.5, it is all OCl ions. Between
pH 6.0 to 8.0, there occurs a very sharp change from undissociated to completely dissociated
hypochlorous aC1d with 96'Yr) to 10% of HOC!, with equal amounts of IIOC! and OCI being
chlorine does not produce any significant
present at pH 7.5 (r:ig. 8.1). 'rhe addition
change 111 the pH of the natural waters because of their buffering capacity.

8.6.2.2 Combined Available Chlorine

The
can react with compounds such as ammon!a, protems, amino acids and
phenol that may
present in water to form chloramincs and chloro-derivatiV(~s which
constitute the combined chlorine. 'I"his combined available chlorine possesses some
dChYfee than the free available chlorine.
disinfecting properties though to a much
Theoretical! y some free available chlorine can exit along with combined available chlorine
since these reactions do not go to 100% completion. The reactions with ammonia are:
HOC! + HCl
NH, + HOCI ~~

N11eC:I + 1I,O
(Monochloramine)

NH,Cl + J!OCl

~=?"

NI I0 2 + J 1,0

(Dichloramine)

274

NHCl 2 + I1OC1

~"''=''7

NCl l + IIp
Crrichloramine or Nitrogen chloride)

The monochloraminc (NFbCl) and the dichloramine (NlICh) have disinfectant properties,
though twenty five times less than that of free chlorine, while the trichloramine has no
disinfectant properties at all. The pH of the water generally determines the ratio between the
amount of mono and dichloramines formed which have nearly eqtml bactericidal powers. Below
pH 4...1., trichloramine is found. Between pI I
to
only dichloramine exists and in
range of 5.5 8...1, both mono- and dichloranuncs prevail ;n a ratio fixed by the pH. At plI 7.0,
equal quantities of mono and di-compounds
pH 8...1 only mono-chloramine, are
noticed.

8.6.2.3 Chlorine Demand

Chlorine and chlorine compounds by virtue
oxidizing power can be consumed by a
variety of inoff.,ranic and off,ranic n1atcrials prescnt in \vatcr t.lefOfC any disinfection is acll1cvcu. 1t
is, therefore, essential to provide sufficient time
dose of chlonne to satisfy the ,<trious
chemical reactions and leave some amount of
chlorine as residual either in the (".111
of free or combined chlorine adequate for killing the pathogenic org;rnisms.
The difference between the amount of chlOrine added to water and the ,lmount of residual
chlOrine after a specified contact period is defined as the chlorine demand. The chlorine demand
of any given water varies with the amount
chlorine applied, the time of contact, pi r,
temperature, and type and quantity of residual desired.

8.6.2.4 Estimation Of Chlorine

The usual tests practised for estimating the residual chlorine in water arc the onilotoultdille
test (0'1) and orthotoulidinc arsenite test (OTi\) , the former used for total residual chlorine
concentration and the htter for frce aV;HLtblc chlorine. \X'hefl orthotoulidmc reagent is added to
water containing chlorine; a greenish yellow colour develops, the intensity of which tS
proportiomd to the amount of residual chlorine present. Soluble tablets of DI'D
(diethylphcnylcne-diamine) have also becn used
tn place of orthotoulidinc rcagent.

O.T AND O.T.A. METHODS

The urthotoulidine test procedure does not ovcrcotnc errOl"::; caused
the presence of ttitr:ttcs,;
iron and man6>anese, aU of which produce a yellow colour with onhotoulidinc nOf is it able to
discriminate betwecn "Free Chlorinc" and "C:ombiuc,d Chlorine". The 0.'1'.;\. method permits these
differentiations. '1 'he principle of the method is that chlorine either free or combined is destroyed on
addition of sodium arsenite whereas the colollf produced by the reaction of chlorin~ WIth
orthotoulidiue as well as the interfering agents is unaffected. The reaction of orthotoulidme with
free chlorine is 11lstalltancous while with cOlnbincd chlorine it i~ very slow and does not begin until
about 10 seconds. This property is used for distin!,'ltishing free from combincd chlorine. The test is
carried out as follows:

a)

Take three tubes marked to hold 10 ml and label them 'N, 'B' and 'C'

b)

To tube 'N add O.S tnl. of orthotoulidine solution. Then add 101111. of water sample and
mix. Add O.S ml or O,S'Yo sodium arsenite (NaAs02) immediately. Mix amI compare with
standards as rapidly as possible. Record the result (A).
275

c)

el)

c)

1)

\vater

SOUt'C(:S

to

\vater
cont2lJt1S

tnatter

an Cll1crgcl1C)

\vaters
waters

arc

277

(ii)

The water is coloured; or

(iii)

Jron and manganese have to be oxidized

It may be resorted to on special occasions when available contact time is limited at the
pn:chlorination stage. Super chlorination can effectively destroy the rdatively resistant
'H"~11"rrI' such as viruses and amoebic cysts.
dose of chlorine may be as high as 10 to
15
with contact periods of 10 to 30 minutes. Excess chlorine will have to be
dechlorinated.

(3) Dechlorination:
\Vhen superchlorination is employed, tbe water usually contains excess of frce available
chlorine wbich must be removed bcfc)re it becomes acceptable to consumers. Dechlorination
is the partial or complete reduction of undesirable e)(cess chlorine in water by any chemical
or physical treatment.
Prolonged storage and absorption on
granulated carbon and activated carbon
are effective. [\]so reducing compounds like sulphur dioxide, sodium thiosulphate and
sodium bisulphate arc frequently used as dechlorinating agents. Dechlorination by sulphur
doxide and its derivatives is feasible, rapid
precise. About one part of SO, (by weight) is
required for each part of chlorine to be removed, the exact amount to be determined by the
Stoidnometric relationship:
SOz +

el 2 + 2Hz<)

~""'7

(4) Breakpoint Chlorination:

already explained in section 8.6.22, the addition of chlorine to ammonia in water
produces chloramines which do not have the same efficiency as free chlorine. I f the chlOt~ne
dose in this water is increased, it reduction in the residual chlorine occurs, due to the
destruction of chlorine by the added chlorine. i\ few possible schemes are as below:
N, + 3tICi + H 20
2NHl:J

2NHC1 2 + J lOCI 6==r

+7HCl

The end products do not represent any residual chlonne. This fall in residual chlorine will
continue with further increase of chlorine dose and after a stage the reSidual chlorine beb>1ns
to increase in proportion to the added dose of chlorine. This point at which the free residuaI
chlo!ine appears after the entire combined chlorine residual has been completely destroyed is
referred to as breakpoint and corresponding dosage is the breakpoint dosage. Breakpoint
chlorination achieves the same results as superehlorination in a rational manner and can
thc,refore be construed as controlled superchlorination.

(b) Comllined Available Residual Chlorination

This method involves the application of chlorirw to water to produce witb natural or
added ammonia, a combined available chlorine residual and to maintain the residual through
part or all of a water treatment plant Or distribution system. They are less effective
278

disinfectants and oxidants than free available chlorine forms. The residual, however, will
persist much longer than free available chlorine which has a tendency to diffuse and be lost
A minimum of 30 to 60 minutes contact time must be provided before delivery to the
consumer. Depending upon the characteristics of water this can be accomplished as follows:

(i)

application of chlorine only, if snfficient ammonia is present in the water;

(ii)

addition of both chlorine and ammonia if it contains little ammonia; or

(iiD

addition of ammonia if free available residual chlorine is already present in water.

In order to control chlorineammonia treatment effectively the optimum ratIo

chlorine
to ammoma has been found to be 3:1 or more to ensure the presence of an excess of
an1tnOnla.

This practice is usc!i.!l after filtration fc)r controlling algae and bacterial growths, fOf
red water troubles in distribution systems at dead ends and for providing and
mamtaining a stable residual throughout the distribution system.

(c) Points of Chlorination

The use of chlorme at various stages of water supply system nght from raw water
collection to the distribution network is a common practice and terms like pre post and
rcchlorination have come into common usage depending upon the points at which chlorine
tS applied.
(i) Preehlorination
Prcchlonnation is the application of chlorine to water prior to any unit treatment process.
The pOtnt of application as well as dosage will be determined by the objectives viz.; c(lntrol
of blOlog.ical growths in raw water conduits, promotion of improved coai"uiation, prevention
of mud ball and slime formation in filters, reduction of taste, ,)dmlr and colour and
rninimizing the post chlorination dosage when dealing with heavily polluted water
(ii) Postchlorination

Postchlorinattol1 is the application of chlorine to water before it enters the distribution

system to maintain the required amount of free chlorine specified in 2.2.9 (c).
(iii) Rechlorination

\Vhen the distribution system is long and complex, it may be difficult to maintain the
minimum chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/l at the farthest end. To achieve this if a
high
dosage is applied at the postchlorination
it would, apart from being costly, make the
watv!" unpalatable, at the reaches dose to the point of chlorination. The maint(?nance of the
required residual, in such cases can be' accomplished by a stagewise application of chlorine in
the distribution system which is called rcchlorination. Rcchlorination is carried out in service
reservoirs, booster pumping stations or at points where the mains supply to distribution
zones,

279

not

etc

Cfintainer
IS

not

280

To withdraw gas from a cylinder or ton container, the liquid chlorine must be vaporized.
The flow rate is a function of the vaporization rate, which, in tum, is dependent on the rate
of heat transfer to the liquid.

8.7.1.3 Connecting And Disconnecting Containers

The design and operation of facilities should be such as to minimize all hazards associated
with connecting emptying and disconnecting chlorine containers. These operations should
be performed in wcll~lighted places by authorised personnel equipped with gas masks or
other suitable respiratory protection devices. Container valve protection goods should always
be in place when the container is not in use. Valves should not be left open when operating
personnel arc not available to maintain proper surveillance of the operations.
Connections to valve oudets on cylinders and ton containers can be made by either a
damp and adapter or a union connector; the former is preferred. In making connections it
should be asc,":tained that the outlet valve is closed before the outlet cap is removed. Gasket
surfaces should be thoroughly inspected and cleaned and a new gasket of standard material
should
Connections that do not fit should never be forced.
and ton container valves should be slowly opened by using a special wrench, not
more than 150 mm long, for this purpose. One complete turn of the stem in a
counter clockwise direction opens the valve sufficiently to permit maximum discharge. An
~uxiliary cylinder or ton container valve should be installed adjacent to the container valve
between it and the chlorine feeder or gas header on manifold systems. Such a valve serves as
an emergency shut off if the container valve should leak Moreover, it prevents chlorine gas
from escaping from the supply line when the container is removed from service. In the
interests of safety, the ventilation system should be operating whenever containers are being
at all times in which an emergency exists or
placed into or removed from servICe
adjustments and repairs are being made.
Specifications and manufacturing
chlorine cylinders/containers, its transportation,
handling, filling, possession and safety shall
governed as per Gas Cylinder Rules; 1981 of
Central Government.

8.7,2

CHLORINATORS

A chlorinator is a device designed

for 1('ec1tnO"

(a)

To regulate the flow of gas

(b)

'1'0 indicate the flow ratc of

(c)

To provide means of properly

water or with the main body

chlorine to

water supply. Its functions are:

chlorine container at the desire:d rate of flow.

feeding.
the gas either with an auxiliary supply of
liquid to be disinfected.

8.7.2.1 Types Of Feeders

Chlorinators are
control
supply chlorine as a gas or an aqlJCClUS
cCluipments depends on

measurement of chlorine in the gaseous state and to

HUllUX solution. 'rhe principle of operation of these
by establishing a pressure rdationship

282

(1)
vacuurn

A vacuurn

(vi)

meter to

handling
properly
based 011
possible with a minimum number
temperature extremes and "~""I""
pipelines
isolated or shut
expansl0n
mcrease
in chlonnc

lUI: "",He

WATER
SUPPLY

CHLOI=tONOME
PANEL

ABSORPTION
TOWER

GAS

0:

CYLINDER

9:::::

SOLUTION

J1J==~ DELIVERY
HOSE

FIG. 8.2

CHLORINATOR WIm ABSORPTION

TOWl~R

2962 UA&Ei'27~21B

VE.NT
HOSE

CHLORONOME
PANEL

Ii.

INJE.CTOR
TRAY
w

GAS
CYLINDER

WAT
SUPPLY

0:

o..J
J:

DRAIN
HOSE

FIG. 8.3

CHLORINATOR WITH INUECTOR

ambient
contribute to

or
\'alxcs
\\/lth a Teflon

or

ft)il

diaphragm or

PAfSSIJPiE

GAUGf

\If-NT

FIG. 8.4

MANIJAll,Y

VA.Crn:.JJI,f lY1'13

Number Of Cylinders
Nortnal chlorine dosage required to
water supplies not subject to significant
pollution would not exceed 2mg/1. The
chlol~ne dosage has to be detertnincd on the
of chlorine demand tests,
feed rate is then computed b\' dividing the
expe,::tct! maximum dosage of chlorine by maxImum flow rate,
daily chlorine recjuirements can be estimated from the daily average consumption in
a maximum day, The peak and the minmmm rate requirements should be taken mIG
consideration when designing a chlorine supply and feeder system and not merely the total
requirements of chlorine,
\\ 'hen chlorine gas is withdrawn
a
containing the liquefied gas, the pressure
drops and the liguie! 'boils' liberating more
till the pressure is restored, This boiling
heat continuously, then
a cooling cffect in the liguid rq,,;on, If
withdrawal is continued, the liquid
and no more gas will be ev'o!ved, It is
therefore, essential to keep the atmosphere, round the containers in service wartn and to
cmute that there is not an abnortnal rate
withdrawal from a single container with heavy
demand of gas,
The recommended discharge rates are approximately 6,5 to 7,5 kg/hr, from a one ton
container and 0,8 kg/hr from cylinders, LqUlpmC!1t should have sufficient capacity to exceed
highest expected demand at any time and to
continuous effective discharge under all
prevailing hydraulic conditions, It IS good
to pn)\'ide for duplicate equipment since
cltsinfcction process cannot be stopped at
\Vhetl the gas discharge rate from a single container will not meet the requirements, two
or more can be connected to a manifold
discharge simultaneously. I t is advisable not to
couple more than fClUr containers to it manifolcL \Vhcn discharging through a manifold, care
must be tltken that all the containers arc at the same temperature, particularly when
connecting a new cylinder to the manifold, \\,'hcrc more than 3 or 4 cylinders arc used, the
ne<:(101"S would
arranged in groups so that one complete group can be changed at a
time, Storage of chlorine lasting a month or two should be p1'(wided, It is ad\'isable to keep
the full cylinders in the same room as the
111 serVIce,

Maintenance
I ':vcry chlorinator is supplied with an mstnlCtion book that will include specific steps to
follow 111 servlC1tlg, Ilowe"er, following arc four areas most often associated with
maintenance !'CCluirement and cause of trouble,

chlorine is corrosis'c to
and most nonferrous metals, Most
chlorinators use plastic materials in the sections where gas is handled under vacuum, Metal
or fittings, which are generally
to the chlorinator, arc header valves, header
Imes and flexible connections, \Vhen all)'
is broken, even for a short time, the
should be plugg;ed immediately to exclude moisture, Corrosion is internal and not
in

28~

evident upon external inspection until

moisture from any
of the c1luipmcnt
Corrosion products,
mal functioning.

f<:nic

occur,. A good rule to follow IS to exdude

IS
exposed to dry chlorine only.
arc a 1'najo1' cause

f chlorinator

(I;) Impurities

trace amount of impurities eHl Cl!lSC

if they accumulate. '.I
c( )mpounds
arc frequently found in
contlnUOllS usc. One,
chloride,
present 111 the chlorine containers Or rnay
careless operatio1l allows n101slun~ tel
enter the sYstem. This compound IS
as a dark brown,
liljwd and IS
soluble in water. After chlorinator
to remove impurity, !
must be
thoroughly before reassembly.
The other material, hexachloroethane or
Jt tends to deposit in gas lines at PO!!!!;;
soluble in watet, but call be dissolved in

a C01111110n

as a \'()btilc
nmtcrial 1S not
l1H.lustrtJI :"olvcnt

(c) Flexible COllnecUolis

Flexible connection (comprising

cyhnders Of ton containers, need special
cylinder is changed, they arc subject to metal
once a yeaL

rncta.l tubing), lIsed to connect 1'\1:0

Because they arc flexed eyery time a
These connections should be changed

Each time a connection is made either to a

gasket must be used.

container or to the chlorinator) a new

(Ii)

Gaskets

IJastomeric (flexible) matenals used for

and O~rings generally become hrittle in
time. I fa gaskctcd joiut is not broken, the
lasl for ),cars.\ t"l.;'1.1ar programme of
replacement 1S desirable but guidelines arc
\.
recommended spare Inris 1,,1
includes spare gaskets. I f swelling or hardenmg
a gttskel is noted, il should be replaced
Distorted or hardened gaskets cannot be properly scaled.

8.7.4 CHLORINE HOUSING

The chlorine cylinders and fceders should
housed 111 an 1sobtcd rOOll1, easily
accessible, close to the point of application and c01l\'cnicnt I,)r truck loading and
container handling. The floor should be at least 15 em abo\"(' I
snrroundmg ground and
drainage should have at least two exit doors or buildmg should han: at least Iwo
doors
for cross ventilation that allows an approxImate air change in 111 minules. lor small
installations, provision of \'Cntibtor opening at the bottom, one "PI'()si!e the olher is
adecluate.
Separate and I'easonably gas tight enclosures opening to Ihe outdoors should Le provided
[()r housing the chlorine fceding eCluiprnent in large installalions and in buildings occupied by
persons. These enclosures should be vented to the upper atmosphere and Clluipped wll h
positive means of exhaust (ncar the floor level, at the center of the mom or opposite to the
21\')

to 4 rnmutes

,'nW1VCnC\.

:\

not

h:U\UICU

settings.
unable to
superheat.
funcllOn of chlorine
instructions should
tn

addition to the
include

290

senses

11,lrns

to

Otl

II

actuate an

Hc,m"

to rcrna1n on

to actuate an
actuates
tf)

contactor acts in n',,"''''

dcencrJ2;1"c the

"

1\'11

ImmerSIOn

Cathodic protection protects

water,
contact'
Vent alarn1

.,

Of

all of

or

occurs in the \'cot

liyuid chlorine piping

II chamber into which
rei'OtllJllCJwlcCl

may be purposely or
afofementioned

ClJCII'llX

COtTOS10n

to oyer

Sornl'

to

tWllI!ll'

chlorine cxpanS!(\n

plp111g

,,1.r1

to

actuates

is strongly

{tctuatc

liYUJd can

insmllation in any section

liquid

Isolated b\ closing

supplied with

an
291

WI'UILl

in 24 hours which
cylinders to he changed

serve as a

compressed gas and

should be provided
sUl.ral)le nr,[)I"cl1VC cquiprnent
naZalCU(lUS materials are located
Such equipment might he

ncax

specific or all purpose commodity

periods and only if it has been
(not less
I6'Yo in air) and that
chlorine).
masks might
not be readily ascertained, especially if
Regular replacement of overage

C(Hltan11naJHH1

piece and a

of air or oxygen

'"u\.e, oxygen chemIcally, is suitable for high

cont:arnlnant c()Hccntratlons
IS

pm,ided

a penud

1S

means of
atnount of air)

Protection
or (lxy!.'en producing

Respiratory protective
carefully
and cleaned
after each usc and at regular
or inoperable equipment is worse than none
at all. ;\11 such eCluipment should be
maintained in strict accord with the
manuf'lCturcr's instructions. No person
enter contaminated areas unless attended by
an obscrn,r who can rescue him in
event of
failure or other emergenc1Cs.
It 1S good practice to provide eV'Cf)ro,pcimn devrces (or masks with full face pieces) and
other protective clot hing for workers
10 hazardous materials. Emergency showers,
eF baths or other suitable water~ flush
should be provided in convenient locations
i()l usc by aCCIdentally exposed
Installation of an automatic chlorine leak detector
with or without Visible or audible alarm,
be considered.

8.7.6.3 Chlorine Detectors

Contmuous monitonng of atmosphere
areas where chlorine is stored and fed is an
important aspect of any safety programme. Instruments for this purpose arc called chlorine

292

used

detectors,
ate not to be
chlorine in water,
,OlK,,,,,,,"atlCll1S

\\!cight, as
of chlorine
perception 1S

V01ume: in

reflected from it
keep an electric
darkens, the
r'''Juired to

by

arc cx!)t1:ssed as
a1r 1S

are a\' :"'tlJ1C,

with a
a photoelectric

CHCUll IS

In
second type, air
an alr pump thnmgh a
meter
salmr)le is directed to an electrochemical .q'llSlm"
with the presence of chlorine, A meter movement
strength 0 f the chlorine In air and an
closure for remote audible/visual

8,7,6.4 Automatic Cl1langeovl21"

eneq2;1zecj,

is drawn t.o
a1f

lncreases
to indicate visually the
included to
a contact

rn,,,,w,d

15

C;v,;tpm

lncreased cmphasi5 on
need
chlorination has led to
use of
automatic changeover
particularly at
The basic concept of these
systems is to switch from a depleted source
chlorine to a stand by source automatically
without the presence of an operator,
methods have been used to accomplish this,
One system consists of electrically
chlorine shut off valves, actuated
a
chlorine-pressure switch that senses the loss of chlorine pressure due to empty cylmdcrs,
Another system uses two pressure-reducing
each attached to its own source of
chlorine and manifold on the downstream
The pressure settings of the two valves arc
adjusted so that the valves control at
approximately 5 psig apart. Since a
pressurc.reducing \'alve will not open until
downstream pressure is lower than its setting,
the valve with the higher setting opens first, allowmg gas to flmv through the vah'c from its
source, ThiS process continues until the
source is depleted and the downstream pressure
drops to the setting of thc second vakc, at which point it opens and chlorine flows from the
standby source.
The recent development of small cylinder mounted chlorinators has added more types of
automatic changeo\'(:r systems to the market place, It is not necessary to detail the operation
of each, but merely to state that they meet
need of permitting continuous chlorine
feed in a simple, inexpcnsive manner for even
smallest gas chlorination facilities.
8~7.7

(a)

"PUl'l.:

CONSIDERATIONS

Onl\, trained personnel should

permitted to handle chlorine cylinders and
chlorinating equipment They should be madc aware of the hazards invoh'cd, the

293

and
'1
1.e.

leak i,
in tilt'

start

It
of lile
(h)

O\Tf

\\
or

the
II. I f
unul till'
wli h new

If
2')1

G)
c01Tc'colled not

containCL

when
1f a

occurs

1ft

tnatcnaJ under
stetns

the leak,

con tamer

pipmg should
should be anoil,,,1.
I f one is
should be

contatner

or n"10re

295

The
uel:1'casc oh'"()j'nj,,on of heat

or ton containers so that

containers
cn'n~;c

rate,
r~I",jno'

Apply appropriate PW>f't"l'<'lWV

(iii)

Call the supplier or nearest

I f practical, reduce Pt(,SSI,lre
suitable disposal
be nnw" 1"1i
containers (100 kg

(v)

,,(",nCf'S if avallablc,

removing the gas to process or

or other
alkali absorption
el11,o1'lne from leaking cylinders and ton
125
of
soda),

In

possible to move the container to an

some cases it might

isolated spot where it

8,7,9 PERSONNEL TRAINING

Safety 111 handling hazardous rmttenals (lenl'ntIS to a
upon the effectiveness
employee education, proper
mtelligcnt supervIsion and the use of safe
equipment.
both new
should be conducted periodically to
maintain a high
of safetl' tn
Employees should be thoroughly
forrtwd of the
that
handling. They should be cautioned
to on"jV(,m
and thoroughly Im,IIIIL
rq,fwcht"g proper action to take in case leaks do
occur.
111 <In emergency and should be full\'
employee should know
first
1TIcaSures.
"ci,:lttl01'.

employee

ml1nlmr

should

l'nl~I""n

following:

pe:[j(}cl!C drill or

(ii)

,enOLlIC

(iIi)

1nstrucflon

(tv)

J m:tn:lctron

dnll

the locatIOns, purpose and use of

and emergenc\'
shut~down
locations, purpose and usc, of

or

ne'r10circ drill or
locatl()llS, purpose and usc of
baths, bubbilcr ""m,lIlF fountains and
closest source of
and PC110cl1C

",Ic'cl,,,'

crnployces regarding the locations,

uSC:'

(v)

Instruction to avoid
corrosive liquids,

(vi)

I nstruction to report to

Chlorine
also
applied in
calciulTl or sodium hypochlorite which

tOXIC

vapours and all direct contacts \\ith

<lll leaks and equipment

of compounds such as bleaching powder or as

chlorine il\'ailab1c. \\hen thel' come mtn
2%

contact with water. These arc used

upto 0.5 mId.

sfnall \vatcr

SU1Hll1CS 11aY11''''

,,,,,au

(a) Bleaching Powder

Bleaching powder IS a van able mixllJrc 0
calcium hypocblorite. \X'hcn it is ty)Iv<d
into calcium chloride and chlorine. '
s1111ilar to that of gaseous chlorine in \vater. l'h'ICh
of available chlonne i.e. the chlorine which can
Comrrlcrcial brands ha\'c an lwadable chlOrine u
chlorine pcr 11111 parts by weight of

Blcad111w powder is gencrallv made into

whIch contains the chlorine in solution,
l'ncchanisrn such a:~ a float opcratcJ
appltcd through a drip feed mechanisrn.
fabricated. In the case of well supplies, U!LilLiU
the iiUctio!1 side of the pump.
discharge to suck the solution of the
simple method uwol\mg the usc of porous
\Vclls has been dcveloped tfl the country. 'I
water slipplic,. where eost and
<)

{~onten.l

\vater,

promise in the rhln!'1ll,!1

be kept at a tnl11imum.

Since bleachIng powder contains (J11ly

chlonne, ils usc
extra expense of rransporting and storing ItH' Hle1t
The cost is further
because the material is sold in nonreturnable drums which
no
j'urthcrmon.\ bleaching po\vder is an unstahle cornpound
slorage. j\11 these considerations
11'; use
except 111
or for spcciaJ cases such as disinfection
rn;l1T'l;},

(b) Hypocll/orUes
The chcrnicals used arc Sodium 1-1
and
[()rtifled brands of (:alcium Hvpochloritc
can have (,070 per cent <l\'ailablc chlorine. (
or solution [orrn, while Sodium Hypochlr(ritC IS
prdi:rrcd. Corrosion resistant materials
as
should be used while handling hypochlorite
,Ire prepared and red directly through s()lul!o!l I Cl'UI:!".
wlih adJustablc: orifices arc used to
cl
Ihn)ugh Cl1c1111cal pn)p()f!-i()nlng purnps
can
P'l"; lines hi \Tlllun or oniice feeders.

C'ilr'll "n

fcd
pressure fnto

(c) CMorine Dioxide

ChlOrine diOXide is :tn unstable gas. I t IS I(
Chlorite.
(7500 mg/I or Cl" at pH J.5) WIth

a st'n

solution of chlorine

297

sorne water

to

of public water
and
more resIstant than
ci1"casc IS caused by spore
water can
the water safe
with
rates of
'.'mU'~"L DISINFECTANTS

arc commonly
including
I" ltassimn pcrnlallgrtn;tt

followmg

ozone and

c;,I""OflCS:

such as

298

(iii)

Alkalies and Acids.

(iy)

Surface actlYc chcrntcals.

8.9.2.1 Halogens Other Than Chlorine

1 blogens arc oxidizing agents and include fluorine being the strongest and iodine the
weakest oxidizing agents. However,
efficiency docs not corrciate directlv with
oxidizing capacity of a disinfectant. j\S nuorinc can (lxidiz<: waler, it cannot be used for
disinfecting water
Bromine is a heavy dark reddish brown
which upon addition 10 water forms
Ilypobromous acid (1 I( )Br), the dissociation of the acid resulting in formation of
lwpobromile Ion (OBr). Bromine
reacts with ammonia 1!1 water to form
tnonObrOITlaninc and dlbron1aninc. No
is fonncd. i\fonobrotnantnc is a
in contrast to lnonochlof<"un11lCs.
strong bacter1cide altnost as ~:;trong a~
Bromine has been used for
of swtrrHninp 1')001 waters on a l1rnitcd scale.
" its usc for public water suppll" has
Howcvcr, because of
higher cost and
nut found acceptance.
Iodine is a bluish black solid and its addition to water yields llypoiodous acid (1101) and
I rypojoditc (10). loclinc reacts
with organic matter compared to chlorine and is rdativelv
stable in water. /\t pH -- 7, the percentage of iodine, llypoiodous acid and hypoiodite ion
been reported to bc
48 and (I for a total iodmc reSidual of 11.5 mg/1. Both iodine and
Hypoiodous acids arc c'juanv good disinfectants. Iodine docs not react with ammonia to
I,mn iodamines but oxidizes ammonia. Jt
phenols. Becausc of these reasons,
less iodine is rCljuircd to obtain
iodine residual.
Iodine has been used i,)r disinfeclion of SWimming pool waters and small quantities of
water in field. Iodine tablets (e.g. of tctraglvcine hvdropertodidc) havc been used by the
/\rmy. Iodine is less dependent on pi I, temperature,
of contact and nitrogenous
impurities than chlorine and can also kill amoebic cysts which chlorine docs no!. I t has the
satne disinfecting power as chlorine. Because
cert.ain advantages over chlof1nc, Iodine 1S
better for post disinfection than chlorine providing longer lasting protenion against
pathogens and reduced offensive tastcs and odours. Ilowc\"cr, It is more costly than chlorine.

8,9.2.2 Ozone
unstable it breaks uo\vn to t10nnal oxygen
I t is a faintly blue h"'s of pungent odour.
and nascent oxygen. This nascent oxygen 1S a powerful oxidizing and gcrtnicidal a,gent".
ekctricity into dry 'Of. t )Z()f1C,
Ozone is produced bv the corona discharge of
being'
onsite.
, unstable, has to be produced
,
Ozone possesses more superior bactericidal properties than chlorinc and 1S hlghlv
effective in rct1'loYaI of tastes) odours) colour, iron ant!
As ozone fellers \vith
chemical impurities prior to attacking the micmorgamsms, it produces c"cllliall)" no
disinfection unless ozone demand of Waler
satisfied but much more rapid kills arc
achieved, once frce ozone residuals arc ;t\'ailablc. Studies have reported '!'!,)'!O/o kill of 1:,( :o\i
2<)')

)nc.

()ZI !ll.l'

()f
o\'cr

as

1tO!1,

It is rnore

"VCH'",n','

waters
an:

300

Intensity of ultmviolet ravs is (',!!m'",,,, in tcrrm of germicidal unit which is an intensity

lOll mw per
eln at wave length
It
been reported that hcherichla Coli
can bc
bv ultravIolet favS of 10()O, 15(10 and 75()
kills of 99,99,')9, and
mWsec pcr s'lcm Typically a 30 watt lamp could achievc 99.9"';' kill for water flows of
approxlmatcl\, 2.5 to 17.1) m'jhr
w,ller depths ranging from 125 to 880 mm
appn)xirnatcly assutning ()(}i}/o absorrtHH1
ultraviolet rays.
!

The advantages of ultraviolet

arc
matter is actually mtroduccd and no taste
result in any hannitll clTixls. The disadvan
there is lack for a rapid field test
apparatu\ l1t.'Ctlt'd is expensivl'.

exposure 1S for short periods, no foreis",

odour produced. Over exposure does not
arc that no residual effect lS available and
Ihe treatment. efficiency. Mon:o\"rr,

302

CHAPTER 9

SPECIFIC TREATMENT PROCESSES

Water treatment involves physical, chemical and biological changes that

raw
water into potable water. The treatment
used It1 any specific instance must dencncl
on the quality and nature of the raw waler Quality recjuircments for industnal uses arc
frequently more stringent than for domestic supplies. Additional treatment may be
by the industry like demineralization of boiler
water to prevent scale deposit.
sedimentation or may involve complex
Water treatment processes may be simple
physico-chemical changes, as With coa!s"Jlation. The specific treatment processes include
control of algae, control of taste and odour in water, remO\'al of colour, softening, removal
of iron ami manl,>ancse, defluoridarion of water, demineralization of water and corrosion.

9.2 CONTROL OF ALGAE

9,2.1 GENERAL
Algae give rise to a variety of troubles m water
They impart odours and tastes to
the water. Synura causes a perceptible odour, i\stcrionella, Meridion and Tabcllana
aromatic odour. i\ll,'<lc like Dinobryon, Peridinium, L'roglcnopsis, Asteriondla and Tabdlarm
produce fishy odour. Grassy odour 1S
by Aphani;-omenon,Anabaena,
Gomphosphaeria, Cylindro-spcrmurn and Rimlaria. Septic odour is caused by Cladophora,
IIydrodictyon, Ceratium, Aphanizomenon, Anabaena and Cylrndrospermum. \\'ben algae
like Microcystis, Anabaena and Aphanizomcnon die en mass and decay, they produce foul
odours.
Some algae impart sweet or bitter or sour tastes to water. Algae like Nitella, (;crauum and
Synura give rise to bitter taste, while algae such as ehara, [euglena, !\phanizomet1011,
Microcystis, Cryptomonas and C;omphosphacria impart sweet taste to water.
Algae interfere in the process of 11occulation and sedimentation. Algae like l\stcrionclb
and Synedra prevent floc formation. \\'atcr containing Gomphosphacna and :\nabaena need
to be agitated for proper floc formation They buoy up the floes and earn' into the filte",.
They choke the filters and as a result reduce the fi1tcr runs. r\lgae associated wlth filter
clogging are Asterionclla, Fragilaria, Na,;icula, Syncdra, Cymbclla, Diatom, Osctlatoria,
Rivularia, Trachelomcm;ts and Closterium. Algae like Syl1cdra and Oscillatoria can
through rapid sand frlter. AII,>ae such as I:,uglcna, Phacus, Na\-icula, Niuschia
Trachelomonas get through slo\\' sand filter. These algae in distributi()n s\"stcm causc
biological corrosion.
30J

304

()

IS

season In \vhich

especially

(b)
count rcul':hes or
troublesome should

even
alg':lci:at treatment IS

h)l

as soon as

causes '('Tre smel! troubles is

count
(c) Tlffles

of

1)(;\\/

are

algicides arc
\\'lIh specific

rOSH1 atTunes
pct!Cr:11 usc The rnos!

supplies,
aquatic
cjuality

The most cmmnon algicide is

acts as a direct protoplasmic poison,
claetYllell and the
of

tried

\vater
sclecti\"c, non~toxic to
effect on water

10

the copper ion which

concentration of the

(i) Copper Sulphate

The copper sulphate reacts with
in the water to
a basic copper
C2l!rb()mlte which
decomposes to
hydrate, The basic copper carbonate is
soluble IHmf'c"lIlv if the water is
hard and if it contains carbon dioxide,
The copper hydrate is almost insoluble in water. It remains in a colloidal form for sometime
out
reaction '
by low
and organIC matter in
before it
the
while temperature and
matter accelerate it.
thus, follows that the
as an
by the temperature of the water, its
rnatter
sw;pc:ndcd matter
added copper sulphate is
in a short while. This is both an
advantage and a disadvantage, It is an
UVLi""C the content of the copper in the
water rapidly gets reduced to levels below
at which copper is toxic to human beings by
of time and without the
elaborate treatment for removal of the
mere
excess
'fendcncy of copper to
out
the solution is a disadvantage because the
algicidal
is rendered purely temporary, \Vith the disappearance of the copper from the
field of action, another crop of algae can come up necessitating a repetition of the treatment

(a)
Doses of copper sulphate required to kill algae are generally expressed in temlS of
concentration in mg/l 0 f the sal t CuSO 4
Some authorities express the doses in terms
306

the

pn"j\~""'m

of C01PP(1r

on

ter,c()t1\'Cf;tcd

of

1011
The

L
L
2.
3,

4,
5.
("

If

1.
2.

1.
4.

5,
(l.

Cyanophyceae
Anabaena
Aphaniz()mCmltl
Clathroc),stis
( :ociosphacrium
Microcystis
Oscillatoria
( Jdorophyccac
Cladophora
( :iostrium
C()ciastrum
I )rapamaldia
j:ntcrotnorpha
Volvox
I Iyd rodictyoll
!Vlicmspofa

0.12 - 0.48
0,12
(J

1),20

' , I),

0.20

() 50
0.11
0.33
iU1
050
1l2S

7.
H.
9. Sccl1edcsrnus
HI.
Spimgyra
t:]o,hnx
II.
12.
'/.ygncll1t1
III

1150

010
0.'111
1.110
0.12
0.211
O~5()

1)iatOtllltCCaC

1 ;\stcrionclla
2.Iragilaria
3. [vlelos ira
4~'1 'ablcllaria
5. Navicula
(), Svnedra
7. Stcphanmliscus

IU
0.25

0.20

o. 2

OSO

0.07
11.511

lI.n

307

o
0.1

(J

U.
0.

(lAIl
0.

308

\11')

this

IS

arnrYl0t11a in

The

C01:1!)I'r IS

apl~ltcd

use

copper sulphate, 111' using a complex of

chlorinccupri'chJoraminc process, the algJcKlal
persistent compounds of copper llC(,CoollltL C ,
trcatrru::nt so as to ensure that
\vater 1s not
well below toxic

as an all~cide,
copper sulphate is
is generally added to
water as It

to \v,Her in reservoirs,

pOlnL

makes the

lethal

CUllU')(

algae

of chlorine

and dIsintegration of some specics of

thus liberated and
cause tastes and
organic matter
the dead algae rna)'
odours and tastes. Such intensification of
a problem which challenges the ingenuity of

1'no1'c conlmon types of algae arc g;i\"cn in Table 9,,)

ftDL.!:o,9.3

CHLORINE REOl) ,,,,,u

DESTROY MICROSCOPIC ALGAE

A.phanizomenon

0,85

Cydotclla

LOO

Melosira

2.00

Dinobryon

0,5

U roglenopsis

0,5

0.3
M~t/l(nis

of Application

Chlorine may be applied either

a
bleaching powder or as a strong solution of
chlorme from a chlorinator. The latter is pn2tcratl/e.
Small reservoirs may be treated
it slurry of bleaching powder at the influent
or by towing bags containing the
powder m the water. Chlorination for al).,'<II
growth is more commonly adopted in the pretreatment part of the water works. The point of
is generally at the point of
of raw water into the treatment plant or just
ahead
coagulant feed, AI).,'<II grmvths in raw water conduits can be got rid of by heavy
doses
Addition of chlormc
with coa)"'11lant is sometimes practiced, but this
310

15

to

discourat!cd since the turbulence

ttl

<j

the diss1pation and

chlorine<
(iii) Microstrainer
A spectal process known as micros training is being used in some water treatment nhmlS<
microstraincr is an
dmm< The water is
through a
woven
stainless steeL The size of the opcl1mgs !II
mesh
the S1ze
the plim,;to'l1
removed from the water,

9.2.3.3 Relative

of Chlorine

Cnnnlwr

Sulphate TrerahueIlt

Each plant should conduct experiments

on
and
on
basis of local conditions<
a certain extent the
will depend on
Cl\'ailablc for dosing the water with chemicals,
on
costs. 'l'here arc, however, certain
is not possible and chlorination has to
application is too near
point
entry mto a
copper will plate out on the metal and
Similarly
IS to
prevent algal t,Yfowth in a coagulant
sulphate cannot
used as it
thrown out of solutIon almost
In cases
off
periods sufficient to cause a
content to
chlorination has to
\Vhen chlorination causes an intensification ()
heavy doses of chlorine followed by r/'1'1)(\\'111

tastes and
O\~CrCOn1es

The growth
plankton in reservoirs
Cenerally
results have been
etlcctlve as an
The doses required
DUml)Se differ with
so,
economy m
use of copper sulphate
its d!,;tnlblltHln!ll rcsenOltS warrants
examination of appropriate samples collected at
locations, to deter'mlne
of ort,>anisms and
'relative numbers,
doses arc
so
be used in the absence
On
this dose
troublesome
may be killed
ccot10rny
possible when mlcr,,)s<:o11ic "''''tn:ln

The required

is

intlucnccd by !ernner:JO

all;:alinit:y and carbon

cont{;nt

waters,
Effective control
!111croOtt,'ll!l1sms
application of COllO!:r sulphate to the water
controlled before
.. uv/t'hs ()CCUf,
,l?;t
Furthermore, the prevention of growths
quantities of organisms, which would
of the water, and hence protects fish
frequently responsible for fish~kins,
application of copper sulphate, however,

is facilitated by

cont111tH)US

reservoirs, the tniCrooff,r:tnistns arc

treatment
subsequent
of
dissoln:d
content
1l\1 elm!' of the
on copper sulphatc<
'H'a!L1b1e supply of

trcatlncnt "LUIIII.l

reserVOIrs,

rna::ornU111

U sing ammonia
or dday chlorophenol tastes in water,

in combined

",""Ulla!

chlorination can partly

more powerful than chlorine as an OXidizing agent

Dioxide which 1S
dosage values ran!,,,,' from 0.2 to 2.0
extensively
chlo:nne treatment used for taste and odour control where
is it spec'ialized fotm
water on site by
chlor1!lc arc to be aVOl<JcrJ, :hl,rmne dioxide gas is released
(NaCl(),) with a strong chlorine solution of
a
0 f "",11 U "

"-'"""""-I!P

th,eorctlcil ratio
!: 1, arc

rhlrvrmr

ClTln!OVCO

to sodium chlorite is 1 : 2.0, \'alues between 1:2

UHnJ,lJC is tnorc expens1ve and is used
taste
of the treatment plant. 'l11Creaftcr, the
simple chlonnation after filtration. Ozone
results. Chloraminatlon is useful III the

tastes,
odour removal is activated carbon. Acti\'ated
sources, the principal re'luirernen! being
distillation has a porous structure. Odour
()Sf;lf1C('," which cannot
bl' oxidation are physically adsorbed on to
filtration.
contact time varies from
treatment is
10 to (,0 minutes.
at lower pll values. ;\ bed of carbon or
ttl
'1cti.\"e surface must be prc:;cn:ed from
LUiullirg by
can be before sedimentation jf tast.: and
j,S severe
111 cerl,l!l1 cases after sedimentation. The approximate
as suspension IS 2 to 8 mg/l, for emergency
t'l'catrncnt
1.5 to 3 m decp with the sizes 0.20.4
mm
hi tratlon rates range
to IS
many
arc !l1 ,olved, pilot
can
as a polishing agent to rCi110\'C rcsiJual
treatrncnt,

method

water

U)!Urll

such as p!!,

type of orga1l1c malter in the mflucnt

Ume

the efficiency of removal of odorous

m water
be due to
in peaty soils
to mineral matter in
\-vater H1. certain areas.
or black colour. I
industrial wastes or

causes or as a
of human 'letlY!t\". \\
presence of colloidal organic maLtc!".
,\S a colloid or in suspensions as in the case
oxidlzcu iron and tl1angalll'SC ltnpart
<n',,,,,n,, of algae
also impart colour to the
"'1.VO('" pollutton may also bring in colour.
) 11

COLOUR

.1"".lVlU

The appropriate treatment

individuctl case
trials.

A water which
source

with a power
capaotlCs
concentration of n11lcn ,,'1"(."1"1
continuously "",<;\.".t!
to 3% oftlle

{ 11

chlorine or
are high, it 1S
discharge mto

>; 1

cause in

I(

II(

Non (

1':aIIC(),

IS

" 1'''111

is not

()F

ton

are

to waler

following reactions

(I)

ill

co,

II (

011

Ca'

)\

Solid

I ICC \

~,,:;:;;;::"ry.~

of

COJ

'+

ash).

1.

to

II.

3.

;7

4.
to

10 tolll.S

to
. Il{.

011V

6. ;\ddiuonal"

to

can

ll8

+(
()H

+
atlHHHll

usc

corrosn' e

1 "111;::C

'IT\lX)
lIU'1 " " , " ,

dCl",," rnust cnSllre

tnto
\Vater.

19

m rapid

on

than 2
and
fonnt:d

In this
complete
water with a
solids which
scttJmg
to I Oil

ratcs
cakiurn
sludge blanket units
wIthout
of

Plenty

out br

COH1n10n

area is
the "Judge
1t
rncth()d~ (f Iooycr
chemicals
the (ilst

then
retbelL The:

handled.

by

oC
to
O[

I() rc'rn()Yc

the sand lncfu':"tatlo11 but

w,11J:.; and wa~h \yarcr 1rough:" Surface
.\noth,,1' method of chcck1l1g

(0)

to

tCc,lUUlll lld,lU Ill::, [, 111

SHK('

\['ater

itl

p()ft:10ns.

\vater

nl','\"'\\ IS

ray\" \\'atcr

trcl~t'1llCnt,

1S

10(1"

IS

It IS

to
10

The reactions take

can be
+

anions

2/1"

or

and /

rClweSt"nts anH)t1tC

121

of
in

pronounced on

up silica fl"Oln
The
to

\\iater

flow tatc, (ii)

capacit y ,lnd hydraultc

du',m" (VI) type ()f operation,
In'rmtt1!

and (:(Hlccntratl(;n ()[ br1ne

/\ softening unit is

:\22

Volume

exc:ha!lge material to be

111

metres

the lUllmUll!

IS

Vc,imne 0 f wat<:! to
water in

arc

nl to 3 n1etres in dmm::ter
iOn eX1cl"lnp;ti

cmnp()s\tion of the eXL.ml1llg~ millenal.

of 0.30 to
water. After
balcks:va'th"d for 3 to 5 minutes to loosen
rate
na'CK\vaEII1 sl:H)llIld enSUre atleast 50/.)
"HUUlJH. The brine {lISrW1Urlon

MHl.mu

spc:clb'catlon

as

I!:ra'vitv

of

common

are

pn:sent(:d In

CATION EXCHANGERS
~auu'lI

Exchanger
sand

CIY'tlU1Cr!e

-7

7 14

Organic

:)ulph()nated Coal

2.

op,rmrm:m Cl:)n,eerllnIU(>n of brine for

maxmmm eXlch,:n
resin is about 10 to 15% and the wntact time
regeneration varies from 2.0 to
minutes. A
3
dosa9:e of salt
15 kgl mini m of resin using 10'>'0 brine SOIUtiOtl is usually applied at a nHe
about 150 Ipm/m 3 of exchanger. For sea water, about 200 to 400 Ipm/ml of
IS
necessary.

The total rinse water requirement is 3 to 10 rn 3 /m 3 of material and applied at a rate of 9 to

18 m 3 Ihl m3 in the slow and 30 m 3Ihl m 3 in the fast types. The rinse water is introduced
through the brine distribution network or by simply flooding the unit through a hose.

323

succeSSive

out

'd.

(rf\vatcc

:;:'OUR,::ES AND NATURE

and tnanganesc occur In certa.tn

association \vith otganic t1'lattC!, tron
'J
could also be
in surface waters
solution 111 \vatcr
near the botton)
The", arc usually
The
certain industrial \vastes or nllnc drainage.

\vaters
UZrd,S!{,mal

1ron and
'g'Il1(,CSC In ground waters ar(:
oxides,
""))(l(lt: nr,cS('nt
enhanced by the 'On"",,":('

111

",,'lUndw:,lc!'

J:ron eXlst'S in \\'at.er 1n t\'\/o levels {) f

as the tri\'alent,
1ron (I 'C
), the
Therefore in clear ground
the iron,
found ln water
itl t\I/O oxl(k. on "tlltc",
spar1ngl\' s(;lublc,

! ron f()1TnS ccwnplcxcs of hydroxides

substantial arnounts of bicarbonate)
f()nnati()t1
substances
solubility of lrrlH and n1angancsc.

'! 'he tcrtl1ino!o\.f"V

() f "
iron
,"
t't1coul1tcrcd. There ,1fC no analyt1cal
rnanganc:,\"

helli!!cs 1n

UX1UlUl,lll

Wains of high
'illkalmiiy, I f water contams significant arnount's
rnallP-,!r1C\C is found in sf)lutio!1 as rnost
it is
I"~

9.6.2 REMOVAL

or

(:hVllllCll analvsi'l
water alolle tml\'
be ,.eioptcc!, I knee it i'l au\ ",a {)It:
partIcular method is used, (hidalion
dioxtdc Of pot ;bSlunl
fi
can bring about the pn:cipitat1on of iron
\\TII as cal ahue
111
sernl the n"n,,,,,

tration alon(:' or

thur

9,6.2.1 Predpitil
Iron or rnangancsc in watcr in reduced f()!Tn is m'It'I''''U to
fiitmtion alone or
cornpounds by oxidation and these arc rcrnovcd
at a pi I of 7 to 7,:)
liltration The reaction period is about 5 minntes or
hvdroXKlc as ' !Cileated
()\.;'gC111S needed to cot1\'crt 1 I'ng ferrous iron \0
,1 h

i (),

+ 11111-01':;' 4 1'c(OI I),!

4,5(, mg I'll

2, \6 mg

gl!

1 mg
aeration is slow under
low
ncre"SttCl aeration time would be necessary
Addition
can also
mllner"l a,:idiltv it can acr:ornpijsh

rate
oxidation
increasing 100''/0
stripping the cal'bon dIOX1:dc,
CI1()XilGC or In case

U!!1I"'"

accteleratl:d In pra,ctl(le

IS all,,,wcd to tl1lckle

tron

ba'ctena on

stone, The
contact

contact
loadmg
to 70 ml/d/m"
are

GepOS!lltOn

2 to 3 m
to near

mg/L
period
(gravity or pressure
rates are usually of (, to 9

All the

nrfr:HHC

iron can be 11'Ihllblltcd posstmv

to the binding
ammonia which uell:dve
,m llIi" to UU,IUlI,t,
has to be OXIUUI"U bdore any pct'cer,tfblc oXld:atlcln
lfon,

with good
hphupun

6.7
carbon d!()Xlc1c content c;m be hrought
flocculation of iron
washing is

when
IS overt'lI)'!V
overflow pipe
in the fillc;!
the units, The .
1),,:iwl'f'r1 su:cc(,:ssivc washing varies and depends on
initial turbidity and iron content E~:pc:nt:nc:c: 1!lc1l:cates a
interval of one week
turbidity
40
and 1
IrDlom,cs Ocss
10 mg/I).
"SIllIlY' of
involves l'f'ITIr,,,
5 to 10 ems
washing it
m'lnJ.lally with water to
it from
same in position, The
medium
washing/replacement once in (, to
on the iron content

asc:erialrlcd as

H1

faw water.

I ron removal
plants

concomitant at

IS

reached in municipal so ftcning

Manganese removal requires a pH ulimITn,'nt upto 9.4 to 9,(" 029 mg of oxygen

needed to convert 1 mg manganese

!20

2J],

326

6 MnO,

+6

Mn

21

n,29

""~

!l7 to 1.0

to

will

of

is to facilitate

OXlth,l0CIt1

of orC:VlC)llSii v preClpttat(:d

nll1tlet}lIs on

arc claimed for

or ore,

is an

ore" pyrolusite,
15

nr,etctmxL

excess

OX!(l'lS

of
arc

or orc.

permanganatc
is not )mnile:

py!'olmitc ore,
must

l!1 LII."t:U

structures to

;HL

nn"Vi'nt

a contact nenc.,t of 9

of
eU'Ul;m

led -aerator constn:tc

from such

an

d:~C(:ln:('

a usual void
contact

!!1

fiIttation

to

by
IS

acrated

Irlctcr of ',:,:"H,~

as

lS

a solution of po,tailSHlln

zeolite

contact m:111"1"1

llpward

will remove by oxidation about U)'I kg

of all matenal

or !'u'Clte

of potassiunl permanganatc

111

Incomplete

cubic meier

conta1l1!t1g about

need to

th,n""h the contact

the raw \vatcr whtch contains

eXlIllllHC, It \vater

man,ga:ncse win contain I kg/tn',

4 x I

xl,()

c:c

a content of 1
say) 4

water

n1)

\vol.I1d treat

1S

327

1(1),4

Ll

the beel. 'J

used to rc--(
Ll,

\\'hlCh arc strong oXicbnts are cmplo,'cc!

at which

11l

choxidc:

oxidized

state and in a soluble l(\rm

Jeep reser,oirs or
strata
(0 \\'atct
not nlorc
upto a max irn,um () f 1
of the

through

p[,COldl:!]g

the Jon
method

1ron and

usually

In fact,
the sollellillg

most other

mamgan,jCsc is almost cOlnpic

content
iron
.It is applicable in

case of

content
iron or
rather smaller plants, it
m!tn,g<lJrle:sc, '1
removal of iron
cnl!t,dv one

mcthod
oxidize the Iron
contact materials
arc sold under \'t1rlous nan1CS~ arc

of
"'f\~\':Jte

filter or a layer
percolation through
intervals,
I'titer has to
rates arc c,
"cnerallv
the
of 21
~

of iron and
n('reT"""";:""'!" solution,

it

can

328

90J'iM: INt..fT PIPit'

-, -_.

1o

rnmrnf/JPlPE

t~::~:",2:,S:,Jfj:'.~ pr~~~_~/_~_~~=.=__'Il

!
~

1.

3.0).t 70

9<J X 60

,(HUMG CHAMBE.R
F.ll'fER CttAMbE.R.
fiLTER WAiftR: CHAMBER

45-

n 10

4~

X 10
",X 5

PE,APQRATEJ> PLATE
55 X 9()
PLATE SETTtER:
SPnAY &- AERAllO~ CHAM~t,tt OS X 30

ALL D!MCN$ION5 AilE tN

'4.. P!PING WORK ft.!

In

'M~

_ .. 1t _.

-- tl __ JW,_

_N

.. _

c:m,h

) . M.AIN tlOi1Y - FEfU'OC~~IE'.NT P!PE 135 em i D. WI1H :2 G'MI i'HJ:Qi;

FRAME WOR1l\ - FEAROCEJ.,titNT.
5. JOINTS - WHEIlt!.VfHt NECESSARY WELDING 'ZHOt.H.. D &E JU'OPnx}'
6. PAINTS"" PRIME'.R ANn ANfH:;(.H~r.tOS1VE &'fA!NT SMAll BE
G!VEN f}OTk 'SIDES OF THE, \INn.

-"LAN AT ,o..,!_

FIG.

-')1_

SPE~:'iP!'D

4,..

i""'~"~"~'""-'-"-~ 135 OCA ~~~---"-'''4

SEM!C!t:lCVLAfi

l'OR 1

Tray aerators are commonly used for aerating water. The trays are desIgned for an
aeration rate of 1.26 m 3/ m' /hr and spaced at intervals of 1 m. Then the water is settled in a
sedimentation basin having a detention period of 2.5 hours. The clarified water is ftIrerce!
through a rapid sand ftIter having sand of effective sIze 0.6-0.8 mm and uniformity
coefficient 1.3 with an effective depth of 1.2 m. The head of water above sand is 1.35 m and
the rate of filtration 5 m 3 /m'/h, The minimum backwash rate is 35 m 31m' /h and the total
head required for ftlter wash is 12 m.
Type designs for iron removal plants for
Appendix 9.3 along with drawings.

5, 10 and 15 m 3/hr of flow are given

111

The sand is supported m'cr a gra\-el laycr of depth 0.'19 . 0.62 m, and it is arranged as
follows;
size

depth

6538 mm

13 - 21) em

3820 mm

8 -- Bern

20-12 mm

Bem

12-5 mm

Scm

5-2mm

5 -8 cm

Power sbut-downs are frequent and rarely more than two hours supply is available in the
morning and evening in rural areas. Hence raw water pumping hours can be assumed to be 2
hours in the morning and 2 hours in the evening. During these 4 hours of pumping the total
daily requirements of water arc to be pumped to the raw water elevated storage tank. The
treatment plant has therefore to be designed to operate under gravity from the raw water
storage tank taking these facts into account. To avoid extra cost for additional over.. hcad
tank for filtered water, the filtered water from the pump-well could be directly pumped for
the distribution. The distribution of treated water would follow th,! same time schedule as f(n
pumping raw water. Backwashing of the sand filter would be carried out by using raw water
from the overhead tank.

9.7 DEFLUORIDATION OF WATER

Excessive fluorides in dtinking water may cause mottling of teeth or dental fluorosis, a
condition resulting in the discoloration of the enamel, with chipping of the teeth in severe
cases, pa.ticularly in children. In Indian conditions where the temperatures are high, the
occurrence and severity of mottling increases when the fluoride levels exceed 1.U mg/I. \,\-ith
higher levels, skeletal or bone fluorosis with its crippling effects arc observed. The chief
sources of fluorides in nature are (i) fluorapatite (phosphate rock), (ii) fluorspar, (iii) cryolite
and (iv) igneous rocks containtng fluorosilicates. Fluorides are present mostly in ground
waters and high concentrations have been found in parts of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil
Nadu in the country. While majority of values range from 1.5 to 6 mg/I some values as high
as 16 to 18 mg/I and in one solitary instance, even 36 mgll have been reported.
331

2962 UA&/97-24A

9.7

REMOV AL METHODS

removal of excessive
public water supplies or individual water
grounds. This IS a problem particularly in rural
supplies is justifiable soldy on public
areas and hence the accent has to be 011 'H,~nl'<r,tv of operation, cheapness and applicability
tl) small water suppli(;s. The methods use
like tricalcium phosphate or
bone meal, anion exchangers, acth'ated carbon, magneslllfl1
or aluminium salts.

9.7.1.1 Fluoride Exchanger's

Degreascd
alkali
the ability to remove
but have not
been used on a plant
prepared by controlled combustmn of bones
under limited supply of
in the
catalysts when treated with alkali or phosphate
been {'Jund to be usefuL
metre of bone charcoal is capabk of 1<:1110"m),; 1 1
fluonde from a water with
content upto oJ) mg/!. The spent material can be
regenerated with mono Of tnsodium phosphate. T'ricalcium phosphate in powdered form can
be used but it has a lesser capacity
0.7 kg of lluoride/rn1. The spent material IS
regenerated bl' treatment with 1"" alkali solution and nnsed wllh dilute hydrochloric aCid.

9.7.1.2 Anion Exchangers

Huondes can also be removed by <1mOI1 exchange resinsstrongly basic limnaldchydc
resin 'luaternary ammonium
or chloride form. But their efficiency 1S
lowered in the presence of other umons
bicarbonates, lwdroxides and sulphatcs in the
\vater.

9.7.L3 Activated Carbon

Activated carbons have also been known to have the capacity for remova.! of fluorides.
aclwalc'O carbon f(l!' fluoride removal
been developed in India by carbonising paddy
,,,,,rUllSr digcstmg under pressure with alkali and cJucnching it in a
alum solution.
could remove
mg of fluoride
ktlo&rram of the dry material. The spent material
rq~Ct1ler:iltcd by soaking it ttl a 2"'" alum solution for 14 hours. The attrition and
propertles
the
arc however poor.
J\ granular'
2, whlch is a sulphonated coal operating on
aluminmm cycle has
dcvdoped !!l
country. The capacity of the materia'! is
3
estimated to be 500 gm of fluorides/m
test water containing 5 mg 1'/1 and ISO mg/I
alkalinity. The regc'neration is carried out
meam:
a 2.Sy,j alum solution, with
replacement of two bed volumes. ;\ flow rate
4.8
/
~rea is adopted. The
rinse water rccluircments after regeneration ;Jre 9,. 12 m'! m 2 /hr for a nlJlWTlUm duration of
1IJ minutes. The medium has a life of three

Iligh alkalrnity of tht: water considerably lowers the capacity as well as thc efficiency Ill'
bed. Hydroxyl alkalintty beyond 5 mg/l has a deletelious effect on the rem",,,1 effICiency
of the medium. The efficiency of the
falls down by 30% when hydroxyl alkalinity
becomes 25 mg/L
Treatment cost using Defluoron2 varies from Rs. UI to Rs. 5.0 pcr 100(1 litres of water
treated, depending upon the initial fluoride concentration and the alkalinitv of water.

332

9.7.1.4 Magnesium Salts

Excess lime treatment for softening
the magnesium hydroxide floc.
fluoride
Fluoride reductiun

fluoride due to its adsorpl1on by

the Hmuw

H',JU~'"

1)

lIl,,',r"'" cone, );

7%

Sizeable fluoride
aTC possible
qmmtities which
not
be the case
form of salts. T11C process is suitable only
Magne;;a;1
water.
t.;rudy
which are
to

00'(<1111

1 or 2.

following
F/l m

to obtainl

required to

O/'lts"!11

fluoride from
Mg()
for amounts
mom'" water.

treated water (Fo > 2.

! I'
-11
Fo/

1.7

(b)

Irl

in large
in the.

2.

r'/l)

x oaS;JClIlT of raw water (me/l )

>

:l mg F/I)

x l);tt'acllty of raw water (me/l)

Fo represents the fluoride concentration in

was always beyond 10 and its correction
complexity of operations and control.

(92)

(9.3)

raw water. T'be pH of

treated water
was essential, adding to the

9.7.1.5 Aluminium Salts

Aluminium salts like filter alum and
aluminium and alum treated cation
exchangers have shown beneficial effects. Filter alum during coahrulatiotl brings about some
removal of fluorides from water. The removal efficiency is improved when used along witb a
coagulant aid-like activated silica and clay. 300 to 500 mg/I of alum is rC(Iuired to bring down
fluoride from 4.0 mg/I to 1.0 mg/l while with coagulant aid, the fluorides were reported to
of only 100 mg/l.
be reduced from 0.0 mg/l to 1.0 mg/l with alum
Alum treated polystryene cation exchangers and sulphonated coals have also been used
successfully. A cation exchanger prepared from extract of Avaram bark and formaldehyde
when soaked in alum solution bas been found to
good fluoride removal capacity (BOO
mg/kg).
Calcinated or activated alumina in granular
can be used for fluoride removal and the
spent material regenerated with alkali, acid or by both alternately (removal efficiently 1.2 kg
of fluoride/m'). A dilute solution of aluminium
used as the regenerate for the spent
material makes the alumina four times more efficient.

131

STIRRING (10 "''''IUTU)

SE tTLINO

I HOUR

FIGURE 9.2: DEFLUORIDATION AT DOMESTIC LEVEL

SIMPtEMETHOD OF DEFLUORlDATION
bed media which could be regenerated or by
complexes. /\ sImple method of defluoridation
t ;11\'01"':5 the use of "Iummium salts for the
employs either the sequence of precipitation,
and ftll ration and can
used for domestic

fillr:t"nn or pr""clptt,atlon

water supply

"('!"PlY\('

eaitlll,l?nl'jJ'ret:it,itaficlIl,

,-,,,,.,,,,,0' alld Filtration

Treatment can
out In COl1tmner (bucket)
40 I capacity with a tap 35 cm
above the bottom
the container
of treated water after precipitation and
9.2).
raw waler
cuntainer, is rm"ed with adequate amount of
or sodium carbonate, bleaching
alumimum sulphate solution, depending
upon
alkalinity and fluoride content L!me Of sodium carbonate solution is added first and

wedl with wattT.

IS then aUClen
one hour,
WIthdrawn through
tap
in ml to
added in
"unUH

w;Hcr

stirred slowly for 10 mmutcs and allowed to

contains permisSible amount of fluoride IS
settled sludge is discardr'd. The amount of
various alkalinity and fluoride le\'els is gi\'cn m
.B-I

TABLE 9.5
ALUM DOSE FOR DIFFERENT FLUORIDES AND ALKALINITY LEVELS
Test
water
Fluoride
mgF/1

125

200

300

400

500

600

800

1000

60

90

110

120

140

160

190

210

90

120

140

160

205

210

235

310

160

165

190

225

240

275

375

205

240

275

Jon

355

405

245

285

315

375

425

485

395

450

520

570

605

675

Test water Alkalinity,

CaCO;l1

10

Fill and Draw Type for small community

(ii)

This is also a batch method for communities upto 200 population, The plant compnses a
hopper bottom cylindrical tank with a depth of 2 m c'1uipped with a hand operated or "mvel'
driven stirring mechanism (Fig, 9,3), Raw water is pumped or poured into the tank and
re(luired amounts of bleaching powder, lime or sodium carbonate and alum added with
stirring, The contents arc stirred slowly for ten minute and allow to settle for two hours,
ddluoridated supernatant water is withdrawn to be supplied through standposts and
settled sludge is discarded,
The notable features arc:

(a) With a pump of adequate capacity the entire operation is completed in

hours and a

number of batches of de fluoridated water can be obtained in a dar

0)

The accessories needed arc few and these arc easily available (these include 16 1
buckets for dissolving alum, preparation of lime slurry or sodium carbonate solution,
bleaching powder and a weighing balance),

(c) The plant can be located in the open with precautions to cover the motor,
(d) Semi-skilled labour can perform the function independently,
(iii) Fill and draw type (electrically operated)

The Fill and Draw type vertical unit compnses cylindrical tank of 10 m' capacity with
dished bottom, inlet, outlet and sludge drain,
cylindrical tank will have sturdy railings,
ttc Each tank is fitted with an agitator assembly consisting of (I) 5 Ill' drip proof electric
motor; 3 phase; 50 lIz; 1440 RPM with 415 V
voltage fluctuation, and (ii) gear box for
1440 RPM input speed with reduction ratio (,0: 1 to attain an output speed of 24 RPM,

.335

complete with dO'W1Iward shift to hold the agitator paddles, The agitator is fixed to the
bottom of

:SUllaUlC;

sltalflle,;, steel supporting bushings,

each, a sump
with

two units in parallel for treating water for 1500

water

IS

col.l.cCled 111 a
[~
tlUO(lew In

and an

pumped into the units and treated by

lS
to an overhead tank,
pcnmssible IllTlit (1 mg F /1) of
are t~\'cn in Table 9,6,

doses (mg/l)
water at various alkalimty

[",~"f'H"'"

ALUM DOSE FOR DIFFERENT

Test
water

water

AND ALKALINITY LEVELS

Alkalinii~;)

CaCO/1

Fluoride

17/1

.300

125

143

.3

221

400

500

.312

351

600

800

1000

468

520

"

403

351

403

585

767

416

468

689

9.36
".,',.,

598

5
6

611
,.,"""",.,

",

689

715

715

884

936

1066

209

1118

1300

4.30

1508

1690

1010

.....

988

8
10
..... , .......

..., '

.,;

treated after l11creasmg the alkaltmty With ltme

Of

sodmm

carb()nat(~,

(iv) PreCipitation, Floatation and filtratio/l

Domestic treatment is achieved uSlI1g a 100 1 capacity batch type dissolved air floatation
cell with hand operated pressure pump, The pump and cell form a compact dissolved air
floatation de fluoridation system,
Raw water in the cdl is mixed
alkali and aluminium salts, A small guantity of
air.. watcr mix from the pressure pump is allowed into the celL The precipitate with fluoride
lifts to the top and floats, The treated water is collected in a bucket filtered through a sand
ftlteL Using this cdl, 100 I water is available
use in 20 minutes (Fig. 9,5.)
The same principle of floatation is extended to a 500 I capacity dissolved air floatation cell
to obtain nearly 1 m 3 treated water per hour for small communities.

336

DRIP PROOF MOlOR

nON
~B(
WITH REOUC

GEAR TO "'V t 4 SAP'"

RAW WATER

II

..

-~~-

"1

1-0/6

'1'

0/3 --->

-_.

F='

~.

:i.
':'
0
~

- J:..,

IF

-='1

:l
'1'

6
:::l- I-

.. _.

..._' r"

1 tnm THICK
M.S. PLATE. ........
OUTER SHELL

::i

'--l

"

50 .. m D'A

"

SERVICE VALVE

'

'"

-! --

~
~ l:==l _L~~.:;::' -=-*
.-,

F='

STIR.R.ER

sUlue'.E ..........
SUPPORT
I

I
I
OIAME. TER OF PLA ... T

j-

. ---l

IF

-1J

1"""

C',

po
SUPPOA~ .,.-75
..., GATE

1fl

TO STAND
POST

TO ST .....O
POSTS

o-

:l

.,~

..."

,-,

f-I-", ..

--j..

t-I

'~~:":

.--~ f...f..-- 0/3 ~ "T

50 !II'" FLATS
SUPPORT E 0 AT
20 FROM CI!N1'RI

.1". SOA "D

o, 3M

WL

J.

II'"

\ M.S.CHANNEL

--

SO - 73 ''''''
FLATS

~n ,~-

'-,

-E:::.:J

. I -.
Q

___. _ 0

VALVE I
FOR DRA'''''NG
SLUDGE
I

, 1

FIGURE 9.3: FILL AND DRAW TYPE DEFLUORIDATION PLANT FOR POPULATION
UPTO 200 (aj 40 Ipcd

:n7

OVERHEAD T,ANI( STAND POST

OEFLUORIDATION UNIT
SlORAGE TANk

iIORE WELL

ISO ~ Pn>E
TO SI.UOGE
OIlVt;C BEDS

PUMP

FIG. 9.4

O. H. TANk

STAIoD POST

FILL AND DRAW 1YPE DEFLUORIDATION SYSTEM FOR RURAL

WATER SUPPLY

338

9.7.21 Mechanism Of Defluoridation by Nalgond a Technique

The chemical reactions involving fluorides and aluminium species are complex. It is a
combination of poly hydroxy aluminium species complexation with fluoride and their
adsorption on polymeric alumino hydroxides flocs. Besides fluorides, turbidity, colour,
odour, pesticides and organics are also removed. The bacterial load is also reduced
significantly. All these occur by adsorption on the floc surface. Lime or sodium carbonate
insures adequate alkalinity for effective hydrolysis of aluminium salts so that residual
aluminium does not remain in the treated water. Simultaneously disinfection is achieved with
bleaching powder and this keeps the systems frce from undesirable biologtcal growth.

9.7.2.2

Rural Water Supply Using Precipitation, Settling, Filtration

Scheme Of Nalgonda Technique-Continuous Operation

This scheme intends to treat the raw water for villages and includes channel mixer, pebble
bed flocculation, sedimentation tank and constant rate sand filters. The desi!-,'11s of entire
water facilities arc available for 500, 1000, 2000 and 5000 populations. The scheme is gravity
operated except the filling of the overhead tank and delivery from treated water sump.
Channel mixer is provided for mixing lime slurry or sodium carbonate solution and
aluminium salts with the raw water. Pebble bed flocculation is used in place of conventional
flocculation in order to avoid the dependence on electric power supply. The scheme
envisages power supply for 2 hours each during morning and evening for filling the over
head tank and for supply of treated water. The basis of desigt1 of ,'arious units are gi,-en
below:

!Pater conJumption
J'lash mh,:ing-detentionperiod, ldodty to be
maintained
(iii) Pebble bed jloccuiator

(i)
(ii)

detention period (considering 50

size of media
depth of media
rate of backwash

(ity

c, voids)

30 minutes
20-40mm
l.2m
O.5m/min

Sedimentation
liquid depth
weir loading rate
surface overloading rate

70lpcd
30 secs.

3m
< 300 m'/m/d
<20m'/m2/d

Sand gratity.filter
depth of water over sand
rate of filtration
head required for backwashing filter
minimum back'wash rate
gravel depth
effective size of sand

2m
5 m"/ m 2/h
12m
36m/h
O.45m
O.6mm to II. 8mm

339

r CHE~IICI~L

FEED

AIR/ WATER FEEDER

_---J-z;;

"

::"
""
.,:!
BACK
WASH

{f-.---V'lTREATED

1!

!:"

FILTER
SLUDGE

WATU!

_____

~_.

_________.lLJ=:::i_

FIGURE 9.5: MUSCLEPOWER DISSOLVED AIR FLOATATION SYSTEM FOR

WATER TREATEMENT

The size of all units, viz., overhead tank, channel mixer, pebble bed flocculator,
sedimentation tank, sand filter and underground treated water storage tank arc based on
these desil,'l1 considerations for populations 500,1000,2000 and 5000. Layout plan and
sectional elevation for treatment plant of Nalgonda Technique arc given in Fig. 9.6
Nalgonda Technique has several advantages over the fixed bed ion-exchange processes. It
docs not involve regeneration of media and employs chemicals which arc readily available
and easy to operate and maintain using local skills. Colour, odour, turbidity, bacteria and
organic contaminants also get removed simultaneously. The sludge generated is convertible
to alum for usc in removal of excess turbidity of surface waters.

9.8 DEMINERALISATION OF WATER

Conventional methods of water treatment do not materially change the mineral content
of water. Base exchange softening merely converts the calcium and magnesium salts to the
corresponding sodium salts. Lime softening causes a slight decrease in the contents of total
solids but does not bring about any decrease in the content of sodium chloride or sulphate.
lienee these methods are not effective in converting brackish water into a potabie .one. For
providing a potable supply in brackish water area, the least mineralized water source could be

340

prospected. \Vhen potable water is unavailable some method of treatment has to be adopted.
Thus ships on the high seas as well as
are provided with stills for manufacturing
during the war in isolated atolls
distilled water. Distillation of seawat(~r
which had to be occupied.

9.S.1 DISTILlATION
Of the processes of removing water
terms of established plants, the most pr<:)dllCtJVe.

passage of water through

economic source of heat cnero'v

10

tap'pIIlg
heat !ransler,

\Vhile relatively small quantities of water arc to

distilled,
Of
distillation is preferred because of the s1!npEcity
the lower capital cost
111stallation. \Vith larger outputs Improvement'
thl:lel1cy acquires much greater importance
because of the much higher rates of evaporatIon ;'r,,,olved
the need for the highly efficient
heat transfer systems. Problems of scale fOffi1at;on
a significant
Performance of an evaporator plant is
the specitlc heat consumption, i.e. the
number of kilocalories required to produc" one kilogram of distillate. Distillation plants afC
generally better for lower values of specific
(on""np'lon. The introduction of the flash
evaporator has helped in better economics
and more efficient plants can be
built more cheaply. It is only in such situations
natuml gas or fuel is available cheaply that
the resultant saving in capital cost.
low thermal performance evaporators can be used

9.8.1.1 Solar Stills

Solar energy can
harnessed by the usc
a
mirrors following
path of the
sun to focus the
on sheets of water.
one
popular methods, the salt water
trickles down to
mounted on an inclined
provided with glass sides and a
heat insulated back which screens the condensll1g chamber from the sun. Since the focussing
an Important element in the cost of the stills, the development of cheaper
mIrrors
non-focussing types of mirrors and use of incxpensive materials of construction havc been
resorted to. ln basin solar stills, a commonly used design, salt water tanks, filled either by
gravity or by stainless steel impcller pumps, fccd the solar still whose cover is at a shallow
angle of 10 to 1go with the glass panes tightly sealed to the holding frame and the joints
between the still cover and the vertical walls perfectly tight. The rate of feed to still should be
stich that for each 7.6litres of salt water, 3.7litres of fresh water is obtained and 3.7litres of
brine is discarded. The collecting troughs at the foot of the still cover must be constructed so
that water will drain freely to the pipe which carries the distillate to the fresh water tank but
preventing the entry of any contaminated water either from the roof or the ground in which
it is constructed. In addition to the fresh water tank, it is good practice to construct
additional distilled water storage so as to balance out the fluctuations between production
and demand.
By their vcry naturc, still covers are ideal for collection of run off of rain water and every
advantage should be taken of the available rainfall by diverting in to the fresh water tank
after disinfection. Such an addition can be substantial in areas, as for example, where annual
rainfall is of the order of 30 cm and a still is so arranged as to recover 70% of it. The increase
341

o.H,rANI(

FLDJ:eJ.. HOSE PIPE

O.JO., I!\CC StA8

INLET fROM O.H,TAM(

"TJOVGJ1

..........

.......,.....
"""'"

WfNOOW(T_J

$Tnt
LAOOA

___ JU.._

"

R CC SLA8

:;-

OLI\ItRI'

'LOW PtP

ptPE

!1

TO

WAS,.

\'.:~~::.d=dI j~11 l' ... ~~

TOO,,...T.ANI(~ ,
j-TO~
.....
~

,~

~~

~ SLuDGE OUTL!!

FLOCCVlATOf.t

!~

STL '""""""

LE. PUMP
, MOTOR

PVMP HOO$(

SIJMP

SECTIONAL ELEVATION
WASHWATUI

OOTLET

CHLOAINATOR.

rt:

OVE~FlOw

IP

rt/

o-EL.IVE,RY
PIPE

"~IGrdk::=-,;r=:,:"
SlUL
LADDER

-<

.l1llIIl
.=
WATER.

RAW WATER
0. H. TANk

RAW

INLET

PIo88LE 8EO
FLOCCIJLATOR

SETTU~G TANKS (2 NOS)

FILTER

CHLORINATK)N
T ANI!:

SUMP

PUMP HOuSE

LAYOUT PLAN
eN

"N

FIG. 9.6

Rce WALL

J'."
Otl..ORINATIO .
TANK,

FLtER

SET'r1,.ING lA1'.f(S

______ ~JI~'

MANIFOLD

PIPE

PEBBLE 8(0

ROLLltt 'SHUTTER
OF FLEXi8LE STEEL
-.aI",

DEFLUORIDATION PlANT USL"JG NALGONDA TEClL"'UQUE

per square metre of still area is about 200 liters per year. The efficiency of a solar distiller is
the condensed water actually produced divided by the water which could theoretically be
evaporated by all the solar energy reaching the outer cover.
In general, wherever skies are generally clear, solar distillation is feasible upto 40" latitude,
where 1000 kWI m 2 of energy from the sun in each year can be available, the solar radiation
being more important than the mean ambient temperatures and the wind factors being
negligible except as they relate to stresses upon solar distillation structures. The production
of water by still varies from month to month and even day to day depending upon the solar
radiation available. The size of still is often to be designed on the basis of the least
productive month. Yields of about 1 mJI m 2 /year have been adopted for some of the bigger
stills constmcted and used successfully. The still area needed is given by the expression:

= 6.008

10 3 x S

(9,4)

Where

Output per square metre of still area in Ipd and

S;:;:

Insolation or solar radiation in caloriesl cm2/day

Values typical for India for various latitudes arc given in Appendix 9,4
The best situations for the use 0 f solar distillation are' the isolated areas and certain
regions where fresh water is unobtainable, solar intensities are high, fuel resources arc
meager and industrial development is poor.

9.8.1.2 Single-Effect Distillation

sea water is boiled in a vessel, using steam as the heating medium. The vapour is
condensed by heat extraction to a cooling supply of sea water, part of which forms the feed
to the plant
Th(~

It is not useful to installliquid/liquid heat exchangers to recover heat from the exit brine
and exit distillate. The vapor produced has to be condensed. Any recovery of heat could only
be used to heat the feed water, and if this were done, the circulating water supply to the
condenser would need to be increased.

9.8.1,3 Multiple-Effect Evaporation

Each component unit of a multiple-effect evaporator is maintained in series at slightly
lower pressure and temperature in order to permit the stearn produced in one effect to serve
as the source of heat in the next. Weight for weight, the amount of product water then
approximates the number of effects. It has been computed that the quantity of water that
can be evaporated by one kg of steam in single double and triple effect evaporations are in
the ratio of 0.9,1.7 and 2.5 respectively.

(a) Multi-Stage Flash Evaporation

This is also accomplished at successively lower pressure and temperatures. The multistage
flash systems is logically related to the multiple effect system by extending the preheaters to
full condensation duties and omitting all evaporation heating surface entirely, so that all
343

is obtained by flashing. '[be i'!lcc.rning water i.s wamled by the heat of condensation
and only a small amount of heat
reqUlred to flash the preheated water in the
reduced pressure stage into steam.
consumption value" as high as 110 are
possible.
"".JutU

(v) Low Temperature Flasl! Evaporation

Ibis method has for its object, the

of the possibility of utilizing the energy in
streams of warm water from power plant,
refineries and industrial plants as well as from
naturally occurring sources. The studies show
this method for warm saline waters is
theoretically sound and technically feasible.
(c) Vapour Compression .Pl'Ocess

This
relies on mechanical coml:>rc:ssi:on of the vapour to boost its temperature
the heat necessary to evaporate the
high enough to supply through its own
feed water. Once started, this
upon further heat energy but only upon
mechanical ",,,pm;?

Steam at WOo C is comprc:ssed 50

temperature is raised to about 105
and this
compressed steam is used to
ternpentturc of
feed water to
boiling point
Vapour comprc:lsion distillation 11' ntl,rrYVeS
of the reuse
latent heat of
steam. Heat is required only for the
of vapour. Thereafter the heat derived
from the mlCcl1alllCai ene:tl2Y develop:ed
motor that drives
compressor may supply
lenlHV to be
efficient. Ileat transfer
all the needs of energy.
coefficients can furth"r
impn)vr:d 4 to 6 times by
a thin film of the water
rapicUy over a m'~j'n'" surface.
rotor
showed no scale or corrosion
mechanism
to be scM.c1eaning.
Because of high cost
the
expected
of vapour
compression as far as cost 15 conCl~ITiled is not good. llowevef,
are many special
small
plants, where cnn,Jd"c"in,,< other than cost
applications,
determine that the vapour compression pnx!.;ss is most 'l.lllliU.I!\.:
C,H1verHcnt

(d) CritictllfJ'ressw"e DistillatiOlI

The pnr,clpJ of
Iln::ssun~s in ,;xcess of 2S0 kg/ m' and
temperatures
de'1sitC't diff,:re11Ce between the liguid and vapour
phases 15 madr;
the vapour handling equipment can be
greatly
The main riilfjrlllti,,<
nt',""'p arc the rapid building up of scale and
for developmg
of
which can withstand these elevated
ternperaltucrcs and pressures.

(e) Vapour Reheat DistillatioPl

ThIS process is
in several
to lnttiU ,
In this system
deaerated sea water enters the system and rIC"""
countercurrent
to hot fresh water. The temperature is then
from an externaJ source (the;
prime energy supply). The hot sea water
through a series of flash chambers
counter current to a stream of fresh water tlnw,,,,, II! open channels. In each stage, some sea
In
stream
fresh water. As a result, sea
water flashes to
steam, which
311

water is cooled and fresh water is heated. Hot fresh water leaving the highest pressure stage
is used to heat in coming sea water. Part of the cooled fresh water is recycled to the lowest
pressure stage; the rest is product.
In most processes involving sea water distillation, scaling limits the maximum
temperature in the systems. In the vapour reheat system, the absence of heat-transfer
surfaces and reduction of scaling problems removes this limitation.
9.8.2 FREEZING

\Vater can be transposed from saline water to the

as icc. The fact that the
to the latent heat of vaporization is
latent heat of fusion, viz., 80 Kcal/kg is small
taken advantage of in this process. llowcver, even
the ice crystals formed constitute
essentially pure water, the yield
product water is decreased because some of it is used to
wash sal t from the ice surfaces a n d '
to !pdt
ice crystals. As in distillation,
countercurrent operation conserves
system also. By cooling the feed water
to the freezing point before a refrigerant is
in direct contact with the feed and by
countcrCI1!!cnt washing and melting
lee
maximum economy is effected.

(a) Contact Freezing

This makes usc of tv/O hcaHransfcr circuits of recycling hydrocarbons. The first circuit
absorbs heat from the incoming salt water, transfers it in part to the fresh water and loses it
111
to the waste brine. The second circuit vaporizes the liquid hydrocarbon in contact
compressed and the heat energy released is
with the salt water to freeze it; the vapour is
llsed to melt the icc. The vapour separating from
water is repumped through
freeze chamber,
(b)

Eutectic Freezing

This operates at the eutectic temperature of the incoming wate!'. Down to the eutectic
point only ice is formed. At the eutectic point,
crystals nucleate and grow independently
of salt crystals and other substances in the water, thus pem1itting separation, Furth~;r rcrnoval
of heat docs not continue to lower the tempcranm:.
9.8.3 SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Organic solvents partially miscible with water can be used to extract the fresh water
leavmg behind a more concentrated salt solution. The solvent fresh water phase can be
separated out from the concentrated salt solution and distilled to yield fresh water.
9.8.4 OSMOSIS

Certain natural Rnd synthetic membranes have the property of permitting

solvent
(water) to get through them but not the solute.
semipermeable membranes permit the
separation of solute from solvent. This phenomenon is known as Osmosis.
(a)

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Reverse Osmosis IS a membrane permeation

for separating relatively pure water
(or other solvent) from a less pure solution,
solution is passed over the surface of an
appropriate semi flcrmeable membrane at a
in excess of the effective osmotic
pressure of the feed solution. The permeating liquid is collected as the product and the
345

concentrated feed solution is generally discarded. lbe membrane must be highly permeable
to water, highly impermeable to solutes, and capable of withstanding the applied pressure
without failure. Because of its simplicity in concept and execution, reverse osmosis appears
to have considerable potential for wide application in water and waste water treatment
(b) Electrodialysis (ED)

Unaided osmosis is a relatively slow process and hence attempts have been made to
combine this with electrolysis. Application of an external electromotive force can draw the
ions away from the salt solution towards the electrodes so that the solution is impoverished
of its salt content. The reunion of the ions by diffusion can be prevented by using suitable
membranes to separate the cathode and anode chambers and also by continuously removing
the relatively concentrated solution of the electrolytes from the electrode chambers. To
obtain purification of sufficient magnitude a number of electrolytic cells have to be used in
series. In essence the apparatus would consist of a number of electrolytic cells each of which
is composed of 3 compartments separated from each other by suitable membranes. The
saline water circulates in series through the middle compartments of the cells and undergoes
progressive purification. The number of cells and the rate of flow may be adjusted to give the
degree of purification required. A direct current of 110 to 220 volts is employed. The
electrodes are continuously washed with the treated water. One of the main disadvantages of
the electrodialysis process is that the membranes get badly damaged as a result of corrosion
and scale formation. Another disadvantage is that the cost goes up steeply as total solids
content of the finished water decreases. Power loss is minimized if the water is derruneralised
only partially to final concentrations of less than 500 mg/l in a multi-compartment celL
Average power requirements are 1 k\'\!h/ m1 of water/WOO mg/ 1 of TDS removed for
waters with initial 'IDS values of 10,000 and less. Since power requirements rise sharply with
higher initial values in this method compared to distillation and freezing, this process is
adopted only for waters containing less than 10,000 mg/l of dissolved solids.
(c) Osmionic Process

This process is based on the principle of osmosis through ion-selective membranes which
pass only alllO!1S or cations preventing the passage of the other ions. '[be concentration
gradient between the solutions supplies the potential required to drive the ions through the
lon-selective t1;lcmbranes unlike in the case
reverse osmosis where pressure is applied to
force the water but not the salts through the rncmbranes.
9.8.5 ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS
\l\iJ1en a salt solution is percolated through a cation exchange resin treated with acids the
effluent contains equivalent amounts of the ~orresponding acids as shown beh)w:
MZc +
H

\l\iJ1ere M" is Ca or Mg" . The same equation can also be written for monovalent ions
like Na+ or K'.
\'\!hen this acidic effluent is passed through all anion exchange resin which has been
treated with alkali so that it contains replaceable hydroxyl ions, the anions are exchanged for
346

the hydroxyl ion with

follows:

result that the eft1uent is rendered free from salts

,1S

as

Thl!s it is possible to rernove salts from br:lckrsh water by a process requiring no more
technical skill than that involved in
columns. The beds could be
regenerated
in
capacity.
used rCI"",mOI
discussed in 9.5.2.2. (b). 'rhe anion
High capaClty carion exchange tnlltcnals
exchange materials have
by cnnden,,,r,,, substituted aromatic anllfles with
formaldehyde.
ron
r~ins have come to
m
fidd of treatment of wate!'
for industries and especially in the r)I(JULlC11011
water for h'gh
boikrs.
They have also a place in the treatment
water
the production of potable
water.

9.8.6 PERFORMANCE OF RO AND ED PLANTS

Based on evaluation studies conducted
on the working
desalination plants
employing Reverse Osmosis and Elcctrodiall'SIS onnclni,,'s followmg information emerges:

(a)

Recurring cost
by "cn;""
(R<J) and Electrodialysis (I cD)
ranges from Rs. 9 to Its, 31 and Rs, 8 10
respectively per m 1 (1987),
Including depreciation and interest on call1lOlL
cost works out as Rs. 40 to Rs.
13! for RO and Rs. 28 to Rs. 85 in case of}
(987).

(b)

Quality of product water in RO is consistent while il is generally not so in 1:1),

(e)

In spite of elaborate pre-treatment, operation and mamtcnancC', the plants could

not yield consistent cluality of product water within permissible limits, \\'helK\CI
such consistency in quality was attempted, the
water
considerably, thereby raising the cost of treatment
W:1('r. The
water quantity correspondingly 1l1crcascd.

(d)

the RO plants evaluated, rated

of
l!l
the plants Studied by NEr'~RI, only one produced at I
capacIty,
others
fi.l11.ctioncd at 30,50
associated with problcnb dUfmg
operation.

(e)

Membrane

()

Pressure punlps rnaintcnance pose scycral problems dunng opcratlt)fl; non

availability of spare parts at site can >(nousl)' a
their tnaintcnancc.

[n

by various firms for RO plants varied from I to 3

1\
He of upto years is claimed for I,D. These claims, however, need
as all plants evaluated operated '>11 an (\\'erage for 5,8 hours/day only
the frequency of
changes was higher.

Due to fn:tjllent deposition

salts on
frequently, the tnaintenance of ED plants

(11)

Scaling is a potential problem and

fonnation. General practice

bl'!C;Ul1C

to lise

that needed ac!CJ.\v"sh more

more

of
are used to prevent its
.I,angclicr saturation Index of the
347

concentrate to calculate acid relJuirements. Stiff and DaY!s Stability Index is

recommended which results in a slgnificant reductron in acid usc.
(i)

Energy costs are typically 4060"" of the total operating costs of Rcycrse Osmosis.
'fhe production of 1 m l of water r-cl]UlreS 46 k\\'h of energy, compared with 1218
Kwh for distillation process. llmvcnT, the requirement can be reduced if energy
recovelT turbines arc used,
feasible.

(J)

Membrane replacements,
the Itfe
an RO pbnt, arc typieally estimated to
account for 2535'\1" of the operating costs. Thew is plenty of scope for reducing
the frequency of membrane replacements.

desalination. Gcnerallv, Distillation and Reverse

There is no one 'bcst' method
arc recommended for seawater desalination, ,{'l;ile Re\'erse Osmosis and
Electrodialysis are used for brackish water desalination. However, the selection and use of
processes should be very site specific, they mllst be selected "cry carefully, especially in
rural areas,
One of the maJor considerations in the selectioll of ,\ dcs"lination process should be its
cost and maintenance. j !owever, despite the substantial costs involved, the availability of
desalinated water in arid zones caII be a boon to that area. \Vhere the water is salty,
altematiyc water for consumption is often transported over long dIstances by truck or
animal. When the water is sold, its unit price oftep exceeds that of desalinated water.
in many water short
Therefore, the economic conditions to support desalination alrcad)
areas"

9.9 CORROSION
Corrosion is the phenomenon of the interaction of a material with the environment
(water, soil or air) resulting in its deterioration, Jn water supply corrosion causes significant
loss in the hydraulic canTing capacity
and fittings, poor lJuality of water transported
and possible structural failures. Corrosion of meta! due to soil electrolyte and stray currcnts
arc termed as 'underground corrosion' whtle that due to water flowing or contained in the
or underwater corrosion,
pipes or containers is denoted as 'internal
9.9.1 MECHANISM OF CORROSION
When a metal is in contact with an electrolyte it has a tendency to ionize and
solution. The driving force for this
is called the solution potentiaL
M + IT

1I

!,'C)

mto

(1 )

The hydrogen ion required for this reaction comes 6:0111 the Ionization of water.
H2 0

(2)

The hydrogen ion liberated on the metal surface has to be taken away for the ionization
to continue according to equation (1). Otherwise, it will cover the metal~ surface preventing
further reaction. The hydrogen atoms can be removed according to the following reactions,
211 + 0

(3)
348

21

..

(4)

~ ~~

Reaction (3) is quite significant in water supplies since dissolved oxygen is always present
Reaction (4) requires low pH or a second
which can serve as atl outlet for the
hydrogen (depolarizes). In water supplies
! conditions arc not possible. \Vherc
contact with another metal is available galvanic corrosIOn occurs.

9.9.2 TYPES OF CORROSION

The major types of corrosion arc
electrolysis and bacteria (biochemical).

concentration cell, stress, stray current

9.9.2.1 Galvanic Corrosion

\Vhen a metal is kept in an electrolyte, it forms a half cell or electrode and the potential
associated with it is called half cell potential or
potential. In a galvanic cell anodic
metal goes into solution while metal is deposited on
cathode. 'The metal that is placed
higher in the galvanic senes (electrode potential) will form anode and will be corroded, The
Galvanic Series 0 f lTtetals and alloys given as under;

GALVANIC SERIES
Least noble
Most Corroded

Decrease

111

nobtlity

Corroded Find

Magnesium
!'v!agnesium alloys
Zinc
Aluminium 2S
Cadmium
Aluminium 1
Steel or iron
Cast 1ron
Chromium iron (actine
Stainless type 410)
NickelResist cast iron
188 Chromium nickel iron
(active) Stainless type
304
188-3 chromium-nickel
molybdenum-iron (acti,e)
Stainkss type 316
Lead-tin solders
Lead
]'in
(active)
Inconel nickdchromium

Hastelloy alloy C (active)

Brass

Zero

Hydrogen
Copper
Bronze
Copper~nickel

Increasc in nobility

alloys
Monel nickel~c()ppcr alloy
Silver solder
Nickel (passive)
Inconel nickcl~chromium
alloy (passive)
Chromium~iron (passive)
Stainless type 410
Titanium
18~8 Chromium~nickel~

molybdenum iron
I Iastelloy alloy C (passive)
Silver
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Most noble, I ,cast (:orroded

Protected End

(;alvanlzed iron (ziIKcoated) is more serviceable than sted alone, because the iron
exposed at joints is protected at the expense of the zinc.

9.9.2.2 Concentration Cell Corrosion

Tills t )'pe of corrosion is most prevalent and occurs when there are differences in the
metal lOll concentration, anion concentration, hydrogen ion concentration, temperature, or
d"s<llved ()xYF,cn level which cause a difference in the solution potential of the same metal
t hereby

pH Hl1( )ting corrosion.

In wain containing dissolved oxygen, the oxidation of iron from ferrous to ferric statc
\\1lh suhsC<jlwnt hvdrolysis results in the increase of hydrogen ion concentration. The
1!lcrcase in till' hydrogen lon concentratton in contact with hydrogen results in a hydrogen
ion c()nccnlration cdl at this point thus accelerating the rate of corrosion. Similarly an
oxygen concentration cell is established due to the difference in the dissolved oxygen content
ncar the anode and cathode areas. This also increases the rate of corrosion at the anode
where there IS littk or no oxmen. In the case of buried pipes, the nature of the soil plays an
Important role in the availability of oxygen. For example, lime and sandy soils have different
350

permeability for air penetration to the surface of the buried pipelines and local cells form
between various parts of the pipeline.
The porous ferric hydroxide deposit acts as a protective coating and retards the
corrosion. The accumulation of hydroxide ions near the cathode which reduces the free
movement of electrons also retards the corrosion reaction.

9.9.2.3 Stray Current Corrosion

Stray current corrosion is a complex process of metal disintegration under the combmcd
action of soil and stray currents whose usual source is electrified railway track and earthing of
electrical fittings. The flow of stray current depends on the distribution of potentials in the
track circuit. All metals have greater conductivity than the surrounding environment and
hence the current will stay with the metal until there is discontinuity of the metal conductor.
Excess of electrons will leave the metal at the points where the em'ironment IS highly
conductive receptor for the current. Corrosion takes place at the anode, the points where the
current leaves the metal and returns to the power source.
Of paramount importance is the simple, reliable and efficient method of measuring the
densities of leakage current flowing off the metal in underground pipelines which lie in the
field of action of stray currents. This stray current corrosion can be alleviated by making the
interfacial resistance of the pipe significantly higher than the surrounding soil, e.g coating of
the pipe. In addition, cathodic protection can be given.

9.9.2.4 Stress Corrosion

Potential difference between different parts of the same metal is due to various factors
such as non-homogeneity of surface and non-uniformity of pressure. A smooth surface is
less susceptible to corrosion than a rough surface. rn fact, the grain size of a metal is
important since the solubility of very small h"fains is greater and hence it is likely to be
corroded easily. Metal under stress is easily corroded because the stressed areas become
anodic. Therefore, metals exposed to different stresses and strain like points of bolts and
nuts in pipe supports are more corroded compared to plain pipes. When a freshly forged
metal is used in machinery along with parts made of the same metal but which has been in
service for sometime and in which the strain has been relaxed, more rapid corrosion of the
new piece of metal is noticed. Residual stress may be relieved by annealing the metal at
suitable temperature. Cycles of alternate stresses and strains which induce fatigue also tend to
increase the rate of corrosion.

9.9.2.5 Bacterial (Biochemical) Corrosion

Several bacteria like the sulphate reducing bacteria, iron fixing bacteria and other
micro-organisms that enter into electrolytic or ionic reactions are responsible for bacterial
corrosion. Stagnation of water as in the dead ends gives scope for the development of
anaerobic conditions with the production of sulphide from sulphate present in the water.
The sulphide thus formed will attack the pipe metal forming black deposits of the metal
sulphides which are noticed when the dead ends are flushed. Iron bacteria like E:renothrix
and Leptothrix grow utilizing the energy available in the oxidation of metallic iron to the
'\51

oxide thus corroding the metal.

tuhewells arc the result of such !,,'Towths

9.9.3

stingy masses that come out of handpump

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS OF WATER AFFECTING CORROSION

\/c1ocity and tcolpcraturc of water in pipes affect the ratC'

cOfrosion. 1"01' agg-rcssin,~
waters, high velocities more than I mps arc conducive for rapid corrOS1OIL \\',th adellU;!tc
inhibitor concentration referred to in 1).9Ji.:I (b) (1), higher velocitIes nonmtlly prnent metal
corrosion. At lenv ycJocitics the protcctn.'c properties of water containtng inhibitors arc not
utilized to theIr best adv,ullage, since the slow mO\Tmcnt does not aId the effectin' ,ltffu""!l of
the protect"'e ingredients to the metal
hH
at "doot!cs below 11.(, mps
corrosion 1S significant even in the presence of tnhiblton;,
In general corrosion increases with
to the tt1(rC:1St'
polanzauoll
anei diffusion as t.etnperature increases. i '>."cn a paSSI.\T
rna\'
htghly actIve at
at
tcmpemture It mal' {()rm
dey,tled temperature. If the heating products
Hel and consccjuentiy produce more corrosion. The chlonde H)fl of
alb!. earth
passiyc (;ltn, on the
enhance the corrosion of rna.ny 1l1ctals since the chloride ton dc;.;troys
flletals. SOHle anions like sihcatc [01'01 an insoluble product that gets deposited on thc H1C a~;l
protectlvc layer, thus acting as inhibitor of C01TOSI01l. The nature of cations
\\'~ll
influence the corrosion rate. Traces of copper and other noble metals wtll accdemtc the ratc
corrosion of iron pipes. 'Iron
several
rnctrlls corrode tnOfC rcadih 111 ;Ulltl'lOf1tUfl1
solutions than in sodiutll salt solutions of the sarne COllccntt"<\llon, Sornc lnh1bilors \V111Ch
protect iron increase the corrosion
zinc, (o1"P('[ and nlckel because of the_ Connatioll
complex cHions With the melals.
Concrete construct1ons will
attacked by salts present in the ground wa!ef'. Fonnatlon of
calcium sulphate from sulphate and cabum
(rom the concrete IS responsible
the
latter's corrosion. \Vater with 200 to (lOU
of sulphate
j()(j to .'Oll mg/I of rnagncsiu!Jl is
considered to be slightly "Kt;JCCSSlve am! water wtth ('(10 10
I mg/ I of sulphate and )00 to
1500 mg/I of magnesium are aggressive to concrete.

9.9.4 Son. NATURE AND CORROSION

The corrosion current will depend on the conductance of the medium which is an
important factor in the corrosion of buried pipelines and structures. Dry sandy soil has low
conductance but in moist clay and mmcral areas' 'it is too high. This difference tn the
conductivity of the soil permits its classification into cathodic and anodic scctions. Strav
currents from power leaks will be more dangerous to metal structures in soiL
water
high conductance which is a si!,,'llificant factor in its corrosive nature. Thcrci">tT,
investigations for conductivity should form an essential part of the soil analysis particularly
for large and lengthy buried pipelines apart from the routine tests of pi I, redox potentia.!,
chemical analysis for calcium carbonate, sulphate, sulphide, pyrites, free carbon, moisture
content, organic content and grain size analysis.

9.9.5 CORROSION TESTING

Corrosion rates arc often expressed as loss in weight from clean metal per unit surface
area (g/cm~ during a specified period of time (hour, day, month ()f year). If
arc
by the corrosion, then the intensity of corrosion is expressed as the depth of t he pH during a
specified period (mm/year).

FIGURE 9.7: CATHODIC PROTECTION ASSEMBLY

Corrosion testing can bc carried out either in the fidd or in the labonttOlY under
controlled environment simulating field conditions, Corrosion testing is done using coupo",
or resistance probes, Coupons are made up of the same material as the structure ,md
normally insulated from the main structure, 'Thc coupons arc cleaned before and aftcr
insertion and the weight loss is expressed as g/cm'/ycar which is the measure of corrosion
rate, Resistance probes are metallic rods or plates insetted at elbows using a tee in
mainstream of water or in a bypass, They operate on the principle th,at when a thin wire or
foil corrodes its electrical resistance increases due to the decrease of its cross sectional area,
'1'he resistance measurements arc converted to corrosion rate, Other field tests usc thickness
detectors for measuring the metal remaining in the corroded pipes or visual examination as a
crude method, All these tests arc not completely satisfactory by themselves,
Investigation of groundwater level and characteristics of water along with the n::,ults
laboratory or field tcst can be used to predict the possible corrosivity of the soil in which
pipes are laid, Correlation between the soil resistivity or conductivity and corrosion is given
in Table 9,7,

TABLE 9,7
CORRELATION BETWEEN THE RESISTIVITY AND CORROSION
Resistivity

Corrosion

Upto 500
500-1500
1500-2500
above 3000

Very strong
Strong
Moderate
I!ecblc or none

Mud, muck, clay, tidal marsh and organic soils in high water tables fall under the category
of strong to
strongly corrosive, Sands, sandy loam, porous and clay loam in k,w water
,')3

tables are
corroslve,
with good or
corrosion may contain
resistivity, It is at
such
corroSlOn 15 seen maXimum,
pockets
A pipeline passing from a lugh resistance
to a low resistance soil will
in the latter
difterence in pipe to soil potentrals of
two area,
current lows from the
because
back to
pIpe,
pipe through the bad soil to the good soil

9.9.6 CORROSION CONTROI~

9.9.6.1 Cathodic Pl'otedion
Cathodic protection is
lIse of galvanic methods for
should be used as a sU1PF'lc!1I1C1,H
protection, It may
a more
corrosion of pipelines,

an
supply or the
corrosion, Cathodic protection
um,IU<;; to other methods of
not as an aJlcrr!a!Jlve
expeditious method for control of external

(a) Basic Principle

The basic principle IS to
the
surface
cathodic thus affording
anodic
This can be achieved by
protection since lcorrosion
connecting it to a D,C source, In
anode consists of specially earthed electrodes,
The general arrangement in a cathodic pnl.ltc:ct'lon assembly is shown in the
9,7.
The' current from the positive
source lows through
conductor 2 into
the
the current flows to the surface of
the earthed anode 3 and then into
the pipe 4 to be protected and flows along the
to the drainage junction point 5, the
current source, Thus the entire surface
conductor 6 and back to the negative terminal
of the underground pipe or equipment
cathodic
is protected from corrosion
metal e,g old tubes, rails
while the earthed anode ,,'Cts corroded, The anode is usually a
etc Other metals which are resistant to attack by surrounding soil like special alloys or
graphite are also used, The conductivity of the protective coating
a direct influence on
the length of the protected section of the pipe, The required power increased with increasing
conductivity of the coating

(b)

Preliminary Im'estigaHons

The existing pipeline has to be inspected to ascertain the sections which require
protection, Other basic information required are I

(1)

Plan and details

the pipelines (showing branch connections, diameter, length
and wall thickness) and

(2)

Location plan of the section to be protected along with:

(i)

Data on soil resistance along the section to be protected at the intervals of at

least 100 m as well as the earthing points,

(ii)

Information on the availability of sources of electricity, amperage, \'oltage,

AC/DC (phase) in the
and spaces for housing current supply and
controls,
354

(iii)

(IV)

on

"Ul,UUH

eXllstlng pr'Dtr;ctive insulation;

cO'nd'llct:!Vtty or

of the pipeline, if it is

"wcde,y in

use.

(c) Power Requirements

With the
maximum protection potential can be
data) minirnunl Ctirrcn t liel ""'V
worked out.
capacity
curren! source
a cathodic protection system depends on
(1) length of the section to
(2)
state
the coating of the pipeline (3)
diameter of the pipe (4) wall thickness of
(5) conductivity of the soil and (6) design
of anode earthing. 'rhe
requirements
0.4 to 10 kilowatts in most cases. The
generator,
vCirtcr-rec!ther, storage battenes of dry or acid
possible current sources are
pipeline should
at least 0.3 V nc,gatlVe to the soil.
type.
(d) Anodes

main power loss occurs in the anode

earthing can be carried out by any
metal (pure or scrap) of any shape and also carbon forms like coke or graphite, When tubes
ate
the earthing can
either
Of vertical. Near the earthing zone, soil
treatment can
done to reduce soil resistance
adding salts like sodium chloride, calcium
chloride or moistening the soil, the former being better and long lasting. Carbon or graphite
electrodes have longer durability than metal clectr'Od.es.

(e) Other Facilities

/\. cathodic protection station should
space for housing the equipment,
installation of current sources, supply and distribution zones, equipment for check
measurements, construction of earthing structures
facilities for carrying out operational
tests.

9.6.6.2 Protection by Sacrificial Anode

Sacrificial anodes serve the same purpose as
cathodic protection system but does not
recjuire electric power supply. The required current is supplied by an artificial h>aivanic couple
in which the parts to be protected, usually iron or steel, is made as the cathode, by choosing
the other metal, having the higher h""lvanic potential, as the anode. Zinc, aluminium and
magnesium (with sufficient purity) or their alloys which are higher up in the h>aivanic series
mnst be used for this purpose. Sheets of zinc suspended in a coagulation basin is an example.
/\. single protector anode will not be sufficient and it will be necessary to install a number of
such anodes general! y spaced at 4 to 6 m in the pipeline or the structure to be protected,
The pcrfonTl:l11cc and service life of anodes depend mostly on the nature of soil or water
surrounding them. U SCi of fill materials in the soil such as clay and h'Ypsum powder results in
low resistance of anode earthing and yields a high current. The costs of protection by
case
pipeline networks in big towns
galvanic anode would be preciously higher in
since it would be necessary to suppress incidental contacts. For the application of h""lvanic
protection the resistance of the soil should be
12 ohm-ITt. /\. higher resistance of the
355

can neither achieve the reqUIred current density nor reduction of the pipe to soil
potentiaL I n such cases, cathodic protection by means of external power supply offers better

9,9.6.3 Control Of Internal Con-os ton

(a) Associated Factors

results in reduced carrying capacity,

Corrosion of the interior

F.xncnt'!1('/" in the country has shown that the

n'"",,,,,'r and taste ant!

'value
cast iron pipes

to as low as

1n

of sersice due to

COrn)S10tL

and pH of water'
the corrosion rate
of
is decreased by merease 111 pIL \Vith no
pH
water in mad
containers adjusts itself to about 8.4 and corrosion
negligible.
can occur at .
and welds (stressed areas) if pH is around 8.4
but not above that required for complete

In the absence

clrbonate
chloride and sulphate salts mcreascs
of pi L lncreasing

mcrcasing concentration
other minerals such as
corrosion rate at all
values below the pitting
both general corrosion and pitting.

absence of calcium, the inhibitory effect of

Bicarbonates inhibit C01"rOSlO11.
bicarbonate is maximum at
to
when its concentrations arc 5 to 10 times above tbe
chlorides and sulphates. It is mimmum at pi I 8 to 9.
When dissolved uxygen
mild steel.

IS

absent,

of minerals present have insignificant effect on

'rhe method of controlling corrosion

deposit1O!1 of calcium carhonate was first
Sllii!;g'cstecl by Langelier. According to
tendency of deposition of calcium carbonate
depends upon carbon dioxide and calcmm carbonate balance in water.
pHs is associated with calcmm carbonate
Langelier index, I =c
equilibrium (determined
marble test or by calculation from dissolved solids) and pII is the
actual pI! of the water in the pipeline. \."/hel1 I = 0 neither deposition nor dissolutlOn of
nikium carbonate takes place. /\
indicates that the water is oversaturated with
calcium carbonate (or lacking in
dioxide) and will tend to deposit calcium
carbonate. /I negative value indicates that the water is undersaturated (or has an excess of
free carbon dioxide) and will tend to dissolve existing deposits of calcium carbonate.
The Langelier's saturation index is not quantitative but shows only the directional
tendency. I renee other indices of
the scale-forming or dissoh'ing properties of
water have been developed.
An index was proposed by Ryznar,
the empirical expression 2 pHspll, which is
known as Ryznar Stability Index to d,'llcn','1I1atc it from the saturation index. Values of tbe
stability index greater than about 7.0
a corrosive water, while, values less than 7.0
indicate a scale forming water. This
is of particular interest in naluating waters of
widely different composition.
356

i\ minimum alkalinitv
rnust
calcium (as Ca(
of protection,
chlorides and

50 to II)!)

is

tntH'C C()rfOSlVC

Carbon ChOXldc
protcctini
destructive

10

action
t 111

IN'nc'e o f

dissolved

OXVVCIl,

water, I

residual chlorine
rate () f C()tl\)slon
will tend to increase
arc generally

mg/I
sornc
of

I11H11111UtTl

(If'

at

'waters

than hard ,,;vaters.

01' nl111cral
will

non or d""fr,,, the

1ncrcase C()troslon

corrosion, but

high

be
the

or

c()rrOS1{)n.

(b) Inhibitors
An inhibitor is a
decrease
Corn'lSion rare.
the corrosion lCilUIUl

COrn)Sfv(, Cn\'irOnrrU::llt
Of

lt1 natufe.
etc. control
not

inorganic Inhibit()fS
C01.TOS1CHl

bv, actinq
1:,) on

conditions, For

the Improper usc

rather
inhibiting, If hydrogen
other oxidizing agcn t wil! cause
current Again ,I' insufficient amOclnt
small area left exposed will ,(,rnli
Sodium 'HIGHt: IS
as a good inhibitor
with other
inhibitors such as
sodiu111 nlt'fate is a ,Frood
inhibitor for iron.
,

the
rate of
under all
c()rf()S10n

()r any

corrOSion

a complete film over the

with

Organic'
act 111 a \anety
(
colloids
adsorption, Organic bases form positIVe ions Cl
hydrophobic
cations attach thcmse1n;s through mlrogen to
inhibitors depend on the size of
hvdmcarboll, i\
million
gives almost: complete protection, Iligh mt
weight al11mes
good inhibitors, The protective action of the inhibitors increase with felnt)!'r'"

by
POSitive
as
tt'ttlary flrntne
rOSin arc

Vapour phase mhibitors (VPI) vaporize

and timn an
(or) protr:ctive
layer. These inhibitors are Llsed to protect
or Inm !11 presence of rnoisture and SOz
parts may be wrapped in papers '
with VPI instead of usmg layers of Io'fcase
or oil as mst protectIve substances, Dicyc10hcxyl ammonium nitrate and chlowhcxyl amine
carbonate arc used as good VPL
Some 0 I' these '
proved to be hannless

inay not

consumption,

cmhmunity water supply unless they arc

arc suitable for industrial water
357

(c) Methods
(i) Deposition of Protective Coatings
A thm film of calcium carbonate call be deposited by the water on the inner surface of
pipes by adjusting pH and alkalinity uf the water to keep the Langelier Saturation Index 'I' to
a slighdy positive value. Lime or soda ash or both can be used to raise pH and alkalinity.
Small amount of sodium silicate can deposit dense, adherent but slighdy permeable ftlm.
A dose of 12 to 16 mg/l is maintained in the beginning and !,'Tadually reduced to 3 to 4 mg/I.
Organic coatin!,'S such as enamels, tar or bituminous coating are effective only to the extent
of their coverage and durability. Epoxy coatings hold promise but their toxic effects due to
leaching are not fully established. For cast iron and steel pipes, cement lining of the interior
surface is satisfactory. Insertion of plastic prpe into an existing partly corroded pipe is also
useful. For controlling corrosion of reinforcing steel and preventing disintegration of
concrete in RC dome covers of overhead tanks, the concrete cover of such domes may be
adccJuately protected (IS No. 456 : 1978). Protective coating to reinforcement is also
suggested.
Some polyphosphates are reported to inhibl1 corrosion by forming protective ftlms on
the cathodic area. 'J'hey also function as inhibitors for precipitation of calcium, magnesium
and iron. Red water problem has been minimized in certain cases because oxidation and
precipitation of iron is prevented. Sodium hexametaphosphate (Calgon) is the most widely
used polyphosphate, The effectiveness of polyphosphates is progressively greater at
increasing turbulent velocities and at increasing concentrations. The initial dose may be as
high as to 6 to 12 mg/l and then reduced to 1 to 2 mg/1. This can prevent the formation of
rough deposits and remove sharp projections from the existing rough ftlms.
(ii) Treatment of Water
Treatment of water such as adjustment of pH, removal of carbon dioxide, increase in
c,ucium Of carbonate ion concentration or addition of inhibitors can overcome to a large
extent the corrosive nature 0 f water. Chemical treatment can be effective as only a
supplement to other methods like protectiVe coatings and is limited by the cost.

I ron bacteria problems in tubewells can be overcome by treating the well with
concentrated bleaching powder solutoiol1 dose of 50 mg/I (as chlorine) and a contact period
of 6 hours. I t is' necessary to periodically flush out the dead ends so that stagnation for more
than a month docs not take place. A1"fer flushing, these dead ends have to be disinfected by
chlorine, De-oxygenation ,{.J4"tleactivation of water is the essence of reducing corrosive nature
of water and is accomplished by passing over heated scraps of iron or by deoxygenation
under vacuum. These methods, however, are not practised in community water supply
systems because of cost considerations but are eminendy suitable for industrial water
systems.

358

CHAPTER 10

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
'----------------------10.1 GENERAL
The purpose of the distribution system is to convey wholesome water to the consumer at
adequate residual pressure in sufficient quantity at convenient points. Water distribution
usually accounts for 40 to 70% of the capital cost of the water supply project. As such,
proper design and layout of the system is of great importance. Metering is recommended for
all cities as indicated in section 17.4.2.

10.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS

The requirements for the distribution system may be classified as functional and hydraulic.
The geometrical configuration of pipes, reservoirs and boosters, selection and proper
location of valves, specials, etc., for efficient operation and maintenance and overall
economy in cost constitute some of the functional aspects. Adequate residual pressure at the
maximum demand depends upon the hydraulic characteristics of the system.

10.2.1 CONTINUOUS VERSUS INTERMITTENT SYSTEM OF SUPPLY

In the continuous system of supply, water is made available to consumer all the
twenty-four hours a day, whereas in the intermittent system, the consumer gets supply only
for certain fixed hours (a few hours in the morning and a few hours in the evening).
The intermirtent system suffers from several disadvantages. The distribution system is
usually designed as a continuous system but often operated as an intermittent one. There is
always a constant doubt about the supply in the minds of the consumers. This leads to
limited use of water supplied, which does not promote personal hygiene. The water is stored
during non-supply hours in all sorts of vessels which might contaminate it and once the
supply is resumed, this water is wasted and fresh supply stored. During non-supply houts,
polluted water might reach the water mains through leaky joints and thus could pollute the
protected water. There will be difficulty in finding sufficient water for fire fighting purposes
also during these hours. The taps are always kept open in such system leading to wastage
when supply is resumed. This system does not promote hygiene and hence, wherever
possible, intermittent supply should be discouraged.

10.2.2 SYSTEM PATTERN

For efficient and ec:uitable distribution of water, a grid pattern, where the different mains
are interconnected keeping dead ends to a minimum, is recommended. The system facilitates
359

anyone point
tree or branch
adequate.

",,;fI'1n

at least from two

with smaller mains

rl:.._., .. directions. J

snmll water supplies, the

single
tnmk mam may
off fro In a

10.2.3 ZONING
/,,,,,no in the dIstribution
ensures
of supply of water throughout the
area. The .zoning depends upon (a) density
population (b) type of locaIity (c) topography
waste and leak detection. I f there IS an 01"""",,,,,
lind (d) facility filr isolating ("r assessment
elevation difference
15 to
tV'lh",'",) zones, then
zone should be
by a
separate system. The neighboring zones
interconnected to provide emergency
supplies. The
between the I.ones,
should normally be kept
and not
partially opened. The layout should
III
beIIWI.:en different
areas
th(; sarne zone or S,:1D1C
:1 to

OF SUPPLY

a town, the mode of conveyance of water from

In selecting a source of water supply
could be conveyed
gravity
the source to the town IS a factor ii)r
/\ny of these three modes could be
a]()nc~ or by purnping, or
selected based t11ainly on the elevation
source of supply wrth respect to the town.
j:fforts should be made to minimize the cost of transmission by considering the various
and their suitabllitv
the
:. W.M '.1\ )fl.

10.2.5 l,OCATION OF SERVICE RESEI~~

']

locatlon of service reservoirs is

diS1Tlbutiun SVStC:n1 as well as for

for n'l-,'1.1latiol1 of pressures in the

fluctuating demands. I n a distribution
"",ell[ fed by a
reserVOIr,
is a centra! place in the distribution system,
whtch
rnaXln1urn
the system is fed by direct pumping
as
as through n":t:r'VCll
reserVOIrs may be: at the tail end of the
sfitcm. If tOfJograplw permits, gn
teservc)!r, may be IOCaLt'U taking full advantage
of di
11l ckvation. I':v(n
,,';tel11 1S
by a
reservoir, it may
desirable to has'e tail cnd reservoirs {()t the more distant districts. These tail end reservoirs
may be {(cd bv direct supply dunng
or booster f<teihtics ma\,
provided.

10.3 GENERAL DESIGN

10.3.1 PEAK
'I
capIta rate
water supply
ouly the average consumption of water per
day per person oycr a period of one
of water supply distribution
It
is to be rccogruzcd that consumption varies with
season, month, day and hour. As far as
the design of distribution system is
is the hourly yariation in consumption that
rnatters. The fluctuation in consumption IS
for, by considering the peak rate of
consumption (which is Cll""'.! to
rate
by a peak factor) as rate of flow in the
design of distribution system.

.%U

'rhe variation !!1 the demand will be more pronounced in the case of smaller population
and will gradually c\'en out with the increase in population. This is so because in a
population different habits and customs of several
tend to minimtze the variation in
the demand pattern.
The following peak factors arc recommended

\'arious population fil,'1.1res:

For population less than 50,000

3,0

For a population range of 50,000 to 2,00,000

2.5

For population above 2,00,000

20

For Small Water Supply Schemes

(\Vhcre supply

IS

effected through

30

standposts for only 6 hours)

10.3.2 FIRE DEMAND

Fire demand can be assessed as per the norms
be made to IS %631980

~vcn

m section 2.2,8.1. Rdcrence can aJso

10.3.3 RESIDUAL PRESSURE

Distribution system should be designed for
ferrule points:
Single storey building

=?

Two storcY building

=?

Three storey building

=?

f()liowing minimum residual pressures at

7m
m
17m

Distribution system should not ordinarily be desl~1ed for residual pressures exceeding
meters, Multistoreyed buildings needing higher pressure shonld be provlded with boosters,

10.3.4 MINIMUM PIPE SIZES

Minimum Pipe sizes of 100 mm for towns having population upto 50,OOn and 150 mm
for those above 50,000 are recommended.
dead cnds. less than 100 mm can be
considered. I f it is a I,rrid, less than 100 mm can
used in situations WI1C1T no fi.ttther
cxpansion is contemplated,

10.3.5 I"A YOUT

The distribution lavout should be such as to facilitate hydraulic isolation of scctiollS,
metering for assessment and control of leakage

10.3.6 ELEVATION OF RESERVOIR

The elevation 0 f the service reservOIr should be such as to maintain the minimurn
residual pressure in the distribution system consistent with its cost effectiveness. The
I and 4 per thousand at peak How.
hydraulic gradient in the pipe should normally be
361

A suitable combination of pipe sizes

staging height has to
determined for
sra.gmg h,eigllt of service rpspnJOlfS is norrnally kept as lS~
optimization of
20m

10.3.7 BOOSTING
For distant localities, boosters may be provided instead of increasing the size of mains or
height of the reservoir unduly for'
the required pressure.

10.3.8 LOCATION OF MAINS

For roads wider than 2S
distritlUtlon pipes should be provided on both sides
of the road, by running rider mains su:itailly linked with trunk mains.

10.3.9 VAtVES
(a) Sluice Valves
Sluice valve's shall be located on at
kilometre on long mains. The size 0 f the
up to 300 mm diameter and at least hm,~'h,

sides of every cross~junction and at every

valve shaH be the same as the size of the main
size of main for larger diameters.

(b) A.ir Valves

These have been discussed in 6.16.3.

(c) Scour or Blow Off Va17J1?S

The scour or blow off valves have been dls,cussc'd in 6.16.2.
(d) FloUl Dividing Valves

These specially devised and construct"d valves arc used in distribution and other mains at
in a distribution main is always maintained.
the branch point to ensure that the
These arc based on the principle
the diaphragm or the
arrangement in valves
upstream pressure allowing the regulation of flow,
opens proportionally depending upon
111
distribution main,
irrespective of the pressure conditions
(e) Maximum Demand Controllers

The maximum demand controller

all flows upto a preset value and automatically
assumes control when the flow just excc<,ds
predetermined rate, thus preventing excess
withdrawals. 'T"hls form of controller
considerable usc both in municipal and industrial
insta.llations, \vhere two or tnorc users
water from a cotnrnon source, are to be
prevented from consuming more than a set

lOA SERVICE RESERVOIRS

10.4.1 FUNCTION
The service reservoirs provide a suitable reserve of treated water with minimum
interruptions of supply due to fadme of mains, pumps etc. They also enable meeting the
widely fluctuating demands when the supply is by intermittent pumping. They arc also
be necessary to meet the
helpful in reducing the size of the 'flains which would
362

peak rates of demand, They can serve as an alternative to partial duplication of an existing
feeder main as the load on the main increases,

10.4.2 CAPACITY
The capacity of the service reservoir to be provided depends upon the better economic
alternatives amonhl'St various options, A system supplied by pumps with 100';1" standby will
require less storage capacity than that with less standby provision, Similarly a system divided
111tO interconnected zones will reqU1re less
capacity for all the zones except for the
zones at higher elevations,
Tlowever, the minimum service or balancing
depends on the hours and rate of
pumping in a day,
probable variation of demand or consumpllOn over a day, the hours of
supply can be calculated from a mass diagram or by a demand and pumping budget The
variation of demand in a day
a town which
on the supply hours may have to be
assumed or known from similar towns or determined based on household survey,
Typical example on estimation of storage ca;)ac:ity is given in Appendix lO,1.

10.4.3

STRUCTURE

T'he ground
reservoir 15 generally preferred as storage reservoir which is circular or
or rectanf.,l'Ular in shape, I f it is circular, it IS usually constructed of RCC and in the
case of other shapes it is constructed either
RCC or masonry. The devated n:scn'oir5 are
used prinCIpally as distributing reservoirs and can have shapes lrkc circular, square,
rectangular and conical or may be of Intze
are generally made of RCC or
prestressed concrete, Small capacity tanks can be fabricated with steel or PVC or HDPE,
Circular shapes are generally preferable as the length of the wall for a given capacity is a
minimum and further the wall itself is selfsupporting and does not rccluirc countcrfort_
Resen'cHrs of one compartment are generally
and those of two or three compartments
hiM times the breadth, The economical
may be rectangular with lcnlo'ih equal to one
water depth for rescrvoirs with flat bottom up to lOOOm' capacity is between 3 and 5,5m, The
service reservoirs should be covered to avoid contamination and prevent algal growths~
Suitable provision should be made for manholes, mosquito-proof ventilation, access ladders,
scour and ovcrt1ow arrangements, water level mdicator, and if found necessary, lightning
arresters,
SOl'"""

10.4.4 INLETS AND OUTLETS

The draw pipe should be placed 15 ccntimcntcrs above the Hoor and is usually provided
with a strainer of perforated cast iron, 'Ihe reservoirs filled by gravity arc provided with ball
valves of the (xjuilill1'ium or other type which close when water reaches full tank leveL 'rhe
overflow and scour main should be of sufficient size to take away by gravity the maximum
How that can be delivered through the reservoir. 'J
outlet of the scour and overflow mams
should be protected against the entry of vermin and from ofher sources of contamination,
The inlet or outlet of reservoir should be such
no water stagnates, \Vhen there are two
or more compartments, each compartment should have separate inlet and outlet
arrangements, while I-he scour and overflow fmln each compartment may be connected to a

363
2962 UAl1.E/97,,-2GA

('\\/0

tnto

70ne or

(5)

to II.

U1

nll',Ul:'l

(,f ('h c\

;l1,,,,"rwnt (d' 1111\

>fTl;lg'llctic

lnduci1011

rnctalll;,;

pipelines

existence and exact

elf)

Hod

(inc
can
the n01ses

I
ft'f

In

hurnan

(9)

sound vibrations created by water

by a
pickup
position
the

measurement of

in the

length

nnmc,nl rtcpairs to pipes and valves are to be

run to determine the extent and

of the
there arc
rnH1unUffi.
reduced to
111 a zone or
contribute to
can
brought about by lo(:atJ.ng
1.t 1$
in a zone to
1n
preceded by waste assessment
nOlt!Ccd at or near

connections and in corroded G.1, house

The savings in water resulting
investments. In addition to the favourable direct
benefits accming out of such
ht
to ''''ill!''
UI"U<ltll:'g of distribution """,p,y,
maintaining
hydrants and
SlOp
quality
water m
due to prevention of back
of
pollution into the. mains in non~supply
all, tbe public goodwill (''''fwd
to
supply. Some of these cannot
eX'!CD'Y cjuantificd.

10.10.3 CLEANING OF PIPES

that

eaxung of pipelines i~l bome out by the fact

to growth of slimes, incmstations or
arc simple and inexpensive can go a long

for
and oe:rtOdlC
capacIty of the pipes
Flushing and swabbing of pipes,
In rnainJal111ng the capacity<

The old cast iron

steel pipes whICh are cleaned can be protected from further
lncrustations or corrOSion bv cerncnt
of a plastic pipes has also been
success.
has
lilamcter pipelines.
the

111

mainS

Appendix 5.8. This can be done at site

(a)

hIgh velocity is allowed to

hydrant. The minimum velocity to
that the flows arc in one

\\ ',Her at

valve
to

()j

111

pipe and finally escape through a scour

varies from 'YO to 120 em/sand it is
and the dirty water docs not entcr the

1U'"Lt'.<:U

386

cleaned sections, Flushing can only remove

lavers,
sized
and hard ncru,;tatlOns.,
if
biologICal

size and not the

(II) SUJauIJiI!I!
to (,0 em

I t is
from comlmcssion,

can fetaul
orihrlnal
one
and the other

swab IS pushed !!lto the pipe by the momentum

moves, it ",U'l'm
deposits arc
hard dcposl ts,

water.
the
pipelines
is not SUCU;:SSlUl for dealing with

Swabs ate slightly

heavily incrusted pipes, <n," ',c
diameters of 75 to !OO mm, tbe
diamc:tcr
mm liB)!,L L
diameter pipe it is 50 to

I n certain cases
arc used !!litiany.
n:un larger in size while
larger

IS

following procedure IS adopted. In

ab()yt: a lnaln \vithout a
pipe arc earned out at the
hydrants. In

hydrants arc ",,{'nil

to
through an existing
can be
pressure through the lwdrant
the other end of the pipe and kept open,

to the rnain J insertion

line or by pumping water under
hydrant or a tee
to

The length of the mam to be cleaned is

The swab IS dipped in bleaching
powder solution of strength SO mg/l of chlorine
to insertion, ;\ftcr insertion, the
hydrant valve is closed or the valve body is
is allowed mto the pipe by
opening the valve near the hydrant and keeping
hydrant valve open, while the valve
on the other side of pipe is kept dosed, ThIS ensure:; water flows 111 one reach only between
the
of insertion and point
exist of the
The movement of swab depends on the rate
or velocity of flush m the pipe which
usually should not
than 30 cm/ s. If ,wab
sluck or blocked tn the pIpe, water can be
passed from the OppOSite direction in the pipe to rdca,;c I!.
As a pcrm:uwnt measure, Ice-branches can be
ncar the Junctio11 points of the pipe
network preceded
the valves. (Fig, j(),2), These tee connections arc covered by blank flanges.
The tee can be vertIcal elr hOrizontal and the outlet
blank flanges can be enclosed in a
chamber. \Vhenever swabblllg or flushing is desired, the blank flange can he opened after
closing the downstream valve and allowing the water
swah to escape through the tee.
387

11

cast Iron
tel

new sewer IS to be laid,

\va tcr 111a1n nla y be
consistent wlth the above ,",nmllW

WOlfer

with an irrcSlstible ptl""!lC,

system to ayoid interruption
SerYKe
f!owlni7 is one of the
mcthods
in and out of 311
nnlVt,m freezing
nscr p'pC,
f!!\\\I,rw at a ydocity ofl.3
\\,111 not

BL
FL.

t
FIGURE 10,2 : THE .BRANCHES TO ENABLE SWABBING

(\en In an unprotected welded steel pipe at

\'\'ith lower outside temperatures water IS
likely to freeze irrespect1\'e of the velocity In long main unless they arc laId below the frost
1111(, In Indian condttlons, frost docs not
more than 2, m even 1!l extreme
arcas, The cover of J to 1,5 m needed from
structural and traffic: considerations should
be adeljuatc to take Gue () f free ling aiso,
water pipes arc exposed to ,11T tCtTtrlera!1l!''':5
belo", 11"( " thel' arc kept at a minimum SIze
50 mm dmmetre and usually SUI:"''''J, the
common spcClficatton bung three lavers of
hairfdt (total nominal
mm)
,",ueu at
protected by means of weather proof wrapping
roofing FICkct lapped
all lorn!s, Th,s specification IS suitable whele water Cllculatton is maintained cDntinuously or
where ofculation is intcfruptcJ

390

CHAPTER

PUMPING STATIONS AND MACHINERY

11.1 REQUIREMENTS
Planning and
omts
r
:

OC'''C;)rl1)fj

OlllTl1)l!l

eIllurau:s considerations of the following

(i)

"1"''''0, eqnipment
U"Odo(l)o)!l,

if

t<l(:!l!lICS

for

(e(:(11'\'111

for
and distributing the power supply

(b)
Control panel
loading
Overhauling, repairs

mamtenancc of pumps and

an

CCIUlrments

room and material

;,atcty

from

RaIlings, ladders

casy and

movcrnent

anJ adnl1nistrat1Yc an:flS\ including tooln

lockers, dress
utilities for sanitalT
of the working staff

,stallatlon of

pumps
(viii) 'Trouble shooting of pumps
1'11otors
:It:iectICJn of starters
1'f(lV1SlO'!1S

in control

and

\\

to :m

;'\~

or

It()dynan11C)

, duplex.
as

pcnstalric pumps,

t()

lIn

jt)

10

11

THE
SPEED IN THE SE1LEC:T[()N

These parameters arc rn,ml ",,,,<1

C:UCUla"CC by the following l(),,,nu.la

trw'PI'n

in the term Specific Speed

a pump, which is

(111)
Where,
Specific
pumpm rpm

meters

pCI'

the rmmn
the pcr:tonll1an,cc d13m,ctel:lSIICS

111

meters

the different
observations arc

nu."",,',

pumps can be
below,
heads

(a)
are to be

llCVCI',)1'CO

(b)

sides of an impeller
efficiency for such
becomes low, and hence
arranged that the head be
mult1 stage pumps, thus improving
attainable efficicnc\',

1 1

CAPACITY

Ir cn"";",
() fan' lIY,n

lift as illustrated m

}'lTMP SE!LE(:nON

under

)fl

11.2
the prnnlng \\,;1tcr
on the\ \>",Her irt

the

) faISmg

35

SO. 70

K'lO

140

SPEClF1C

RADIAL

l'IG. n,1

FIG. lL2

SPEED AND

200

it upto the suction of the pump. While reaching upto the suction of the pump, the energy
content of the water, which was one atmosphere when it was pushed through the foot valve
would have reduced, partly in overcoming the friction through the foot valve and the piping
and the pipe fittings, partly in achieving the kinetic energy appropriate to the velocity in the
suctton pipe and partly in rising up the static suction lift. The energy content left over in the
water at the suction face of the pump is thus less than one atmosphere until here the flow is
a fairly streamlined flow. But with the impeller rotating at the pump suction, the flow suffers
turbulances and shocks and will have to lose more energy in the process. This tax on the
energy of the water demanded by the pump, before the pump would impart its energy, is
called the NPSHr of the pump.

The NPSHr characteristics of a pump is parabolic, increasing with flow rate.

Pumps of high specific speed have high NPSIJr.

11.1.5.2 Vapour Pressure And Cavitation

The energy of the water at the pump suction, even after deducting the NPSHr should be
more than the vapour pressure Vp, corresponding to the pumping temperature. The vapour
pressures in meters of water column (mWC), for water at different temperatures in degrees
Celsius are given in Table 11. 1.

TABLE 11.1
VAPOUR PRESSURE OF WATER
-_.,---"_.,---

,------

(mWC)
0.054
0.092

10

0.125

15

0.177

20

0.238

25

0.329

30

0.427

35

0.579

40

(J.762

45

1.006

50

1.281

If the energy of the water at the pump suction would be less than the vapour pressure,
the water would tend to evaporate. Vapour bubbles so formed will travel entrained in the
flow until they collapse. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. In badly devised pumping
systems, cavitation can cause extensive damage due to cavitation erosion or due to the
\,bration and noise associated with the collapsing of the vapour bubbles.
396
2~j02

tIA&E/9i-28B

11.1.5.3 Calculating NPSHa

To insure against cavitation, the pumping system has to be so devised that the water at
the pump suction will have adequate energy. Providing for this is called as providing
adequate Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSHa). The fomlUla for NPSHa hence
becomes as follows.
NPSHa

Vs 2
2g
sucttOn pressure

P,
Hf,

==

V,
Z,
Vp

Pressure on the water in the suction sump.

friction losses across the foot valve, piping and pipe fittings
velocity-head at the suction filet

the potential energy corresponding to the difference between the levels of

the pump-centre line and of the water in the suction-pump
the vapour pressure

\vbile calculating NPSHa, the atmospheric pressure at the site should be considered, as
the atmospheric pressure is influenced by the altitude of the place from the mean sea level
(MSL). Data on the atmospheric pressure in m we for different altitudes from MSL is b>iven
in Table 11.2.
TABLE 11.2
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN mWC AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES ABOVE MSL

altitude above
- - -MSLinm
upto 500
1000
1500
2000
25()O

3000
35!J(j
4000

mWC
10.3

9.8
9.3
8.8
8.3
7.8
7.3
6.8

11.1.5.4 Guidelines On NPSHr

The NPSHa has to be so provided in the systems that it would be higher than the NPSllr
of the pump. The characteristics of the pump's NPSHr are to be obtamcd from the
pump-manufacturers. However some general guidelines for max. sllction lift or min. NPSlla
based on the type of a pump and based on the range of head and the specific speed arc
compiled in Figs. 11.3, 11.4 and 11.5.

11.1.5.5 General Observations

(a)

Horizontal centrifub>al pumps arc installed with suction-lift.

}97

WITH

W,)

l,VITH SHAFI' THIIOUGU

II

I
\ purnp ur it set 0 f punlp~:
c\aluate the head needed to be
IJt {1"","nltc. J\ plot uf these \'alucs is
I lead CurHi denotes the head enmnn

l.a}

_ _ -L-_ _ ~ _ _ ,~w,~--'-'_-'Q

"2

lQ

~Q

3Q

Q"/

HI

INCREASE !N HEAD LOSS !N PIPE'

"/

Hl+.Y!

"

(,)

2g

,,-

'-----~,,~----

FIG. 11.6

SYSTEM HEAD CURVh

(a) Static Head

This is the difference between the level of the Itquid in the suction-sump and the level of
the highest point on the dehvery piping, obviously the static head is more at the low water
level (LWL) and less at the high-water level (HWL)"
(b) Friction Head

This is sum of the head-losses in the entire length of the piping, from the foot valve to
the final point" of delivery piping, also the losses in all the valves i.c" the foot valve, the
non-return (reflux)
and the isolating C/,renerally, sluice or butterfly) valves, and the losses
in all pipcfittings such as the bends, tees, elbows, reducers, etc. The friction head varies
particularly with the '"ate of flow. Details for calculating the friction heads arc given in
Chapter 6.
(c) Velocity Head
;\t the final point
delivery, the kinetic energy is lost to the atmosphere. To recover part
of this loss, a bell-mouth is often provided at the final point of delivery. The kinetic energy at
the final point of delivery has also to be a part of the velocity head. Figs. 11.6 Ca, b & c) show
typical System Head Curves. As shown in Fig. 11.6(b) the System Head Curves for HWL and
LWL arc parallel to each other.

400

The system head curve will change by any changes made in the system, such as change in
the length or size of the pipings, change in size and/or number of pipe littings, changes in
the size, number and type of valves by operating the valves semi-open or fully open, These
changes can cause the System Head Curve to be steep or flat as shown in Fig 1 L 6 (c),

11.1.7 SUMMARY VIEW OF ApPLICATION PARAMETERS AND SUrrABILITY OF

PUMP

Based on the considerations in I L 1.4 and 1t 1.5, a summary vi<:w is compiled of the
application-parameters and suitability of pumps of various types and presented in 'fable 11.3,
However, these are general guidelines. Specific designs may cither not satisf), the limits or
certain designs may exceed the limits,

TABLE 11.3
APPLICATION OF PUMPS
Pump type

Cen tri fub'lll,

horizontal
eml-suction

Suction-capacity to lift -i-Head range

Low Medium High Low Medium High
Upto
Above
3.5m
6m
8.5m 10m 10- 40m
40m

Ok

~'rif"~lr
cas1ng

Ok

I-~rr~

1 111"'
Oki)k"
T-Ok

No

Ok

No

No

No

lrr)kl-N~

Centrifugal,
vertical
turbine

when suction lift is to

be avoided

Ok

Positive
displacement
pumps

-'"-l
Ok

II

rr~Il(I(51--()k

When limitations of
suction lift arc to be
overcome

submersible

N-~l

l--T----'l

Jetcentrifugal,
combinations

I Centrifugal,
vertical

Ok

horizontal
axial split

Centrifugal,
horizontal
multistage

Discharge range
Low Mcdium -----l
High
Upto
Upto
Above
30L/s 500LI s 500L/s I

No

-'T-""'l
No

Ok T-r)k
-'- '1
I T
Ok ""fOI
lifiOk -r
Ok

when suction
be avoided

Normally self priming

Ok

Ok

I jmited only by the

pressure which casing
can withstand

Ok

IIII Ok I Ok .

No

cas\' adaptatio n for dostlw

,,

ormctcnng

4111

t
v

INT

OF A

402

fi

FIGURE 1

!l,:ti&J)j~jll,;

IN OPERATING
DELIVRY

(c)

When specifying the operating pamt of the pump, margins and safety factors,
especially in specifYing head should he avoided. On providing margins and safety
factors, the rated head for the pump would work out high. In actual running the
pump would work at a head less than the rated head and yield high discharge. From
Fig. 1 L 1, it would he noted that the Power versus Q characteristics of pumps of
specific speeds upto 300 is with positive gradient, hence demanding more power at
higher discharge. By such higher
demand, the drive may get over loaded.

By working at high discharge, the NPSIlr demanded by the pump would be higher. If
NPSHa is not adequate for this higher NPSHr, the pump may cavitate.
Due to the high discharge included,
serious damage to the shaft and bearings.

pump may vibrate. Sometimes this may result in

11.1.9 DRIVE RATING

After the operating point of a pump is decided as discussed in 11.1.7, the efficiency of the
pump can be estimated from Fig. 11. 1.
rating of the drive should be such that it would
not get overloaded when the pump would
delivering the high discharge, as with H\V'L in
the suction-sump. Also, the drive rating should be adequate to provide for the negative
tolerance on efficiency and the positive tolerance on discharge, applicable for variations in
actual Pump-perfomlance from the rated performance.
The power needed to be input to the pump is the power to be output by the drive, i.e. at
the pump-shaft. Since, most drives are coupled direct to the pump, the power at the
pump-shaft denotes the brake power of
drive. All drives are rated only as per their brake
power capacity, () ften quoted in Brake Kilowatts (13KW).
To provide margins over the BKW requIred at the operating point, so that the
overloading would not happen at HWL,
following margins are recomrru:nded.

TABLE 11.4
MARGINS TO DECIDE DRIVE RATING

BKW required at the operating point

upto 1.5
1.5 to 3.7
3.7 to 7.5
7.5 to 15
15 to 75
above 75

..

Multiplymg factor to decide drive

rating
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.15
1.1

11.1.10 STABILITY OF PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

[n the H-Q characteristic of the centrifugal pump, the flow reduces as the head increases.
I f the head increases continuously until zero flow Of until full close i.e., shutoff of the
delivery valve, as shown in Fig. 11.8 (a) the H-Q characteristic is said to be stable. However,
it is also probable that the shut off head of a pump may be less than the maximum head, as
404

24. Misalignment.
25. Foundations not tigid.
26. Shaft bent.
27. Rotating part rubbing on stationary part.
28. Bearings worn.
29. Wearing rings worn
30. Impeller damaged
31. Casing gasket defective, permitting internal leakage.
32. Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at the packing.
33. Packing improperly installed.
34.

Incorrect type of packing for operating conditions ..

35. Shaft running off center because worn bearings or misalignment.

36. Rotor out of balance, causing vibration.
37. Gland too tight, resulting in no flow ofliquid to lubricate packing.
38. Failure to provide cooling liquid to water cooled stuffing boxes.
39. Excessive clearance at bottom of stuffing box between shaft and casing, causing
packing to be forced into pump interior.
40. Dirt or !,'fit in sealing liquid leading to scoring of shaft or shaft sleeve.
41. Excessive thrust caused by a mechanical failure inside the pump or by the failure
of the hydraulic balancing device, if any
42. Excessive !,'fease or oil in antifriction bearing housing or lack of cQoling, causing
excessive bearing temperature.
43. Lack oflubrication.
44. Improper installation of anti-friction bearings (damage during assembly, incorrect
assembly of stacked bearings, use of unmatched bearings as a pair, etc.)
45. Dirt in bearings.
46. Rusting of bearings from water in housing.
47.

[,xcessive cooling of water-cooled bearing, resulting in condensation of moisture

from the atmosphere in the bearing housing.

425

TABLE 11.8
CHECK CHART FOR ROTARY PUMP TROUBLES
Possible cause of trouble
(Each number is defined in the list below)

Symptoms

Pump fails to discharge

1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,16.

Pump is noisy

6,10, 11,17,18,19

Pump wears rapidly

11,

Pump not up to capacity.

.3,5,6,7,9,16,21,22

Pump starts, then loses

suction.

1,2,6,7,10

Pump
Power

takes

excessIve

13,20,24.

15,17,20,23

SUCTION TROUBLES
1.

Not properly primed

2.

Suction pipe not submerged.

3.

Strainer clogged

4.

Leaking foot valve

5.

Suction lift too high

6.

Air leaks in suction.

7.

Suction pipe too small

SYSTEM PROBLEMS
8.

Wrong direction of rotation.

9.

Low speed.

10. Insufficient liquid supply.

11. Excessive pressure.
12. Grit or dirt in liquid.
13. Pump runs dry.
14. Viscosity higher than specified.
15. Obstruction in discharge line.

MECHANIC4I. TROUBLES
16. Pump worn.
426

n.

Bent drive shaft

18. Coupling out of balance or alignment.

19, Relief valve chatter.
20, Pipe strain on pump casing.
21, Air leak at packing,
22, Relief valve improperly seated,
Packing too tight,
24, Corrosion,

TABLE 11.9
CHECK CHART FOR RECIPROCATING PUMP TROUBLES
Symptoms

Possible cause of trouble

(Each number is defined in the list below)

Liquid end noise,

1,2,7,8,9,10,14,15, 16

Power end noise,

17,18,19,20

Overheated power end:

10, 19,21,22,23,24,

'Water in crankcase.

25

Oil leak from crankcase

26,27

Rapid packing or plunger

11, 12,28,29,

\vear.

Pitted v:llves or seats

Valves

hanging up

3,11,30
31,32

Leak at cylinder-valve hole

plugs.

10,13,33,34

Loss of prime,

1,4,5,6

SUCTION TROUBLE:;
1.

Insufficient suction pressure

2,

Partial loss of prime,

3,

Cavitation,

4,

Lift too high

5,

Leaking suction at foot valve

6,

Acceleration head requirement too high,

427

11.10 SELECTION

EtECTRIC MOTORS

UU GENERAL
mainly three types

\vater

motors are used,

Induction CAC) motors,

'*' Synchronous CAe.) motors.

'" nc motors,
induction motors are the most common.
Synchronous motors merit consideration
large HP, low speed motors arc required.
motors are used occasionally for pumps where only direct current is avatlable as in
HOlWav:" etc.

11.10.2 SELECTION CRITERIA

''''"lU:''''

motor has to be selected considering various criteria such as the constructional

desired, environment conditions, type of duty, etc.

11.10.2,1 Constructional Features Of Induction Motors

motors are most commonly usecl Nonnally the starting torque requirement
centriful:,,.a] pmnps is quite low and squirrel
motors are therefore suitable.
Slip ring or wound rotor motors are to be used
required starting torque is high as
m
displacement pumps or for centrifugal pumps handling sludrje.
current has to be very low, such as 1
motors are also used when the
slip
the full load current, sllch regulatory limits being specified by the Power Supply
Authorities.

n.10.2.2 Method Of Starting

(with DOL starter) draw starting current
Squirrel cage motors when started direct on
about 6 times the full load (FL) current. If the statting current has to be within the regulatory
limits specified
Power Supply Authorities,
squirrel cage motors should be
o!',:w:lded with the star delta starter or auto-transformer starter.

11.10.2.3 Voltage Ratings

'fable 11.10 would
of motor ratmgs,

gCfler:al guidance on

and above,
motors
6.6 KY and 11
can be chosen, the
economics of investment
running costs,
cables etc.

voltages and corresponding

high-tension (l IT) voltages
3.3 KY,
should be made by working out relative
mlO consideration costs of transformer,

WhPN'

429

no

maXlfl~urn

430

7
80%

4x

1.31

Note:

As per the torque speed harac:tc'rislics of me n"~l,,',,,,'

the chosen percentage of ICCllIceu v()iltaj:~c should
pump to the full speed,

motor at
to accelet:ate

torCjue of

11.11.2.1 Selection Of The Tapping Of Auto Transformer Type Starter

The torque available from the motor is generally much higher than
required by the pump, as the starting torque required by the pump is a1.so regulated by
starting the pump with the delivery
dosed or open, depending upon the nature
power versus Q characteristics of the pump,
The torque available from the motor
more than t11C starting torque required by
pump draws an unnecessary excessive current "I'his can be controlled as the torque available
from the 1notO! varies as the square of the applied voltage,
reducing
excessIve tOj"q'te
available from the motor, the voltage to be
to the motor can be reduced by selec1tmg
the appropriate percentage tapping on
auto
starter,
percentage for the tapping position can be decided by
fol1owmg formula"

Tapping% = 100 x

where,
Torque for pump is the torque
maximum power demand; and

the purnp at

Torque from motor is the torque available from

rated speed at rated voltage"
Based on the above calcnlation,
selected,

motor at

at

full-load ca,;!ac!tv at

nearest higher available position

11.12 PANELS

11.12.1 REGUl,ATIONS
The ref,'Ulations, as pcr l.E. Rules, in respcc;t
detailed under 11.4.

to be provided around

are

the c01rresp()11(JinJ!,

",'(('''''''')118 to

11.12.2 VARIOUS FuNCTIONS

The various functions, which the
be made in the panel are detailed below:
1

r;'Ot

2,

For distribution

3.

For controls,

4.

As protections
Preventor

receiving the supply'

to serve
urC,U":T

or

Sf;l!""!'."

fault

432

TABLE 11.13

RECOMMENDED CAPACITOR RATING FOR DIRECT CONNECTION TO INDUCTION MOTORS

(ro improve power factor to 0.95 or better)

Capacitor rating in KVAr when motor speed is

Capacitor rating in KVAr when motor speed is

3000

1500

1000

750

600

500

H.

3000

1500

1000

750

600

500

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

H.P.

r.p.m.

~.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

2.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

105

i 22

24

27

129

36

141

2.5

3.5

110

23

25

28

i 30

38

43

139

44

7.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

115

24

26

29

31

10

4.5

5.5

6.5

120

25

27

30

32..

40

46

12.5

3.5

4.5

6.5

7.5

125

,26

28

31

33

41

47

15

7.5

8.5

130

27

29

32

34

43

49

17.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

10

10.5

135

28

30

33

: 35

44

50

11

12

14029

31

34

36

52

22.5

5.5

6.5

10

12

13

145

30

32

35

37

47

54

25

10.5

13

14.5

150

31

33

36

38

48

55

27.5

6.5

7.5

9.5

11.5

14

16

155

32

34

37

39

49

56

30

10

12

15

17

160

33

35

38

40

50

57

32.5

7.5

8.5

11

13

16

18

165

34

36

39

41

51

I
I

(11)

(a)
exceed!

(b)

(c)

(d)
(e)

114

438

motor:

or
contact on

if

if

n:pi"!";"

if nc(:ess:arv

resistance

440

ternunall.s at

impeller pa"saj2,CS,

exc:esslve mb,tm:rg m
tel~:ted

d!+,en equipment) are

obstruction to the

set pcclpertv. co:ttce:!,

setting, jf nec:essary.

dr:1Wtne more

or auto transi'otln(:r starter is proper.

l\Jlml,elUlUH

or

Orl'WI)k

ternllnatlOfl or

critical speed

another cable in
pr<'pz:r joint

aft.; lfH,erl:ed 111

all strand

442

CHAPTER 12

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS

IN WATER TREATMENT PLANT
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation and control plays ,Ul
in efficient and effective
of any water treatment plant 1n order to
quality and quantity of water produced
and to have trouble free operation of water treatment plant, it is desirable to provide proper
instrumentation and control system in the plane
impact of sudden changes m raw water
cluick responses and proper anion.
quality, peak demands and seasonal variallons
This is possible only if the plant is provided
instrumentation and control systems.
This chapter covers the general applications
instrumentation and control
111
water treatment plant. \'\'ater treatment
equipments arc generally of a rugged nature
and not prone to rnuch mechanical defects. I t
not be desirable to
111
complex automatic control systems.

12.2 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVIl

'Ihe purpose and objectives of InstrumentatIOn & Control systems
plant are:

(a)

To produce water at a lower cost

(b)

'ro control certain key functions

(e)

To obtain plant operating data such as

In

To f,YUide the operator by providing all

various units of \vatcr trcattncnt I'"''''''

12.2.1 INSTRUMENTS
The instnrments

CONTROL

to maintain balance in plant processes.

of raw & treated water , tli)
\
record of cOl1sumables.
efficient funcl!Ol1ing

CVIOT '

control systems when ncon./,clv applied and used will pwyidc:

<i)

Precision of operation and instantaneous rc,;nclm;(' to changes

variables.

(ii)

Indication

(iii)

Means of better utilrzatioll of t11mnn,,'('r

due to disnrption in "nnY,',
down

UAii'..E/9T-31 A

a water treatment

In

flow and quantity measurements including

(d)

111

111

important

lH'"C';'"

rccordirH;
, of kev,
treatment chemicals and reduction in
procedure.

lnstrurncntsof CHemICal

manOi)\\7Cr is

most coml'11fml'v

mC(1.sun;:rn-cnL
1nstrUt'11Cilts an.:

n,nh7nl '''7ct''in uses

,
1"

control

as

nf1ln)i

the

to

is

t:ranSrnlSStOl\

is

nmV('l

except thaI

to ;,1, 1"/01l!(J!
clement. In this

IS ,Uf,

rncdiulTI is oil or

alr.

4++
2962 UA&EiD? -31 B

OF

of \vater

COITltnCJrt

rfC:<1ttncnt

plant can be rnanua], serniauro:n1.<1tic

01 0UL()fTlahc.

capacity, skilled
particular system
()peratiflg; lJC'>I)l1l

mstmmenrs to

plant variables
turntng of a

m,tUllil!!,

;\djustment
a

instnln1C':nt::; to autornaticalIy contrul a function

set manually Of
to
an

or

""JO[vr,s use

Of

;:enes

tnstruHlents to

,\ dose
1S

to

an ,,,',tr,,,'nenlL,,io,, or control svs!,'m applied to a water

caipa':lty, water quality or m,m

P()W'C!'

rmtasurtc111Lents, rate controtlcr, loss

vanous rr''lu!n:tn,crl!S of control

design concepts reg/lrcHes

i',arnnies of these considerations include
conU'o!, llnd
indication, etc.
S11rc,"n

thcrt,lc,re, arc grouped so

can

arrlount

m,att,Tl'u

111

containers

available, due
contjl1ner.
Ofw(>wh!

arnOull,t

container

mechanical devices are employed such as

ch:ul1cat measunng mettH)ds I
membranes, floal
c;v,:tet'n use of static pressures etc
certain physical characteristics arc utilised such
use of optical ultrasonic beams etc,

measunng

(Ii)

as eir:cl1crc,J conductivity

12.5,1

f~ssrNTIAL INSTIWMENTS

!(

"VllJ,\J

instruments :lr(' considered essential:

level

(a)
chcnllc::il tank in
1f,,11C""'f e~CI'nt 1!l

provided with float operated type local levd

plant

the line tanks have MS cup type agitators rotating in the

cases

lead to

solution Icv'cls, 1"10at and vvire rope should be of

should be either vertical arrow scale type or

COHUSlon resistant

a(J1aCll10I1S should be of such a size that reading can be

but

a dtStallCC not

2,5 to :\,0 m,

all water treatment plants

rCCllllrerllC!lrS for chemical solution

I t is

an overhead tank which caters to the water

P!,<,;ptl!'<ltl0n
eeC:SS:elry

and filter backwashing The overhead tank is

to have a remote indication of the water level in

em1"" house or near overhead tank filling pnmps in

case the ovcrflcad tank

IS

filled by

10

float

the treatment plant area, Jn case of a float

316 or equivalent and coupled to a two wire

for remote ""'""',,,.

u'

(c) 'I'llIlks/Sllfll]1S

of the

running, each tank/sump where draw-off IS by

pumpmg, should be provided with m:!i;tlctlc type or electronic level switch which will be
actuated

low

in the

is

1V""111,"" to instal displacer type tank top mounted

or electronic control switches, It should also be possible to adjust the actuation

of

lOfmlnp

of respective pumps should be controlled

446

through these level switches, Level switch ells'pl:ac(:r

16 while

wire rope should

should be wc:ati'lCr'prC)of.

switch assembly can be hOLlsed in j\l-alloy enciClSure,

(d) Loss Of Head POI' Filters

nletcr is

h)r loss of head across filters, a float

of water beyond the filter outlet yalve and
directly transmitted to !loa! chambers

water

are

noats correspond to

t\1,/()

t\I/O

different levels, Separate chain, sprocket and coutlter weight an "!::,,ell

cause the indicator pointer over the

dial to rotate in one case

case of the second leST:!. The dial and the

1ll

rno\'c in the san1e

and

oblamed direct.1v from

the difference bets\'ccll two 1cs'cls in two float

calibrated aceordingh', (\ more simple

dial

",1""-,,

",Il't''; is (

differential is

)fn a

graduated glass tube nlanon1ctcL

The floats used

water prove:; to be cotT()si\'c I-Ttl' or

(~. L

is

the I flSS of head

other

);;10n

but in cases

1"I:::slstant rnatcrial

Cll1

"IJUt:

l)l~ tlscd for

longer trouble free It II',

12.6 FLOW MEASUREMENT

in trcatlncnt of water) a distinctinn is

tT1LH.lC I"'{\\'('('11

two confi;;vuraLions of n1eaSutUncnts

"

water quantltlcs.
(a) Open system

flow rate is a function

(b) Close systctn \\:here

no\\'

I:ach

has

It(;

rate is a function

water
I',

lS used \\'here water can

specific application",

transported bv gras'itl', where as the secnnd rncthod

IS

normally used when II", fl()\\' is

pressure.
The How mcasuremCl1 I in "pen channel

SteIn IS

conncclni 10

air, The water flowing through the channel has an

and cross sectton of chOlnnci

is restricted in order to increase the veioci!.\' of the liywd,

acceleration

rcsult~

fronl

!17

ft't'f'nn'

is

1Tlcasurenlcnt

su.mwlc

rates.
'tTtCaSurernen t

this
ins trurnertts

water treatrn(:nt

ratt: measurClnent
rate tneaSUf{:nlcnt
rate 111easurernent

(iv)

rate tllCaSU!Cmcnt

to

().\vn

0:1:1

a case to case

vatif)US

,vater tfc2trnent
m

flow

be

tnLnSlneter is

with

to

resistant

up to

aplJI\f':atton

IS I!1YH!e,j

an

lS

tr:tnSn11s.S10n
nClntWI

\vater

tr:msn:lit.S a

~,onlC

cn

lS

returns an echo.

1$

a Pl'of)o):n{)!l

a
it to

11

linearizer

converts

curr(~nt

to

rate,

l1{)t

H1.~:;t:rutncnt

corne 1n contact

"venturi -or

,L

ar:"!l)l~

e,

area rnz:tL:ts
or pa,ra!bol1c
tTlt'ters
i.rlCL{;r:;

(a)

rotate it

~';t 11

no

fncter

not

(b) Venturi

Of'crat<os on

a rH{'ter sect10n

area

cause

area.
to

the

1S

(!c:l1cntltl' "'U'UlU

0.7

rate

The venturi tube must mn full at all

449

Pitot'Tubes
Pilot

operate on

meter section
cause a

con tams

it

constriction

,Y,n""""'f"'C'

tubs is around + 1

throat on:ssun: 1S

calibrated individually.

tube must

the

square

known shape and area will

d1J1ercflCC I)(',",v('en Inkt

"""'tC drop at co,nstriction area,

to

to static through a

IS

flow rate,

ptp1l1g

lne:::1SUrement

Variable

(Ii)

'1

Meter
with float position a function

arca meter or rotameter Oflcran:s

In the

viscous drag that is differential

area Hlctel\ the constnction

ltaining an ",',en,ci"ll\! constanl nr,t'S"Ilf'" drop,

area varies while

an upright

rneter consists of a
t<) a :;tatc

~c'"u"",y

lS

and downward, The

{()fCCS

to

pluimtnet

1(11)('1"('11

of constant differential

1S

rnaXlrnllnl,

1S llSIl""V

(e) Kt':tI"';"'" or Ptl:raIJoli

oncra.tes on the principle

when

nOUl'1l KlH)W.U

filled and properly graded

con~;tnct:1on

area

produce a hydraulic head

a specifIC

proportional 10 !low provided nozzle has

j~

Tbe

if>

al

Electro Magnetic
This meter has an

be il a

Ulner

on"'1'"j'('S

on the pll'nciple that any

of

of

which
nr'onortlc,mti to rate at

",'",h

the

must run full at

to 9,1

an
iductorls m(wi'IJ"

voltage)
UHUUlF

meter requires

(g)

Ultrasonic

the

t\VO

sensor
transducer

The

and
are

reCC1YCS

or

t",nn"s':r'd in terms of

direction of
aVCI2W'C

in pipelines

that can

This is an

fluid

two frequencies.

12.7 FILTER HOW '-..'-.11"<

1Juring operation

rarHd

ltll:rcasllng the resistance

of filter
factors

,tn

I.UtllHltS UH)UI1Ht

;lpanlSt dC,WIr1\\"fd

up arc deposited in

water movement. \Vith

rate

11'1

would take place

rate

"Iterr'd "vater
11'1 an Hlcre:asc

downstrean1
the rate
kept as constant as

ra\\! \vatcr to urClll"U!n.IU,;ll

aUl VI." 11'1C1"(::;\;;(; 1n

the
filttatron

rale

bcd,
the ratc

Rate rontrni 1S .... 1., ......

of

111

influent line (upstream

of head in such a
to keep
Since
lluton1atlc

i';.t\V

\vatcr or
HI

as

liilen'd water constant at

occur, constant SlIm'IV!

or

rneans

451

::n1:u

\vater enaT""" at

11

anoth,;r sliding
height
<It

any

wat,:r

\v?;,ter

rern.tun;-J

a calib!:at{xl

",rl'"rF'

to OT",r;}r!'

\vhere

an automatic slow ""rtir

FILTER FI,OW
general
in Fig. 12.1 and

452

1: PLAN

Ol~

CV ........ CONTROL VAL VE

CF.. ..... CQNTROLLER FLOAT
OG...... ORIFlCE GEAR
F
LTER FLOAT
FRG .. FLOAT RAISING GEAR
RS ....RATE
fER
8P\C.BY PASS VALVE
..... WElR
L. .... LEVER
SV . .5LUICE VALVE
.oR ....VALVE .oPERATING ROQ
HS".. .HEAD SroCK
PWCPURE WATER CHANI)!EL

S f I O N ..

FIGURE 12.2 : DETAIL OJ!' FILTER CONTROLLER CHAMBER

454

FRP, ('o,:mt" or

of

'rhe filter control valve is of CI co'nstme:!1e,n with

corrosion resistant material,

T'he other type

of

controllers such as

on pn:SSlarc

VC'llun

which sends a signal to the controller.

the piston moving at a certain distance dc'nelld,n,'

difference tlel'w(,cn

being exerted. The pressure is balanced by counter

thus

and closing. 'rhe controllers compare the

rC!,~U!'ltlrlg

the set

According to the difference, the

or Ol,,"n:; the component, grvmg the

discharge (butterfly valve, diaphragm, syphon).

The declining rate filter, howevcr,

not

"'lcW

control arrangement.

to control ,the cxcess flow beyond the dC5!p!;n cap'lcllry of any filter, a restrictor

is

introduced at the outlet so that filter is not allem'",! to ofll'ra:le at a filtration rate h"rh"T than
assumed design values.

12.8 RATE OF now OF CHEMICALS

For regulating alum flow or polyelectrolyte flow where used, the chemical solution is fed
by gravity from solution tanks to a constant

generally located ncaf the dosmg

with a PVC float o",['rated

'I'he constant head box (illustrated in Fig.

sted valve to keep constant lcvel in ""<",,,

ratc of chemIcal flow

15 rC,t{LUal(!O

by a

stainless steel tapered needle

over a

scalc gives dirccil y the rate of

of chemicals corresponding to opening of tapered needle

orifice in the constant

box. i\

valve.

h)f regulating lime solution being dosed,

M.S shutter and

it

lyel'l{'fol

waduated scale is

head over V notch indicated by waduated

M.S. shutter while the excess lime solution over

a V'!1onch assembly with adjustable

flow of lime solution as observed

to flow by adjusting opening

back to the chemical tanks. (I'ig. 12.4.)

455

'I

~<

"e

,~ ~; I'
,r

~L

AcC~'=

/:C;~,

t(~~
~-:-

{~c

~:t;
.1"
w'

i:
q~

.' . =.,

I
I

c.:

456

LIlI!lE DOS1NGTANK

n'c:ssurc IS a n;]rarnotcr

",,!"''' and

\' 1!1

111

pressure

most Cornn1()n

(1.)

liquid:

(2) Bourden

(3)
(4) !ScHows
principle of

liCjuid: air
diaphragm with a

"I',Ul",CCU

movement

by

anCH:,f)

prcssw:e across a

on

it au,"""c'

build up of

cl!aph:ragm 1S balam:eCl

l.icluid "",tf"11 adopts a

should have

minimum 1

the

nonn,,1

ooeratim!

rnaX1tnUl'n

sensor

In
it

spI';crml:n

most

CajlaC:lt<lnct:, inductance or resistance

'I'he Bellows elcmclnt

IS

multi convoluted bellows

en:llOnal ch:mr"" within or

to measure

su1tljeCtC:Cj to
IS

(01111c:cte:([ to

up to 20,0

are

PH'''I,U

meters of water with

on

1.5 to 2 times

or cOl:nbimlllc,n of both

uc:qu1t,1l

on lneasu:rement

IS

IS pn)p,"rtr()1~;JJ

a most conV,emJ01',8J methc)(j of S(f'Sm,!;

to
UH"'lH

I t consists

its dislp!:lcem(::n

If',i(;'('oh,"

worKS on a or,ncmi.c

is not a circle

with a

cn)ss;~,s<:ctIO!1ft1

to

area

subjected to

of pressure,
with an

pressure

",lr~,C

of full

1icluid hand.led is noncorrosive type

of

for corrosive appll,callol11,

458

gau,';es arc
pressure

b""c'~"

and an-

construction.

hl(,\Vpr

plant and to ensure

m
plant
laboratory

m'lnrt<mng can

CONTROlS

water storar!e rank, a

may be used, 'The flow
manual operatron, In
in the tank
an
controlled output
di,;cr,crc control
\vater H1
the
('nntrnl room, The push
ral,\' \\:'iHer i.nlet rnntrnl
, .'1

nnenl,t!fltL

it

(1t1:nu'tlClat1()f1S

IS aUVlOid'JlC

housed,
at 1

seryes its putjlose, In

can be used for auto
to

\'i

filter
electronic

preferable to haye
and alarm
Itt sonic

fidd near filters may be llsed

1JHCS'Urt!

tapping from after

control

valves and over sand media res,m,ctlvciv

high humidity atn:lm;pherc

should ',lve
,n.a. signal, Rem,)!e 1m.neall!l can
or dli?;lt!tI.
for zero
span adjustment

95~/o

with facility

12.11.2 I'LOW
(4)

Re;itote Indication ofRmo

W,rytc'Y

provided. 'rhis will facilitate

operation of inlet valve as also in
remote flow indicator may be of analog
or digital type. It IS also preferable to
intergrator to know the cumulative flow to the
This mtegrator should be hand reset
ouly and the reset
should be provided
in such a way that accidental
() f counter is av()ided.

(b) l<emote Indication of Rate of Flow Through Filters

indication of rate
flow
filters may also be provided.
the
purp<os<;, float operated electronic
t\VO W1re transn'littcr with 4-20 tn, a,
lnay serve
purpose
the filter
basic flow dement, i\ differential
lranstm!t'er with an "rim:"
:JW."" pipeline acting as
flow dement may
also
used.
an;alog or digital
similar t(, one
described in ",.<n"". (a) above
to know cumulative

(c) Wash Water Flow Intiicator

Wash water flow to fi.!ters
t11t:asun.:o locally by installing a rotameter in the mam
water header line to filters.
rotameter is usually a
cased bypass rotameter
lvill1 stamlcss steel float,
and carrier .
In cases wlwre
remote indication of wash water now to
IS desired, a differential pressure transmitter
a stainless steel orifice
element, may be used
main header as basic
a (IHZ)ta! or analog remote ,,'.ICm,,,,,), PIi,,'''l at a convenient
f,)r the operator.
Repeat indicators of wash water
where such a
IS ali()pt.c(i. JH)WeV(Jf
!t1theatt)! is to facilitate ba,~k\,!a:;bl1

(d)

Clzem!iclli

,llso be installed 111 mdividmrl

consoles
same need not be
'()N' at all times.
may be
'ON'
that period only.

Flow
pOSItive dlsphlcemt:nt nt,"',w", pumps with
by means
a rn!cromcter dial screw on the

The

be

>'''''''''' on tbe

12.11.3

remote by means

an

~UlllH}1

PRESSURE SWITCH.

In applications, wbere
mrmmum
pressnre switch
be incorporated

tn a palm;LU;H pipeline, a
as well as auto ttlp of
connected

1)ri.:ssr!1f(' IS
'<11''''U<H

460
2802 UA&E!9I'"",,32B

equipment. For example,

pumps
bearing should
a pressure switch on

,-A",W,," water supply for cooling of the

\vater line to pumps,

re"lllT1ll,<'

12,11.4 FILTER LONSl:JLE

Filter rom,',i,,'s
roach individual filter can
lS called fot. The filter console
can
structure, All
controls can be attended to
console.

when such an operational sv,<,jan

sheet epoxy painted
on,,,menr from the individual filter

rmW1!(jl'ri

water inlet, drain and air inlet valves

Open/ dose push buttons
filter inlet,
arc provided in
filter console along
their open/dose mdication. I tl
an
pneumatically or electrically actuated.
operational arrangement all filter valves arc to
incorporated in
tilter console, If
Control of air blowers for air scouring of
desired, wash water flow indicator, filter
and filter rate of flow
mdicator can also be incorporated in

It IS also possible to
prol:,'rammable
washing arrangement for the
filters. The programmable controller "",JCU.U
rt;ljLllfe,u number of outputs each to be
programmed independently and
!)r,e~clet,crrmr1ed durations, to be decided at the
of
ct.':lnmlSS10t11ng.

~l", . L',,;y CLARIFIER DESLUDGING

programmable logIC
may be provided to open
the clarifier desludging
at adjustable
intervals for an adjustable
predetermined autatJo,n,
desludf~ng
will have to
electrically or pneumatically aCl:m'."".L
pncum"'UL mode of
solenoid
mol""j construction while the solenoid
used
should
coil should
suitable li)r
programmable
installation.
controller
located at it remote location nrf'tc,rahlv In
central control panel of
plant. Positive indications
operation
limit switches may also
provided
ncar the pr,ograrnn.at)/e
j\

1211~6 WATER QUALITY

Online instruments with

the water treatment plant, for

may be provided for quality

Purbidily
On~1inc

turbidity meters working on the ,,,,'to,',, scatter principles

be provided
indication
raw
clanficd water and
water turbiditics Alarm annunciation can
also
proVided in case the turbidity of
water or
water is outside their
respective ac<:erltaili values.

(II) pH
On line

sensors with preamplifier

two Wire
pH indication.

remote

I t!'2,nsm,ltc,rs. if nCI:cssaiCY
In

461

1.n

t3

In 1he
\.jon and rnal:ntcnanct' f
be considered by the authority controlling

463

13.3.1 AvAILABIUTY OF DETAILED I.'"''''''

DRAWINGS

OPERATION AND

MAINTENANCE MANUALS
CUM",C.U that
m,nnttltmIlCe, it must
When a water works is taken over
to
sets of the detailled rl"",,,ino~
the water
along with all
0
Manual are av;illable
op,cr,mflg authority.
sets may
preserved as a master set in apex office
rd"(;rcltl
The other sets may
distributed to sub-offices in
of ri,lev',nl' of)crati'Dn actwltv. All
sets must be
Cfl)T,rtcd and updated whenever any ad"j!tlOXlS! alterations/ ut:"eUf(}I" are done to any of
structures
eCjUlpment.

13.3.2

SCHEDUl.E OF DAILY OJ"FRATlrnl<JS

of
unit clperations
be
out
This schedule 0 f unit
raw-water quality, hours of aV,ill;J,Dtil1,Y

satne Sn')Uii(1
t.o suit
aud un,s,,! conditions etc.

1!l

13.3.3 SCHEDULE or' IN,I;Pl;rl'lnNOF M,\Clf-IIl'JEFtY

mClrh;n,',."

their lubricauon
control should be
SC!VH:lnif arc
regularly carried

eQll1!f'tnl;nt

eXlefCISC,d to see

out

13.::t4 RECORDS
each
records of the equipment
(including cw:nulative)

be maintained In
of parts,

RECORDS OF "" 'In,~'

Complete record

source tD the
the
Lell "H.S as comlClai:ed

&M
unpr'DV'CrriCl1lts of a water works m OPCf<!tlzJn,
daily
Ula,me SiJPlply over

number
month, water

each
rnaintenance

POSS1.olll)

reV1e\v.

shall be maintained

al

13.3.8 INVENTORY OF STORES

A reasonable assessmem
the stores
one
or half a
Issues and replacement
store
laid down and
rCf,la,:erne1rlt IS aVaihble at
for

l'EATlJRES m'OPERATION
INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS

of machinery required over a

and all inventory of the sam,c
watched and
that any
required

MAINTENANCE O:F
WATERWORKS

13.4.1 SOURCE AND INTAKE WORKS

Sanitary Sllt1JI!!I
Samtary
at :egular, intervals at
supervIsory
level should be
should be located on the maps, Potential sources
should be marked,
type of pollution
animal origin and agncultural run-offs should

levels and inspections at

'T11C catchment area
the source
pollutie,n observed in
catchment
waste lmienaei;,'" \vastcs

The guality of
dischargt:5 has to
and its likely effect on water
drawn at source should
mentioned, Reports
should be promptly sent to
Pollution Control ,l\uth01'itit'" as wdl as water works authorities 10 promote corrective
should be
down
action, Procedure for monitoring of
observed,
instant act!(ln plan
providing chtorimltle,n of raw,water should be available
and brought 111(0
such cirCllmsta!lCeS,

(b) MetlSIl1'eme:ni of Flow

cases of sources such a',; sprll1gs, Dvers,
should be a pemlancnt
arrangement for rccordil1g daily flows near the j'rItaGiC ",orks, Appropriate records in the
/"rraphs
'
,
of flows in the source
each month a year and
each
shaH be maintained,
stations should
established to record daily rainfall in the
reservoir catchment
appropriate rainfall
should be built up and compared with
available In casc~s
res,~rvoirs, the regime tables
filling
maintained
emptying of Slr""""s sl1')uld

13.4.2 MAINTENANCE OF DAMS

(a)

Pre, durmg

post monsoon
dams should be undertaken to nh''''1'V0
settlement, longitudirlalltransverse cracks in the embankment/masonry structnres,

(b)

Behaviour of spilhv3'!s should be

om'r~!lnn of spillway gate I,; should

(c)

In case of earthen dams,

damages and water seepage, The

should be watched carefully, In case

during floods, Procedures for fool

observed,
should be paid to slipping of slo,pes,
of sand galleries, drains, relief wens
dams, swt"ating, leakages, leaching

465

!110rt.ar

too Pomting of l1a.tllilgc:(l

1~~~4.3 MAINTENANCE OF

It should
to ensure

lS m:ml:ta::n(Od
nr:*>lIo'

(b:/

hClelH

stocks

1)

rnail~fs

transn1'[::;sl{)n
Sf)UIXC

(0

tTt'attTlcnt

Mo

lnonsOort

(iii)

(v)

and

source to

units of operation;
out

RAW WATER

problem will m~unly

causes
by inadvertent pCllllltll:m

\\,rater

sump should
proper
Annual or

to

Inll"""

whteh
is

CHEMKAL .rElmING

preparation
IS to
and floating arranl,Cn1C!1lts Slloul'.d
111

\VC11"S
CleantlU

daily.

stocked. Setting of the V -notch should be

468

in the

r~w

water

rate

13.5.6

Annual

(\\;'1' rh" I

to

mnnSOOH.

(b)
10

material

1:~.5.9

earned out

RAPID
common Ptot,iel:ns enCO'lm

occurs mostly

cementing
by
m
is near the filter walls, since the sand 1S drawn away

470

471

but the
rneasurcluenL

to mainta.in the desired

a view to ensure the
be functioning
U"ltU'" adjustment is to be
When a filter is
and if the filter head
in the under drains,
OCCUl:n:llCC 0 f
head
bed.
as

should
top

\vater

sand

reSef'~lOlr

and

have
one or t\vo

so
to

472

guatd against mosqlllto brt,edlng

should
done
rec:of!:kr

rese-rvOtf
"H.HUU

'fhe total carlaclty

arc reported, wi1CI'e
the !'ate
plant, or arl:al1lgem':l1t

rp!;{'rvn'" in the town,

13,5,13

When

tracers,

sath,cr and ag'IanC'll atc nl'llv1(j,crl

Slime and
copper sulphate
diffusion areators
the collection
cleaning
could be
au comr'tr:l'SO!S
when comlpn,ss,ors are

mfon.~al'1t

3.'lpects to

SWlOlmlllClll!Y

\vater re'l'erV01!
pumrJed to

t1'l

I.
connectl0ns

174

distribution system should have powers to It' Ispect

as from where that household is taking water.

household for water supply to

diVided into sub-zones ''''1,;e,d preli:r:ablly

The
distribution system could
opera:tion of (:ach zone of dlstntJutlon
one elevated service reservoir. The maintenance
should be
system should be entrusted to atleast. a junior
deal with the complamts.
official of the controlling authority to receive
rCI,>islers should be maintained by him to
complaints and to note
it
action till the complaint is rC(lreSS"Q.
complaint is
that it cannot
matter to
with at his level, he should at once
Intimation to
complainant Frequent
checks in
areas
complaints should be made a part of the duty of
sut,erv'1S01Y staff.

water works controlling ag(~ncy

I t is preferable to have meters provided
charging appropriate monthly rentals to
consumer. This enables
COltltn:)j over
meters. Meter repair workshops
established to attend to
meters promptly, Surface boxes and chamber covers
should be frequently inspected
and kept in proper condition. Billing for an out
order meter for more than three
consecntively should be avoided. All attempts should
made to repair! replace out
meters once these are detected.
Sufficient stock of meters
spares should
meter in the field in working orCler.
Compr"hensive water
eftective.

should

available at hand to keep afUllUI,'

maintenance op",r11t!()1l most

Fcorned to

The consumers should be made aware

maintenance and operation of water supply sVStt'f11 /\,dequate publicity
are required to
developed
this purpose,

public

13.9 CONTROL OF QUAlITY OF

a waterworks industry, ensuring an appn)ptla'te quaJlity 0 f water to
consumer IS
primary responsibility, Quality control is,
at
step In the water supply
pt<)C('ss. The physical, chemical and
water samples need to be ro,,''''''ci
out at as frequent intervals as required.
made to Chapter 15 for more
details. The ri:sults of
tests should
measures taken promptly as
when reqUired.
tests are usually needed at

(i)

Source-to detemlinc the raw

(ii)

Treatment Plants-to detemline

and
raw-water

(iii)

Distribution system-to determine whcth

the water supply to consumers.

water qUI,.lttv;
treatment

IS

with

auecl'ual. c residua!

is preISe!l!: in

475
2962 UA&EJ97 ~33A

")"Flln!'

rrur:;v5l!ces axe aj:lpl!lCai:de

Ul

taste

flUOlll

control:

nl\1/}

(:s,)(;(:1ally at !wdr:anlts

lnalntenance
cka(li(rml rna!DS;

action

&

,,",",'Pi!

so

fur

vanO\'lS cap::CltIC

476
2962 UA&Ei97--.. 338

CHAPTER 14

WATER:"VORKS 'MANAGEMENT
14.1 tEVEtS OF MANAGEMENT
India, 'Community Water Supply
are normally managed by local bodies, In a
'peClllC cases these are
by
Departments, where the
IS
supplying water to more than two local body areas, the bulk supply component of
system
15 some times managed by statutory
Boards set up by State Governments,
service facility falls under the water supply
sector, The development
this
sector is assisted at three levels,

14.1.1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

Broad policies on sector development of water SUpplY syst(;m
urban and rural areas are
t()1'1nulated and circulated to State
and Union Tt,rrit01.ICS as
lIse
Works Industry~ bCjneral
Technical manuals are drafted and oubEsh"d
pnlgt'ess in providing these services In
areas is tnonitored, .External ()t
G,o.r. assistance as required to
areas 1S 0 ffI:red
capital investment
t
implementatmn
water bU'f'pJIY s,:h<jme.s~ CC.rt.mn
sen 1ce
states are sp()n;;oreu,
employees
the Water Works
assistance for

specific inservice training

14,1.2

pffJg:mrn.trlCS

of

states is 0 (f"red,

STATE GOVERNMENT

'I'he State Govemments offer to assist the

bOd!($ in planning and implementation of
water supply schemes of individual or a
of local bodks, Financial assistance is also
these
body schemes in the
of Grant In-Aid (GIA) and loan etc,
calf"I:ll investment. In certain special CltCumsta11ces,
State Governments assist tht: local
bodies in operating and maintaining their water supply schemes wholly or upto bulk supply
through its own departments or t.hrough the statutory 9.\?ards of the state governments~
Trained engineers a,nd skilled workmen are sometimes deputed to local bodies on request, to
plan, implement and operate the water supply
The state governments monitor
general progress of water supply schemes
bodies in
of planning,
implementation, operation and maintenance~

me

~l77

n1a,nagctnClnt that

rnaintenan,(:c

to
In

",ervIn'

to con.sumers sh'lm:d

1S

admi'nistration

IS

two
su!.)orchnate to

SllIwrVlSoni

to control all the

fUIl,CU()l1S

etc
e>:ips!)S(;s Iflcurred during im:nu:,u
to \Fllter connections

&

revenue Cc,ilclct.1On

478

ad.dJ'tmtJ to

1S

Some
briefly

as n"de,

(a) The entire work of 0& M could

function may be assigned to a

found necessary
deJlcgl!tc"d to subordinates.
] he

interest of work powers could be

In

or~:am$al:!on

order to enable it to respond to cha!1s>ing

load and
(d) Organisation manual
Organisation, (ii) job descril)tions.
(e) O&M schedules

be pr(:pared assilrninf1 works to incliv:,duals.

(f) Works could be chcd,cd to see

(g)

be developed comammg (i) Role of

Statements, etc.

& M manual
System oo,enlticln .

these an;

done

flS

rcqluired/ e:qX;ctcd.

dc,,,e\(}pe:,j to include (0 Dc,scl,jPt.ion

to be considered, (iv) Lubrication

(h) Office OperatlO!ls

tralt1Sn,1!SE,ion of

information etc.

(i) Compilation of statistical

water PUffij1e(!;
consurners; (iii)
conStrrners~

task would indude (i) Quantity of

Quantity of water billed/
to
mcrea5C in the number

(v)
(VU)
supply to dcrnarld

(j)

(viii)

nature

detcl:m,im:d on
gellcral 'midc line

'"

I11<J1C<llC(1 in

tn individual
nr:I",:t'r,,,

(a)

(b)

Command
lncharge may not
V.]{H'k:"l

must

staff certain modem h",i"",,, pnJlClp.!es

report to only one person incharge.

more than [\ to 10 person f()r direct controL
Sn,r1IHCI

un.derstandi!1g as to the expectations of

job

from him
",{,II,,"f

(d)

should

work
controlling lwr"::TI

rI""""t

extract of the operating mnnuaI.

by each worker and submilted to

480

(e)

<:,1'*":"'" rc,cords of
paid to him on time,
so

/.(,.\

\<)

attention to

can

14,3.3 PERSONNEl. ADMINISTRATION

personnel adm.ini,;trl1t!()lJ <ian

(a)

Describing
qualifications

structure.

(e)

WiltUn n01111S

task.
The evaluation

assessrnent
refer to (0 Kill),V:CC!!'!'

(iv) Dependability, (v)

(d)

\Vork,

,,1"'p"""r

I ""crvicc training of en1plDv!~e

INVENTORY, .\. ... ,~

""vater

and (e)

aCC(Ylll

repairs,
set",."c the """n'l<'
stock cont101

inforrnat:1, lit.
control would include tools
not be as
chcchd at inl,,,,.,,"1,;
replacement Requirements
to

although new

14.5 ACCOUNTING & BUDGETING

Accounting IS the moces!
the
starus
monitoring reycnuc and expenditure ",-"v.),

and

\vater 'works. It is art I1nportant

interpreting

organ1satiOn.

Budgeting is the art of interpreting the goal of 0 & M

in meamngful
monetary terms. It should be used to control the financial activities of the organisation.
481

)lH'.urur

sv'stem would

II')v()iV'e

chart of accounts for

as iucorne and
,erVle:ml:!;, etc
Annual

staterncnts

&M budget

mcome analysis from customer

reView

would enable
a review of water tax structure is
ef!,ecttng rcclw.erv of
full arrears recovery
cnhanc<:d If reqmt(':d

IS

the

of
water
to deCKle at
means
for. It would also review ways
consumers.
of the authonltlc:s to
ex:pcJ1dltLlI'C pattern on

It would

weHer fates
the water works.

n,,;none!1!'I'

INSERVICE
The obie:ct
works unde:ctakin:g 15:

watc:r

(b)

the group a
mcilV"illa.l responslibllity to

Cd)

mercas:

COm!11U:l1Ilty

uuc":,,, tancJlflg 0 f
community.

awareness

courses to

ee)

On

tratmng to

mn,WUl

individuals in

some

courses

The

semmars on CO!le>en'led

SUlJjC'C{S,

to
to

(1)

a l1uml)er
011

Labo:mt()ty

practical. as:peets

CO:I1trl)!

tests,

(d)

water

(e)

(h)

011 the water

to

lONGTERM
the

irnnnIT>!"

fClr

rurLlre "XOf1al:ISlon

aSI.lects to

(a)

sy"terIl to
areas

(h)

It is
jjn,:)rOVel~1e't1t

(d)

should

ImJlm:ICU

to fit

to
with

to

small
to accumulate.
h,,'rl'i'IH" and requirements,

original designs and

planning
pHosel1t water svsterl1,

sohO,Ltftg assistance

for
progralTimeS as

nX]1clued.

plans

14.8
'J

01:'1(;(:1 of public relations is to dcvelolO:

ho\v works (l,re

0111)ortunitv
for the community, tn
"

(c)

H\,m,",""u,

com:tmml:ty, owner

Cd) Art of keeping owners in"H'rrl,rl ahout

if any, and assistance le<lUlle,,,
Interpretation of articles
deviations, etc" based on

to day working

1t1

c>u!t!rllerlt publicity nc:cds

experienced and c.n,')fl':'''ltinn
if
nformation could
etc. AU criticism in the
appropriate replies
IS auto:n1~ltf(laI,y

allllU,ue

to,v2lrd,

enhanced

CO!lSU!'ilet';

;suml:!'" cn,tnni;llnts and problems and

with

conn','"

corn,monscnSt: .

should

(d)

Good
infonnation on
Contacts are

(i)

kept

press by providing

C"L<H)m:n(:u

Small paml)tllets on water \veld"

484

CHAPTER 15

LABORATORY

AND

GENI~RAt
"li,{;",d pf:tsOnnel are (''''''~im~1
supplies for public use as well as f()t
\vater rrc::xttnent
litnnat:e aim of laboratory examination of
water is to ensure that potal)le water co,ntormlng to
drinking water standards is su,pp!1ed
to the consumers,

to assess the quality and

raw
treattnent; to check that water
treatment ptiOCeSi;; to ensure that
treatment pri:JC':c(\s acc'l)r<iing to plan
/:0 exarnin(:
finished ",,)later to ascertain
it
conforms to the
Other obiectivl:s
<It

water to

car'ried out in
Ut:I,'l\;<J, to clel'/orrn,,,,,, the

terilclecl

(i)
1n,t01imatlDn to public
Kl<:n'tlttcatw'o of sourc(:s

are

and to

analysis cletcltmm,es

assess the performa,nce of

treatment
Chenucal analysis
concentrations
chemical substances which may affect the
indicative of pollution
quality of water and
v-ariations due to treatment a requirement for control of water treatment pr'DOi"sses.
B'Kteciological examination indicates
nn;:scn,:e of
hence the safety of water for consumption,
Biological
objectionable tastes and
measures,

will find
in water or

. characteristic of pollution

infOtmatiotl on causes
filters and dictating remedial

485

''''lUllY

or

rnore
arc
waters excc'ptlng
n:ljLUICeU for

Ilmno],og:lcal

orie)ll!'

orclble:ms are en(;Ot!ntlered,

of water should
accurate identifying
type of source
salnples are being V)JICllll",1
,enbai that the sample
sUJlplied with
sample are
'1 7.
a sep:arate

salnple should
in the
arc
contltiners arc
manganese, silver or zinc wl'lle h
conClc:nl'tal'ed hydmchloric or nitric
snrnlllOf1 on
of
container.

to minimise

nref'I!,)lt;)1

486

to

stCJDt:lcr having an

be protected by brown pa,H.:"

pleS:;UlX fDt 15 minutes or

De(:hk>t1natie,n IS neoessary
be
to

thiS,

"'UlCIlH

thlOS1Jlp,hatc

sterilization in an mnount to
sample, 'fhis can
and tlw

sample

water to

be

eontanlin.atilon occurs at

opened till

or
stopper

nol

brown

Sampling from
water

it

to om to waste
two to
,he:lerl! time to pennlt t'I"~t"n
flow
wIthem! splashing,
uo",e, must be avoided as sampling points.
should be attended to befol:('
is not in continuous service, it is advisable to wipe the tap
S;Ulllp!e. It should be ascertained
,,11.,)U!pti

487

the tap from where the

connected with
along with sarnpl,c.

'~tn"Ii' IS

a service pipc directly

colle,;,ted is supplying water
lnior:ma,Uu,n
should be sent
a cislern or a storall;e

(I,> Sampling DiY'eci

a SInian), river, lake reservoir,
or
water
will be taken for treatment
it
rel)fC,Seitl1:2ltn:c of
fleno;, a sample should not be taken
a
which IS too ncar the bank or too
pomt of draw-off or at a depth
or below the point of draw-off. Areas of relative
st<l.f,l1lation in a stream should
avoided.
When

a shallow

from a river, stream, lake, or a reservoir can often be taken by holding

boule
111 the
ncar
and
below the surface. The botde
should then be
until the
upward, the mouth
directed aglun:st
rtificially Cl'c:w:d by
the current. If no current exists, as in a reservoir, a current should
not
If it
pushing the bottle horizontally
direction
be U1i[aCflCU
possible to collect samples ftOm
this way, a weIglH
bank
base of the bottle which can then be
the W2.ter. In
casc, damage to
must be guareleel
as otllctW1Se
water can occur. Special ap'pal'at:1~s
which permits mechanical removal of
slOPPier of the
or a res,er'vo't!,
from
to
from
depths of a
minutes
a well,
a hand'pump, watcr ',1l'UUJlU
before
sample is collected. If
should be collected from a tap on
sarnplc can
weight at
base. In this case, care
any >VI"".t; scum.
it is not
to
DOLlH:> as
eX:llnpie where
is a high bank, the
may
jug. 'fhe jug ;s sterilized by
into 1t ::I to 5 ml elf meith'vlalred
tilting the
in such a way that
comes in contact with the
jug and
igniting, The jug should
two
or three times before It is t)n)U~;!l
"''''',,) out anea:;r
contact with
sample is taken, Should
the
smtoc'p so that it may have collected
SUI"',C" 111m,
sample
discarded, the
resterihzed and
sample drawn,
the jug should be poured into the
bottle and the glass
of the bottle
elfre being taken to avoid
cover
being caught
stopper and
,'ornnlI0

15.3.2.4 Size Of The Sample

The volume of the sample should
sufficient for canying out all the tests required and
in no case, it should be less than 250 ml.

488

15.3.25 Preservation And Storage

san:lpj'ES should be eX2Imi1i1cd mllTlc:jmtcly

pnlCtl.cal and hence it is j'("commended

one hour
r"r:rr.'"l'~hJje

of the sarnple should be tm:llnl';m,,,<l

sarnple, at the time of sarnplm,g.
recorded smce they \vill

can not
until analysis. No sarnole
15.:~3

tenTpe:ratufc of ,tol:age
interpretation
','Tlthin 24 nOl,US,
:;alnp,lc; nm51' be pn:serv<:d m
hours,

SAMPLING FOR BIOLOGICAl, ANALYSIS

thi:; purpose, two

sh'~uld be
a glass stopper Of a bakelite screw cap,
making this
the bottle,
possible mouth duwnward into the water, It is
bottle is to

stoppered as such,
for every 100 ml of water
despatched with the label on

two litre wide mouthed

t>ottll~S

stC)Pf,er is removed, is thrust as

as

11'1

invertc~d

and allowed to fill.

;m()tn,er bottle, add 5 ml of cmnrrlcn:lal

collection. Both
one with formalin,

I f two litres
could not be
even 200 m1 of the sample
colkcted as abm'c and fOtmalin added to one '"lUf"'" (10 m! of formalin added to
\}l-atcr, )

15.3.4 FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING

ftequency of
of samples f{)t chemical analysis depends on the variability of
quality of tested watet, the types of treatment
used and other local factors,
chemical
should be collected atlcast once
,general svstcmatic
,
months in
scrvmg more
50,000 inhabitants and adeast twice a year
SU!)1)!ICS upto 50,,000 inhabitants, More tICqUC,
sampling for chemical examination may
'<"'U"'cu for the control of water treatment pt1X{:SSCS,
It is necessary to
samples of both raw and treated \vater for examination of
substances atkast
three months and more frequently when subtolerance
of tOXIC
substances are known to be generally present in
source of supply or where such potentml
poHution exists.

For bacteriological sampling, which controls

safety of supply to the consumer, the
frecjuency of sampling and the location of sampling points at pumping stations, treatment
plants, reservoirs and booster pumping stations, as well as the distribution system, should
such as to enable a proper evaluation of the bacteriological quality of the entire: water supply,
The minimum number of samples to be collected from a distribution system should be as
prescribed in Table 15,1,

In the event

an

OCi:aSl.on to enable overall

ffnrnl" points on

The s<lnl1ptcs should

assessrnent,
1'"ujr'rnH'

borne in mind

or lmmc"ll,lte

than
ba!ctericl!o,r;lc:al exarrunation,

of
are known to
a
examinations,
at
weekly
or
even
shorter
intervals,
re~:Ul'l.r occurrence,
treatfncnt operations, samples
to
intervals, probably daily. \'Vhen growth of
would
to
Grawn on a monthly or less
plankton is not anticipated, sarnples 'IIf)WU
.
possible entrance
nCI:dcd tn
ti!:ea'tcr frequencies, deterrll1lned
""Jln'H"" into water sources or more P2CLUCUU!!UY
For

nu~",

MINIMUM .!JrHcwn
en",,.,.,,,,

15.1

REQiJE]NCY AND NUMBERS FROM

FI""'" SYSTEM

Population Served

Minimum No, of samples

to be
from enltlre
distribution

5,000

20,000-50,000

50,001 100,000
More than 100,000

per 10,000

15.4 STANDARD
stand,mi tests

are enlployclj m

anruvs:'IS of water are as

IVIRJ1,V'.

15,4.1 PHYSICAt EXAMINATION

parameters tested are ternper8tUlrc

rh,dijy, colour, taste

tests for
the consumers

water that affect the

health
acidity, alkalinity,
hardness,
Iron,
zinc, aluminium,
sulpt,at!cs, fluorides, chlorlde:s, n.!tr:,tcs, total dissolved, and suspended solids.

490

(b)
"hlmin"

(c)

effic?ley of treatment,
dosage,

ti)t chenl1cal
tn

vatious

(el)

(e)

15.4.3
Microscopic tests
are tnctucled

15.4.4

count at

taste
carineu out in raw water,

15.5
The physical,
laboratory ex,nnllmrLiollS
Sewage and industrial Wi,,,,,,,, publlisb
followed, For
regardmg trace
procedures recolTlmended in Standard 1\~!'lhnrk
water prepared and published by
\Vorks Association and
Pollution Le,ntrol i"/,dnlt!,l!1
Conformity to
analytical
by different laboratories arc to be mClanllW

15.5.1 REPORTING
Specimen forms
chenucal examination and
and 15,6,

tests

out

TS

results
bactcriolo!l~cal (sllmim'Icw,n

491

count
""":1I1v

in terms
use

antI
lab(lfClIorY"HI",;I""

All
should
only the final
n:V1C\V any

and

()

)\li.I
1 to

10
1tI

')! 1(1

of raw
is

1)
on stcllci11c,m,ettvl

mix nnit,
lynx arc

"pln,'1t"

as pH and
The
oc,wl:r mput or

the
m

no

rapid mix unit

floc
occurs 111
solids in the effluent would

(16.2)
mllne'nl to

(16,3)
rnnl

C; '"

1Of1i1C'ci

can be

26,

O,'H

(16.4)

FIGURE 16,3: INFORll'lATlON FLOW DIAGRAM FOR WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

is

(1

(I

(16

soo

n
SUll"CC

overflow ratc for

u Vt:IlHlW rate

n
value
performance, '1/4'

IS

assumed '0' f()t

performance,

designed sedimentation
concentration, should produce a settled water
solids less than 50 mg/l.
:\

well

or

16.4.4 RAPID SAND FnTR.I\TION

Filtration is an
presented by most of the

step

In

for

IHtUlt

development of models, some idealised

situations.
suspension which
deviate srgnificantly
not eliminate the need for some empirical constants. A method
prediction of filter perfol1nancc and UOlIll)m:tnlled
using different cherl11cal coagulants
(:hi ~s(luarc
particles pcr unit depth through a filter
distrtbution. '.1. 'he variate
of this
the
process and is rdated to the filtration data as IUIJONS.
The ratio of concentration at any titne Ie
is equated to the cumulative probability '1'; in

, to the inHllent concentratie,n

"11 ,,"e distl~butjon,

i.c.

(1
The filtration time 'I' in hours is equated to
of freedom.
The variables sllch as filtration rate, dl"mett:r
O'1"()UfK~d

delYn'Cs of freedom

, i.c. 1 hr;:;; 1 (le;V:fC'C

grain and the filter run

are

into a 51n11e
tertn 1(;! as under:
{'

C;:= il.725

1',.29

0.62 t

Where,

50

mm

(1.

Increase 111 he'lei!.!!)S!; at

::c

influent "'''.pC''''''.)l
the

two

(16.11)

(1

of

(II

(1 (). 1

influent suspellucc!
depth
filter bed (L),

designed rapid sand

than 1 NTU or

turblclltyof

sand
content

hItt'ate turi)ldtty 18
I
relml1.l1 more or

UH)W<:1.

ba,ckw1lSh water
etc
treatment

::: f
water ,,,,."1, <
as raw water
costs
water reserVOir, di!iillcfz;ctl::ml,
water primps

a
transrnissl()D nla1.nS,

in

quality standards
tbe
cost
designs sbould be

jJn,)U1"el

pn:scnhcdm

11llmtn12:e

constraints, A
cost or total

cost

4
tnlnunlZC

(16,14)

CI
he,}

anlltl:u cost

+
503

<enfill"'

maintenance cost
h;1111(:01

equipments/ machmcry

em,,!!!;\, cost

and mechanical)

the treatment unit

rate of interest

lUrmJ1:r () f

capital cost is to

conci,'!ltrat:ion m
conc(:.ntrati:on

clarifier

effluent

water

111

~~

~,

50 mg/I

2 mg/l

rn

n,'"i",;"" time,

+
+

< 4 hrs

loadmg rate < (;00

of filter

11m

Maximum headloss in

;\ flow
for computer
",,,.,,,,,, 1S presented m
1(;A.
Design data on input,
{()f!l1uiating

minimum cost ck:sign of water treatment

required arc:
0(:(:"'1011

Slate variables and step length

cost mnd,,;

treatment units,

504

FIGURE 16,4: ALGORITHM FOR COl\~PUTER AIDED FUNC'rIONAL AND MINIMAL

DESIGN OF
SYSTEM

50')

-~$t-OlJ

Computa: Co

CloritlocclJ~~

S06

WATER
17.1 WATER SUPPty
The aim of any water
of potable water at
Ie",!e" p'Gl::tlCatlJL'
water works planning, de',!!!I:l,

elements of financial

, VIZ"

(i)

means

(ii)

The ecc,notmc aso,ects

of mrW!,:jJn9

Apart from the

expanding re(,jU1fCrnClrlts
living habits
agriculture, industry, etc.

17.1.1

sector
H1Cfe8.SC in

to

SCOPE

The

features

water

., Methods of ""'lllg C"Plil,i!l

repayment
loans ",h'''T<' rH;,::dl,:d:
.. Methods of raising revenue to
the determination
as
.. The apf)l!caticl11

.. Accounting in

revenue

(lel',v('11

CO:I111I"Cl1Or1.5
cos t I,,:'01Jl1'(lnl)

cases ",I,,,,,,,
aCllc),xling to

the aSSluances

body IS to sportse"
Governments
servicc" to implement the project
by the local

body to

~n"(>N'mf'nl

acts as

;1

<","milT for

of
comrnuntt1Z-:S

its l1flallCl;{J

comltnllntty watl:r sUjJpiics

c()untt'Jes as

can
1nvestn1(~nt

'],

Z.l:<e

reliance on bonds
as \veH as assistance
'each method or some CUHl)UliJ

to public
effective
in
the
and Central
local
supply

\vater
un
of some
should rea.lise

should

considered complete until

community \vastc \vater ;:lse ',,!UUCrL /\ pror)cr

cu:cets of water
and
facilities
to
the
111
postponmg
tacIl1tres will be gntatlcl:
1]'

It will

cost

seeen thr,t

providing

510

IS

with the chfficulty

'V''''''' attract a

.I\C"CJ1IC1('';

.I

source~;

portion of
and water rates

msist on (crtam

pt(;pa.ratlOn (; f
revenue (OlleetleD!"!

Ie

btl"" to

as \vater t;;,x or a

revenue arc
tax
who use

the
a \\."ater
W ,tter tax is lustifiable on the
or m(:!UuC(l

taxes fC)f m,cel'!n!'

aff~lir.s on a
independent

pnlC(1l1(]l!10t'lS

property
more or

!!1

prop,ortKl!1 to the amount

cnhal!.K(S the value of the pmpclty, a

may be a separate tax
revenue under this head IS

the supply
public fountams,
wlnen no
is leviable on the public
apportl,)n a part
its income from general
of the local body to mana!:,,,,
rC'V(;rUK', 15
for
local
as it is
party
to, I'hi, revenue is
obtained !()t the installation of the

fully.

17.4.2
The revenue from the sale of water or water rates recoverable from parties actually
consuming the water such as for domestic
or for commercial and ;ndustrml
purposes is utilised to meet the annual recurring cost of operation and maintenance and to
provide for a reserve for meeting the capital
future improvement to the system,

511

It is
rrton:: ate

or
YYH'h'w,

,\";terns IS most

tr(:atlrd as a business entetprise

it

11'} serViCe, 11'1

Snl)pltcd should be the pnme

lSH,lel'aii,on ()r

waier supply or:l\ai11silw

health

the people depend

It.

running 0 f it water supply

() f the management.

1\

a \vater

HUllll"T

of nmctions such as;

n1aintenarlce

1':stablish!l'm:lllof
water rates;

CljUlral)!lll water

hen":T serViCe to consurners;

for

eXpanSlOl1,

basis () f tbelr

!\
design

past, present and future and

the time schedules;
to meet

111.

Prescription

the

m:'arttS;lt!l:l!1 for routine rn:unten;lncc

and donfs

contingencies and

responsibilities of each employee of the

1n crncrgencics and to prepare a list

l1

513

can
are "r,rn,'lfclmcd to;

are
even
cannot be nl'''''med
elf'"rn or other reasoos;

lll'jmi"t'CUH~>

etc

lm:rhC1cnCles m

an ehrmrl'Jtlion

!!1S(;1CVKC tnlln,mg

view to

nl""p)',r

an (t,in1 of

a orocloscd

arnong

two CC)fl),plen'lC,nt:uy

n('","ls

IS a critICaLly lInnonl"
of VIew viz,

j!stmc:tlC:n to

Hl

retllm or prorlu.:trvltv or pfolrtabllHy

to
orc)!C':! H",ldllllC:',S 0 f

Sl4

tnes to assess

to

pr()fitability to

serVices tn
as

uU."".cu

import
of Shadow
"":tortu"" between

individual

On

dOtlll'OST1C

nn,m'=hU

rate
uctlr:n <::ost

ratio

are dclmc:d

(leim((j as

Inlt~i"1rrll

rate

rcsourn:s engaged
UHuni' rates

of costs.

t2

to

Iv) Imp'len:!elltaticm

ensure

eCO'!lOltI11C

factors
amilYS1S are:

to

senne costs

(b)

valuation

distinction

financial analysIs and

benefits in the appraisal of a project;

market pnce;; or some other price,.

costs and bcndit:s

cconormc tenns are
It is
t()
costs and
1n
wlctct1sas It IS difficult to IdtsotIfy in cconorrllc terms. The
lncurs
on calPltal
!!l'v{";tnlel~t, such as machinery
operation and maintenance
raw
payment of
h'C)()dl, and
etc In addition, the
pr:")lt:cI has to pay taxes, import
the lo,m with interest and allow
:scrVlces
d1rlJrectatl'on of fixed assets.
to
receives subsidy, if all<)wcr!
rf1come.

types of costs and benefits are encountex'eti 111

appraisal
use of resources, and the other
not involve use
UlIUbiCI of resources from
or
loan
or vlceversa
costs and
is
to deal

It is a
Dt:p,eClation

IS

a pro'ICC:I-OlIC invojw"I

resources, but it is a
institution! in( livjIll

of funds over
time of the project
its replacement.
excleldc:d
the eCOllOlmc appraisal of a project as it is only an au.UU.HUH"

in the economic analysis no

analytical technique
worth of a PrcllC,:t

"H,m,OIWI'

for interest on the capital employed IS

care of the rerum. of capital (interest) in

0PJ'otWlIity cost
1'11"<:11)(""1'"

economic analysis,
income fz)rc,gone would feature as cost, while in the
analysis, it would not feature alI cosL

arc also transfer payments.

financial analysis where analysis is done from. the
pomt of view of the individual entity
a
all ta.xes are treated as financial costs and
!.J<:ll\I;".I" is done from the point of view of
taxes arc transfer payments. Taxes arc not
as cost in eCOn01Yl1C appraisal as they arc in the nature of transfer payments which
not involve the usc of resources. But 111 the case of financial appraisal, taxes arc mcluded
on the cost side as it is a financial cost to the project. This would apply to all types of
taxes income
import duties, local taxes etc.
518

(e) Sul/sidies

In financial analysis, subsidy reduces cost

case of economic analysis, it is a transfer DaVITlIcllt
or ~;ubstract income from the point of view

to
Income
the fJr()ler:r.
increase or decrease in it
not

Social Costs and Benefits

financial analYSIS, SOCIal costs such as air
neise, wear a.nd tear of
W!;UIU not enter as costs In the calculat10ns as
arc no costs to the II1(j'V1(1, ,,,,I prolelct.
costs would
mcluded 111 an economIc analYSiS when the
is apprars~,1
of view
SOCIety.
(ii) Solution of proper prices
In financial analysis, costs and benefits arc
at market prices. But in eonnon1'"
costs and
are ntlculatcd
certain adjustments in market nrlcc,
The
of course, is the cfficic,m usc of
resources which have alternative uses.
economy, should
more intensivelv, that resource whose process is lower coml)<llied
to a resource
is hIgher. "'WE'ver since markets of
of prodlucltr(ln
arc no perfect in reality, the Pt~CC of an
not correctly reflect the
011
abundance of the factors of production.
...... L... ;

the prevailmg market price do not relril',-t

intrinsiC value
arc d.l,;torted in many developing countries due to
following factors:

goods as

(a) In flation

(b) Currency o\Tfvaluation

(e) \Vage tatc and unemployment
(d) Imperfect capita! markets
(e) Tari ffs, import quotas
(I) I nequality in distribution of wealth.

For example, in a labour surplus economy,

market wage would be higher than the
equilibrium of demand and supply.

the supply of and demand

labour,
that should be operated, based on

Similarly the official foreign exchange rate

not correctly show
abundance of foreii:,111 exchange. In the economic analysis, costs of items arc cailCCLlalXU
on the basis 0 f prevailing prices in all cases, but on modified prices assumed on the
their supply and demand position. These assumed
arc termed iLS shadow
accounting prices.

or

or

Also the prices charged for the product

a project may be lower for various socio
economic considerations. In such cases, the modiEcations of the selling price of an item IS
in economic analysis.
519

retunI

'0

\ppendix 1

during the
at

7.7.

can meet

'lnamtenance cost

of
nroi,:ct cost to

hr()U5,hclUt its

an dement of
a grant clement to
below:

fixed at

520

servtces.
purcl1a,:c water in

not

,"vater is consKi"rc(!
SU1)p'ly was not consldl:red to

domestic

doubt, water IS
1l IS

dc,;irr,d
II)

econOn1tC
or,ec'at,cd as a
to meet

supply ufl(lerl:akings
at ]',I :att,on

sources

are.

available,

522

(i)

Internal borrowing;

(ii)

Government grants and loans;

(iii) LIe loans;

(iv) Open

m~lrl;t

borrowings;

(v) Loan from financing lm,muuun>,

(vi) International/Bilateral aids
I f a water supply undertaking has to function in the long run on a sel f-reliant basis, it
must charge for supply of water and collect revenues adequate for meeting debt servicing,
operation and maintenance charges and also generate surplus for future investment
I f water could be sold to all consumers at the same rate, like any other commodity in a
free market, the water tariff structure could be simple. In that case it would be necessary only
to fix water charges at suitable intervals of time and charge for sale of water accordingly,
depending upon the basis for charging of water i.e. metered supply, non-metered supply etc
However, tariff based on uniform rates of water cannot be adopted in a country like India,
where a large percentage of population is below poverty line. Water is to be made available
to all in quantities sufficient to meet atleast the minimum needs.
Therefore, appreciable quantities of water may have to be supplied to poor section of the
society either free of cost or at adequately subsidised rates, which would be much less than
the unit cost of water. The loss thus incurred will have to be made good by charging higher
rates to consumers who can afford to pay those rates such as industries, commercial
establishments, traders, professionals as well as owners of high value properties, etc
Therefore, it is necessary to identify different categories of consumers as stated above
including poor section in a city or town and estimate the likely consumption of water by each
of these categories of consumers. Graded rates of water will have to be fixed for these
consumer categories, considering their paying capacities, such that the total annual revenue
receipt would be equal to or more than the total annual burden.
Water tariff structure also depends upon the methods of charging for sale of water,
Generally these are based on:
Percentage of rateable value of a property;
Flat rate depending upon size of a connection; and
Metered supply.
Charging on the basis of volume as measured by meters is the most equitable and rational
method, as a consumer pays directly in proportion to the water consumed. Moreover
metering helps in accurately estimating the consumption of water by va110us categories and
in locating wastages and leakages. However, this method of charging has the following
disadvantages;
Metering increases unit cost of water;

523
2962 UA&E!97 ,~'"36A

 Meters often go out of order, requiring frequent removal, repairs and reinstallation;
and hence accurate measurement of water is not possible;
Large skilled staff is required for installations, repairs, testing, reading and billing;
Fixing of a meter reduces pressure;
Where unfiltered supply is made, meters often choke, requiring frequent cleaning;
Where water supply is intermittent, meters' may record more reading than the
actual consumption of water;
During temporary absence of meter (when removed for repairs or testing) or when
it is not in working order, billing on the basis of average consumption in the past,
is often disputed by consumers and this situation affects recovery of bill.
For the above reasons, universal metering of water is not being practised. Generally only
bulk consumers, like industries, institutions, commercial establishments and large premises
like co-operative housing societies, etc. are metered, where as individual domestic consumers
are charged on the basis of either flat rates depending upon the size of connections or as
percentage of rateable value of a property served.
From the foregoing paragraphs it will be clear that selection of a suitable tariff structure
needs consideration of aspects such as income distributions, the possible mi." of service
levels and the systems of charging. In short the social objectives and systems constraints
would influence the tariff structure. Generally the tariff structure should aim at:
Collecting target revenue;
Sharing out the burden fairly between users of different Income groups (by
providing different levels of services); and
Administrative simplicity and efficiency.
To these aims must be added the one for influencing consumer behavior. In other words
pricing policy must be such that it would induce consumers to economise use of water.
Considered from this angle, charging on the basis of rateable value of a property or collective
metering of an apaltment block are the systems which provide little incentive to economise
on use of water.
Annual burden imposed by a water supply scheme consists of two components, viz.,
Fixed charges comprising debt servicing and such staff and minimum maintenance
charges as are necessary to be incurred.
Variable charges comprising power, chemicals and raw water bills which are
proportional to the quantity of water produced.
When a facility like a water supply scheme is constructed and services are made available
to a community, it imposes financial burden as stated above. On account of the services
made available the property value goes up. Therefore, it is justifiable for a local body to levy
524
2962 UA&EI97-36B

betterment tax on all premises and properties which can avail of the services though the
facility may not be actually used by such premises and properties. Such a betterment tax
could be related to the fixed charge component of the financial burden caused by the
scheme.
recovery of variable charges, rates based on consumption of water may be charged
and these rates can be different for various categories and slabs of consumption. 'lbese
charges would be payable by only those who actually consume water.
Authorities such as water supply boards generally do not own water works. The functions
of these boards are generally restricted to planning, designing and constructing facilities on
behalf of local bodies and then to transfer the works to the owners who have the
responsibiliry to operate the works and also to collect water charges. The boards receive only
the agency charges to cover the cost of their establishment, these agency charges being
treated as a part of the capital cost of work, planned and constructed by the boards.
There are, however, a few boards, who besides carrying out the functions of planning,
designing and execution of works also own water works. These boards operate the water
works and also collect water charges directly from the consumers they serve.
While concluding, it is to be stated that a water supply system has to be created since it is
essentially required for sustenance bf life. It may be initially uneconomical but the water
supply project may be evaluated on social cost-benefit analysis method. It is difficult to
quantify the social benefits and relate them to the capital cost. The following factors which
are likely to get developmental impetus due to creation of water supply system and
incidentally a waste water disposal system should be identified:
Industrial and agricultural development;
Improvement in living habits, health and hygiene; and
Increased productivity.
Water supply being a community service, the economical analysis and the financial
analysis should be done prudently and judiciously.

525

CHAPTER 18

LEGAL ASPECTS
18.1 GENERAL
In India, laws related to use of water date back to the period when the CODE OF
MANU was prescribed, over 3000
\Vatcr was considered public property, subject
to public administration, several penalties were prescribed for unauthorised use and for
causing harm to water holding sttuctures
for causing pollution of water. Upstream
pomts along a river were reserved for
of drinking water and in-situ uses of water such
as washing clothes, bathing etc., were
only at the downstream.
The establishment of priorities in
several users for the same purpose is one

use of water for multiple purposes and among

longest established features of water law.

18.2 SYSTEM OF ACQUISITION OF WATER USE IUGHTS

There: arc currently three major <""'p",,
(i)

ac.quisition of water use rights. These are:

The riparian rights system;

The prior appropriation

(iii)

Administrative disposition

water use rights.

18.2.1 RIPARIAN RIGHTS SYSTEM

The riparian rights belong only and
to those who possess access to water through
having riparian right can initiate use of
ownership of land abutting on a stream.
water at any titne and insist that his right
accommodated with other user, or that a share
is a form of real property, and is a part of land
the water be allotted to him. Riparian
in the sense that a person who purchases or
Thus this right is appurtenant to
the water right, although it may not be
inherits riparian land automatically
not own the water, but owns only the right to use it
specifically mentioned. The riparian
on
riparian land, and to have it flow to
so that it may be used.

As a rule only the natural flow

a stream is subject to riparian rights. Water added
artificially to a stream i.e. the so called
water is not subject to riparian rights. It
belongs to whoever developed it, unless
increased flow was caused by mere clearing of
obstacles. Riparian rights do not attach
to waste water which seeps or escapes from
ditches or reservoirs, Of to forei!,'11 waters
artificially from a different water shed.
They do attach to a spring when it is the source of the stream and also to the under flow of a
stream.

526

Under this system there arc two operating doctrines, viz. (i) Natural flow D()ctrmc, and
(ii) Reasonable use Doctrine.

18,2.1.1 Natural Flow Doctrine

Under the natural flow doctrine the riparians
the right to use water on riparian lands,
in as much quantity as they need, without consideration of the needs of their downstream
users, if their use is confined to so called "Natural" or domestic purposes, i.e. drinking,
when they rnake usc of the water
washing. cleaning and the watel~ng of live stock.
for other than domestic purposes even though
within riparian land, they may become
subject to action by the lower riparian if he sustains harm in the use of water to which he IS
entitled; since he has the right to expect the water to flow to him, in its natural
undiminished state. Also any use not connected
riparian !:;:,d, which affect the flow of
water, even though it does not cause any harm, is considered subject to action.

18.2.1.2 Reasonable Use Doctrine

Because of the limitation of the natural flow doctrine in the use of water law as a tool
purposes of social engineering, the trend is away from, "Natural Flow Doctrine" and towards
acceptance of the "Reasonable Use Doctrine".
As a rule, in determining reasonableness, such factors as social utility, capacity of the
stream, benefit to the usc and suitability to the purpose of the stream arc taken into account,
mostly retaining the fundamental right of the
to the reasonable use of the water
the stream, but free from unreasonable interference with other uses.
A number of uses have received judicial approval and their limits have been defined to
some extent Domestic usc includes water tClr drinking, cooking, laundry, sanitation and
other household purposes. A substantial quantity of water may be necessary to fuHil
domestic uses where people b'<ithercd in hotels, apartment houses or resorts. Even military
camps arc given the privilage of taking water ftlr domestic usc. But domestic usc does not
include municipal uses in nonriparian areas of cities. J\ city situated on the banks of a stream
is not a riparian right holder in any sense that would permit it to divert water and sell it to
inhabitants who live on lands not adjacent to the stream.
The reasonableness of a particular usc of water by a riparian is a question of fact and
case must be determined with reference to its own facts and circumstances. The usc of water
by one l~parian that causes substantial harm to another, can generally be said to
unreasonable unless the utility of the usc out weights the gravity of the harm. Wasteful uscs
or wasteful method of use may he unreasonable.
A prescriptive right may be described as a power to take water without reference to
rights of riparian owners. The right obtained by
prescnption is absolute there being no
user.
corrective rights between the riparian and the

18.2.1.3 Loss Of Riparian Rights

Generally a riparian right cannot be lost by abandonment or simply by non-usc of water,
Since use does not create the right, non-use cannot destroy it, However, there arc some
exceptions to this in some places when a riparian may lose his right,
(i)

When a non- riparian or excessive use has been made continuously and adversely
for the period of the status oflimitations,

(ii)

Wben prescriptive rights to the use of water have been acquired for sucb adverse
use,

(iii)

\Vhen the legal doctrine known as "estopple" is operative [e,g, when a riparian has
permitted a non-nparian to construct a dam on his land at great expenses he is
"estopped" (prevented) from revoking the license and destroying the value of the
irrigated non-riparian land],

(iv)

Wben there has been silent acquiescence by a riparian in respect of an upstream

use of water, for which large sums of money have been spent for the public
benefit; though he may still have the remedy for damages to compensate him for
the rights he has lost

(v)

\\/hen a public or quasi-public agency needs water, it has the power to take it as
long as it pays just compensation for the use it causes. (Any government authority,
has this "right of eminent domain", and quasi-governmental bodies such a Water
Supply Boards, may be given a similar power by grant from the state that creates
them.)

18.2.2 PRIOR ApPROPRIATION SYSTEM

The two cardinal principles of the d()ctrine of prior appropriation are:
(i)

That beneficial use of water and not land ownership gives the basis of the right to
use water; and

(ii)

That priority of use and not equality of right is the basis of the division of water
between appropriators when there is not enough for alL

18.2.2.1 Elements Of An Appropriation

An appropriation is the right to use a specific quantity from water from a public source of
supply for a beneficial purpose, if that quantity is available free from the claims of prior
appropriators, An appropriation requires:
(i)

The diversion of water from a stream or other source;

(ii)

The intmt to appropriate;

(iii)

Notice of appropriation to others;

(iv)

Compliance with state procedural requirements; and

(v)

The application of water to a beneficial use,

528

Once the appropriation has been established, prior appropriator has the right to exclusive
use of the amount of water of his appropriation and all subsequent junior users take subject
to his right. The appropriation may be obtained only for beneficial uses, which include
domestic, agricultural and industrial uses. It lasts as long as water is beneficially used and is
limited to the amount that can be so used.

18.2.2.2 Beneficial Uses

A number of uses of water have been approved as beneficial by courts and legislatures.
Domestic use is everywhere recognised such. Cities and towns may appropriate water for
municipal purposes. A city may appropriate more water than it presently needs in order to
provide for future growth.

18.2.2.3 Quantity Of Water

An appropriation is always stated in terms of the rights to take a definite amount of
water. Direct flow rights are stated in terms of the maximum current or flow that may be
diverted from the stream. Storage rights are expressed in temlS of the total volume of water
that may be stored.
An appropriation acquired, by building a reservoir and storing water in it, is measured by
the storage capacity of the reservoir, that it will hold as a result of a single filling each year. Jf
the reservoir is to be f!lled more than one time, it can' be done only after paying the
compensation for the additional quantity of water stored.

18.2.2.4 Place Of Use

With few exceptions, an appropriation can be made in order to use the water at any place
where it is needed. Diversions out of water-shed have been permitted, but not between
interstate.

18.2.2.5 Preferences
Preferences are exceptions to the rule of priority. A preference allocates the water to what
has been legislatively deemed to be a higher or better use regardless of the time of initiations
of use. There is wide variation as to what uses shall be preferred. There is general agreement
that man's personal needs come first so that domestic and municipal water supply head every
list. A true preference exists when a junior right to a preferred use is placed at the top of the
priority list, so that in times when water is short, senior non-preferred rights are cut-off
while the preferred uses still draw water. Stated another way, a true preference exists when
the preferred use may be initiated without regard to the fact that the supply is already fully
appropriated for other purposes. The authorities have to prefer some uses over others when
several applications for appropriation of water are pending and the available water is
insufficient for all. These preferences should go first for domestic and municipal water
supply, then to agriculture, then to power.

529

18.2.2.6 Changes In Appropriation

A water right is private property and, in most cases, it can be sold or used by its owner at
any-place of use, but in the case of diversion type of usc, at any time of use, or place of
storage also. But the privilege of making such changes is subject to the rule that a change
must not injure the vested water rights of the other appropriators. The agencies and courts
that rCe,rulate the appropriation and distribution of water are given the power to approve or
forbid changes on this ground, after proceeding at which all interested parties are
represented.
The restriction on changes that cause damage is not merely on application of the rule of
priority; it is applicable to any person senior or junior who will suffer as a result of the
change. A change from non-consumptive use to consumptive one will obviously injure
downstream appropriators. The loss of benefits from return flows is the most common type
damage that will prevent a change, but the appropriator may be permitted to change the
place of use or the amount of this consumptive use, though not of his total diversion and
other conditions may be imposed to pennit a change to as great an extent as possible, and
yet prevent infliction of damage.

18.2.2.7 Transfers Of Appropriation

An appropriation is regarded as real propert)' and where it can be sold to a person who
will use it at a different place or for different use, the transfer is ordinarily made by a deed.
Water tights for the irrigation of land are generally regarded as appurtenant to the land,
hence a sale of the land will carry the water right with it, although the water right was not
specifically mentioned in the deed.

18.2.2.8 Loss Of Appropriation

An appropriation is a property right and its ownership, like that of land, is held in
perpetuity although same may be granted for a limited petiod. However, it may be
terminated if it is not used. It has been recoe,'11ized that the non-use of water, coupled with an
intent not to resume the use, amounts to an "abandonment" that terminates the water right
and makes the water available for use and appropriation by others, No particular period of
time is required for an abandonment, but long un-explained nonuse will often cause a court
to say that the; right is abandoned although there is no direct evidence of the intent of the
appropna lOr.

18.2.3 SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATIVE DISPOSITION OF WATER

'fhe riparian rights doctrine and the pnor appropriation systems, as a rule, are appropriate
either in humid countries in which there is an abundance of water, or in circumstances in
which the government orS'<lnisation is weak and under-developed. As water becomes scarce,
government tends to assume a more active role in the disposition of the available supply.
This trend can be plainly seen in arid regions of the world where demand outstrips supply
even at a primitive level of economy. \Vhen supply exceeds demand there is little need for
deslfc for control; but where demand outgrows supply administrative control intensifies. The
530

administrative authorisation system has become the main feature of the water codes of new
countries, such as IsraeL These systems envisage authorisation by government for using any
water declared public. Usually two kinds of authot~sation are given:

(i)

A pennit which is less permanent and easily revoked; and

(ii)

A concession which sets up reciprocal rights and obligations between granter and
grantee.

In administrative law, "permits" are distinguished from "concessions", in as much as the

f()rtl1Cr are revocable and create obligations only for the grantee, where as concessions are
for a fixed period or perpetual, create reciprocal obligations and their revocation is governed
by law. Consequently procedure for obtaining them is different, since a concession has a
certain condition of stability which a pernlit lacks.

18.3 SURFACE WATER

18.3.1 POWER OF LEGISLATION REGARDING WATER
According to the Constitution of India water is in the "State list". Therefore, the States
can enact any legislation regarding water that is to say, water supplies, irrigation and canals,
drainage, embankments, water storage and water power excepting the regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river vallics. 'fhe parliament thus has no legislative
competence in the matter.

18.3.2 NATIONAl, WATER POLICY

Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and precious national asset.
Therefore, planning and development of water resources need to be governed by national
perspectives.
The Government of India have therefore formulated a National Water Policy in 1987;
according to which, in the planning and operation of systems water allocation priorities shall
be broadly as follows:

+ Drinking

+ Irrigation
+ Hydro-power

N avib:ration

Industrial and other uses

However these priorities can be modified, jf necessary, in particular regions with
reference to area specific consideration. The National Water Policy has directed that
adequate drinking watcr facilities should be provided to the entire population both in urban
and rural areas by 1991; that irrigation and multipurpose projects should invariably include a
drinking water component wherever there is no alternative source of drinking water; and that
531

drinking water needs of human beings and animals should be the first charge on any
available water.
In order to provide for use and control by the state, the water of all rivers and streams
flowing in natural channels and of all lakes, and to that end to amend and consolidate the
existing laws relating to irrigation and drainage and assessment and levy of water rates and
betterment contributions, a Model Canal Irrigation and Drainage Bill is being forn1ulated by
Union Government for the guidance of the States.

18.4 GROUND WATER

The existing Irrigation Acts or any other Acts do not define the ownership of such
surface or ground water which is considered as belonging to the owners of the land. But in
view of the vital importance of ground water to the nation; for water supply and irrigation it
is essential for government to extend control over it and to provide for the methodical and
systematic regulation in conjunctive use with surface water. The National Water Policy has
directed that exploitation of ground water resources should be so regulated as not to exceed
the recharging possibilities, as also to ensure social equity; and that grout1d water recharge
projects should be developed and implemented for augmenting the available supplies.
The Union Government has prepared and circulated to the State a Model Ground Water
(Control and Regulation) Bill to regulate and control the development there with. The salient
features of the Bill are as under:
Ground water has been defmed as the water which exists below the surface of the
ground at any parricular location.
Ground Water Authority shall be constituted by the State Government
The State Government, on a report received from the Ground Water Authority may
declare areas as notified areas; where, extraction and use of ground water will be
regulated in the public interest
Any person desiring to sink a well in the notified area for any purpose other than
exclusively domestic use, either on personal or community basis, shall apply to the
Ground Water Authority for the grant of a pem1it for the purpose and shall not
proceed with any activity connected with sinking unless a permit has been granted by
the Ground Water Authority.
In granting or refusing a permit the Ground Water Authority shall have regard to:
(a) the purpose or purposes for which water is to be used;

(b) the existence of other competitive users;

(c) the availability of water; and
(d) any other relevant factor.

532

 Every existing user of ground water in the notified area, shall apply to the Ground
Water Authority for the grant of a certificate of registration recognising his existing
use in such forms and in such manner as may be prescribed.
No person shall himself or by any person on his behalf, carry on the business of
sinking wells or any other activity connected with the sinking of wells in any notified
area except under and in accordance with a licence granted in this behalf

Any person desiring to carry on the business of sinking of wells in the notified area
may make an application to the Ground Water Authority for the purpose.

The Ground Water Authority or any person authorised by it in writing in this behalf
shall have power to enter on any property with the right to investigate and make any
measurements concerning the land or the water located on the surface or
underground, inspect the well, sunk or being sunk, take specimens of such solid, or
other materials or of water extracted from such wells, and obtain such information
and record as may be required.
Any user of ground water who contravenes or fails to comply with any of the
provision of the Act, will be penalised and/or punished according to the provision of
the Act.

18.5 PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION

Though the conservation of available water sources free from pollut-ion is of paramount
importance now, even the early law regulating pollution says that the riparian owner may
make such reasonable use of the water as he can while it passes his land; but he cannot make
such use of water as to pollute it unreasonably or so as to create nuisance. The early law
regulating pollution was enforced almost entirely through the process of individual suits for
what was termed a private nuisance.
The concept of public nuisance has also been used to some degree to control pollution. A
public nuisance is an act which causes inconvenience or damage to the public as
distinguished from one or a few individuals and includes any interference with the public
health, safety, or inconvenience. Thus the pollution of a stream which merely inconveniences
several riparian owners is a private nuisance only, but may become public one, if it kills fish
or creates a menace to the health of the community. A public nuisance is subject to
abatement at the behest of state officials. It may also constitute a crime.
In our country until recently the pollution was regulated through state factory acts and
rules, and also by some sections (section 28) of the Indian Easement Act. As the scope of
these acts is limited in its extent and docs not provide much guidance in respect of water
pollution prevention, the Union Government enacted the Water (prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, in 1974; which is applicable to all Union territories, and has been adopted by
all the States, by resolution passed in that behalf under clause (0 of Article 252 of the
Constitution. Under the provision of this Act no discharge of waste water can be made in the
environment without obtaining consent from the State Pollution Control Board (from the
Central Pollution Control Board, in respect of Union Territories). A consent prescribes the
533

volume and quality of waste water in terms of concentration of various pollutants, which can
be permitted for discharge in the environment. In 1986, the Union Government enacted the
Environment (protection) Act, 1986, for protection and improvement of environment, and
the prevenrion of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and properties. The
Act empowers the Union Government to make rules providing standards in excess of which
environmental pollutants shall not be discharged or emitted inthe environment.

534

APPENDIX A
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
atm

Atmosphere

emf

Electromotive force

BOD

Biochemical oxygen demand

Eq

Equation

c!

Curie

Fig

Figure

Degrees centigrade

Gram

cal

Calorie

ha

Hectare

cc

Cubic centimetre

ID

Internal diameter

CCE

Carbon-chloroform extract

JTU

Jackson turbidity unit

cgs

Centimetre gram second

k cal/kg

Kilocalorie per kilogram

C.l

Cast iron

Kilogram per square centimetre

em

Centimetre

Kilogram per square metre

em/min

Centimetres per minute

kL

Kilolitres

em/sec

Centimetres per second

kLd

Kilolitres per day

cm~

Square centimetres

km

Kilometre

COD

Chemical oxygen demand

kw

Kilowatt

Col

Column

kwh

Kilowatt hour

cum

Cubic metres

Litre

eumec

Cubic metre per second

deg

Degree

Lpcd
Ipd
Iph

Litre per capita per day

Litres per day
Litre per hour

DO

Dissolved oxygen

Iph/m'

EDTA

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

Ipm

Litres per hour per square

metre
Litre per minute

535

Litres per minute per square ft

metre

Micron

Metre

ftc,

Mlcrocune

m1

Cubic metre

)lg

Microgram

m 3 /hr

Cubic metres per hour

Newton

me

Milliequivalent

NPSH

Net positive suction head

mg

Milligram

No

Number

mg/I

Milligram per litre

NTU

Naphelometric turbidity units

ml

Millilitre

OTA

Orthotolidine arsenite

m1,

Million litres

NR

Reynold's number

Page

mLd

or Million litre. PCf day

mId
mm

Millimetre

pp

Pages

mps.or
m/s

Metre PCf second

pCi

Picocurie

m111

Minute

ppb

Part per billion

mole

Gram molecular weight

ppm

Part per million

molwt

Molecular weight

rpm

Revolution per minute

mph

Metres pcr hour

Second

m'/d/m

Cubic metres per day per metre

sq

Square

Vol

Volume

wt

Weight

m /d/m 2 Cubic metres pef day pef square

tnetre of area

m'/ml.

Cubic metres pef million litre

Iv!PN

M.ost probable number

mil

Millimicron

536

APPENDIXB
CONVERSION FACTORS
---".---".,---,-~,----

LENGTH
".

,--~~"-~,-----"------,--~-,~-----~,,,,--,,-

1 In

25.4mm

lmm

0.0394 in

1ft

0.3048m

1 em

0.3934 in
OJ)328 ft

1 yd

1m

0.9144 m

3.2808 ft
1.0936 yd

lrnile

1 km

1.6093 km

0.6214 mile
.~-.--.------

AREA

=
=

645.163 sq mm

1 sqmm =

6.4516 sq em

1 sq em

1 sq ft

0.0929 sq m

1 sq yd

=
=
=

0.8361 sq m

1 sq in

1 sq mile
1 acre

1 sqm

2.59 sq km
0.4047 ha

1 ha

4046.86 sq m
1 sqkm

0.00155 sq in

0.1550 sq in

;::

(J.()O 108 sq ft

=
=
=
=
=
=

10.7639 sq ft
1.1960 sq yd
2.4710 acre
0.00386 sq mile
0.3861 sq mile
247.105 acre

CAPACITY
1 gal

1 gal (US)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

4.54609 I

1I

0.00454609 cum
0.160544 cu ft

11

0.00378541 cum

1I

0.0353147

0.001308 eu yd

=
=

0.2200 gaI(UK)

Cli

0.264172 gaI(US)

3.78533 I
0.832675 UK gal
0.133681 eu ft

537

--'---

1 US Pint
(Liquid)
1 fluid
(US)

07

1 fluid oz
(UK)

==
.-

04732 I

--

284123 ml

29.5729 ml

VOl,UME
1 cu in

16.8871 cu em

1 eu em

:=

OJl61024 cu in

1 eu ft

==

0.0283 cu m

1 ell m

:;:

35, 815 eu ft

1 ell yd

:;:

0,7646 eu m

:;:

1.60795 cu yd

1 aere ft

1233.48 eu m

(UJ0081071 aere ft

_.

15.45254 grains

0.0352740oz

WEIGHT
1 grain

==

(l.O648 g

102

--

28.3495 g

1 Ib

==

0.4536 kg

!kg

-.

2,204621b

1 ton

:;:

UJ1605 tonnes

1 tonne

:;:

0,98421 ton

1g

DENSITY
:;:

(),()624

16.(J185

PRESSURE AND STRESS

I

I.Ht703

1 lb/ft'

:=

4.88243 kg/m2

1 ton/1n'

".

1.5749 kg/mm2

I atm

==

1 kg/em'

:=

14.223 Ib/in'

--

10 m H 2O

==

(I,9671l4 atm

101325,0 N/m'

1 kg/m'

==

0.204816 Ib/ ft'

760,(1 mm ,Hg

lkg/mm' ==

0,6850 ton/in'

1.01325 bar

1 atm

68087.0 pdl/ ft'

==

538

1 pdJ ;::

Imm

:=:

""

~,

Ibf

...

~~

I pdl

,-

OJ

gUl1::celcmtlon due to

=
1

0,

ft

,-

,~

0,

ft
\Vh

km/h

,~

~,

,~,

Ibf

"n1'V;'"

-,

0,1(JI972

km/h

0,9113

0,6214 milc/h

539
2062 UA&E!97-,-37A

TREATMENT LOADING RATES

_.

141,

0.0135927 mm/s

:::

73.5689 UK/gal/fe/h

1.17441

'"

76.9130 Million UK
gal/acrdd

0.0130016

.-

0.851491 UK gal/ft' /11

1.12336 m 3/m 2

.'

(J.890187 million OK
gal/acre/d

-'

14.915 Jpd/rn

::::

67.466 U K/gall day / ft

0.014915 mY/day/m

1m3/day/
m

::::

6.99724l/s/km 2

l/s/km2

0.142915 fr'/5/1,000

1. .

::::

(W0705555

1.

::::

lUK
1

in/h

/h

1
acres.
1.

1000

/d

acres

ft' /s/mile

::;

10.9332 l/s/km

:::::

()'0914645 fr' / s/ mile 2

HARDNESS
Grams per
UK gal

US

Parts per
100,000

Parts per
100,000

Parts per
million

CaCO,
(French
degrees)

CaO

Ca

(German
degrees)

(Russian
degrees)

CaCO,
(Clark scaleBritish
degrees)

CaCO,

0.07

().O58

0.10

(J.056

OAO

l.00

0.83

1.43

().80

5.72

15

1.20

1.72

0.96

8.86

10.00

0.70

0.,58

1.00

0.,56

4.00

1.

1.

1.79

1.00

7.14

0.18

().15

0.26

0.14

1.03

1.00

---~-

540
2962 UA&E!97-378

WATER SUPPLY

STANDARDS

Title

L
L

1)

7
198,

2.

5P

3.

11

of India 1983 Part 9

Supply
water supply and drainage with
on plumbmg

for water supply

"'"11I,.liC)l1 (third revision)

Code

4.

water

5.
6.

plain
1

supply

111

and reinforced

gCtlcral constmctjon of plain

for dams and other
rnasslvc strw.::tun::s.

Code

prestressed concrete (first

concrete structure t()r

t"r,-ed

the

concrete stmctures.

tressed concrete structures.

of sediment in

anchor block for penstocks

revision).

541

51

No.

(a)
:1

15.

]6

4890

rncasuren1cnt

17.

18

concrete
\V;:lter

!!1

19.

(a) Part 1 : 1975

(b) Part 2 :
(c) Part 3 :
(d)

4: 1

concrete

!!1

(e)

concrete

(f)

6.1

20.

resenr Ol1'S

(a)
(b)

2: 1

(c)

.3:1

(d)

4:
rr,t;unt(:nance

steel

(a)
(b)

2 1

for

2
(

1 to

I :

2: 1
3'1

(d)

fittings
of

4: 1

"7 ,
I

(h)

(1)

(m)

8:
9:1
:1
11 :1
12: 1

UUllLIll

(n)

soc:ket tcc

crosses, aU soc:kets

(0)
(

(P)
15:1
(cl) Part16:1976
(r) Part 17: 1976
Specific
__l.::(sL,)_::..p,::;;ar::.:;t..:l.;::8.;.:..:1.;;.9.;..76:;.)_ _ _ _. . :::.SpJ;;"c:: c: :ifi: .: :1C

tNlIml'n''''t1i<

rcs:.~~~_

double flanged bends

543

IS No.

51

No.

-- --- ._(t) Part 19: 1976 ~--- ----~ ~ - - - ~ -~----~---for -- fIang,~d tees
(u) Part 20: 1976
(v) Part 21 : 1976
: 1976
(w) Part
or
-~ ---~~ -~-

-~ ~

(y) Part

(z)
4.

:1976
Part 24 . 1984

5.

1879: 1975:
Pipe Part 1 to 10
3114:1985

6.
7.

782: 1978
6163: 1978

8.

7181 :

9.

8329 :1977

10.

9523: 1980

11.

11606: 1986
11906: 1986

13.

cast

cast iron

cast

1~88: 1987

Clt.J(:mc iron

CONCRETE
14.

458: 1971

15.

784: 1978

16.

1916:1963

17.

3597: 1985

18.

783: 1985

19.

4350: 1967

reslrt;S;;S:l1 concrete pipes(including Hll1ltIC,')

concrete

activities which are already over have been

actuals while the
are
the most probable pcnod
It
yet to take place are projected taking into
will be seen that while working out the actual activities completed, the time durations li)t
certain items are much higher than the normal which happened in this case due to the delays
mentioned earlier, For examples, the activity (14) viz, working plans and estimates for raw
and clear water pumping machinery should not
taken 73 weeks, A realistic fi/:"1.lre would
be around 20 to 30 weeks depending upon several factors like availability of staff etc,
Therefore while drawing up the CPM chart at
beginning stages itself, it may be
to assnme more rational figures of time duration based on the experience of the department
and not providing for any delays, The charts can, however, be updated periodically, The
following 11 major components of the scheme arc further sub-divided into 102
to
complete the project. The number of the activities on the network diagram is also shown m
brackets for ready reference,

--------------Major Components
No,

Item

Duration
(week,

-------- ----------------,--------------,--------"-"-------- -- -------------

L Head Works
(including Raw
Water Rising Main)

(i)

Working
estimates

(ii)

(2)

43

Sanction

(.3)

(iii)

Draft tender papers

(4)

(iv)

Receiving tenders

(5)

(v)

Evaluate tenders &award

of contract

(6)

10

&

68
(vi)

Execution work

(a)

Intake wen connecting

pipe, twin jack well

(10)

78

0)

Pump

(7.3)

26

(c)

Approach
with
approach
and
fencing to head works

(11)

78

Part
water

(7)

20

(9)

36

(d)
(e)

Part lavin<.'
.'
b
nsmg mam

taw
m;'l1n

raw water

565

(weeks)

(8)

20

566

Major Lo:mpOn!?n

gmlers (;tc

(vii)

(1

(I

mn

IV

(1
(I

&

(iv)
(a)

(79)

60

(c)

(80)
\
,

Activity

Major Components

No.

Time
Duration
(weeks)

(20)

V.

Pump I
(ii)
(iii)

tender papers

(iv)

tenders

(v)

award
(vi)

VI

VII

R. C C Service
Reservoirs

Clear Water
Rising Mains and
Gravity Mains

tenders and
contract

Execution

(21)

(22)

(23)

(85)

(86)

35

Group I

Group II

At treatment
works at point A

At
points 13 & C

(i)

\\forking plans 13&C

(24)

80

(36)

80

(ii)

ApprovaJ

(25)

(37)

(iii)

Draft tender papers

(26)

(38)

(iv)

Receive tenders

(27)

(39)

(v)

Evaluate tenders
and award of
contract

(89)

(70)

(vi)

Execution

(90) 65

(98)

65

(91) 65

(99)

65

(a)

Rising Main to S.R.

at treatment works

Rising Main to S.R.

Point A

568

Major Components

(c)

1)

Working
estimates

Approval

of contract

!l

Pumping
statlc)1'ls

Vrorkltw
cs t'1lnates

(41 )

4
4

and contract

o,,"cwl

570

Major Components

Activity
No,

Item

Time
Duration
(weeks)

treat:
prenllses,

(b)

Telephone
connections

(c)

C I p1pes,
specials

(63)

155

(12)

77

(13)

(71)

65

(0 Supply order

(29)

37

(it) Delivery

(30)

65

Final transfer of

(75)

85

valves,

(New order to be
placed)

(d)

(i)

Indent

(it)

Supply
byS,E

(ill)

Delivery

order

CI pipes against old

order placed by SE
on 31-5-1973

(e)

land for
treatment works,
clear water reservoir
and pump house and
S,R at Treatment
works,
GOVL

(f)

Obtaining
permission of B &
C Deptt. for crossing
NH for dear water
rising main to S.R at
point A

(28)

130

(g)

Obtaining
permission of
Railways for crossing
railway track for

(35)

130

571
2962 UA&E/97-39A

Activity

Major Components

No.

mam

Time
Duration
(weeks)

to

A.
(47)

(h)
t1'ltnSrmSS10!l

130

lines &

mY'''''' at
treatrnent works and
booster pUl'npmg

seen that the Prime Critical Path is through

From the Network Diagram, it may
1-23-4-56-10-73-83-101-102 as shown and the
the Headworks and covering the
4 weeks of testing for all pumping plant and
time of completion is 188 weeks.
machinery and 12 weeks for erection
law water pump set arc included in this 188 week
components could be summarized as:
periods the time duration
the different

Beadworks including

172 Weeks

Water Rising Main

II

Raw Water and Clear

167 weeks

Water Pumping Machinery

works

(a)

136 weeks

(h) Filters

158 weeks

IV

128 weeks

Clear Water Sump and Pump

V.

R.CC Services Rc'servoirs

173 Weeks

V.

Clear Water Rising and

128

VII

Booster Pump Stations

124

VIII N allah Diversion

129

IX

Staff Quarters

169 weeks

Miscellaneous Works

572
2962 UA&E/9? ~39B

(a)

Land acquistion for head works and provisions of 172 weeks

barbed wire fencing, internal roads, etc.

(b) Transfer of Government land for treatment works, 85 weeks

etc.

(c )

Telephone rmltl""j'i(lnS

155 weeks

(d)

Supply of c.l. pipes and specials

(i)

New order to be Placed

146 weeks

(ii )

Orders already placed

102 weeks

(e)

Obtaining permIssIon of PWD for National 130 weeks

Highway crossing of the rising main

(f)

Obtaining permission of Railways for crossmg 130 weeks

railway tracks

By proper advance planning and continuous persuasive efforts, it should be possible

the salient works are completed in 188 weeks which is the critical period for the major items
of headworks, raw water mains and treatment works so that water could be made available to
the consumers even if the scheme is not complete in all respects.

~
Is:

<5

fi

i!

t:l

I@

1'

Ii
~

~
~
~

-~--~~-'

Ii1

~"

"
~

APPENDIX 5.1
MASS DIAGRAM FOR IMPOUNDiNG STORAGE
PROBLEM

Draw the mass diagram and compute the storage needed for an impounding reservoir for a
constant draft of 23 ml/ sqkm/ month of 30.4 days with the following recorded mean monthly
run of values.
"

".--""'~"'~"'~-'-''''''''''-''''--''''''-

Order of month
"

..

4 5

-"",,~''''''''-~''--'-''~'''''~~"

6
.~

Observed monthly mean run

off, million litres per sl1uare
Kilometers

94 122 45 5 5

-:-

---- --"-

'2

10 11 12 13 14

-is

72 92 21 55

33

~-

SOLUTION

Methodology
The mass diagram is obtained by plotting the time interval (order of the month) as abscissa
and the cumulative run off and cumulative draft up to the corresponding time interval as
calculated in table below as ordinates.

TABLE SHOWING CALCULATION OF REQUIRED STORAGE

(Volume of water in million liters per square kilometre)

Order of
month

(1)
.- - ' ' '..

-~

Recorded
run-off

Estimated
draft

Q
(2)
"----"'''-.. ...
94
"

D-Q

Comulative
run-off

Cumulalive
deficiency

(3)

(4)= 1:(2)

(5)=(3)-(2)

(6)=1:(5)

----~--,~'''--".'''''.-"""-"-"'

23

94

-71

.. - ' ' ' - , , , ' ' - " -

Reservoir state

(7)
'

----"~","'''-"-".~,,,'~~''''-~,,

0(192)

122

23

216

-99

0(121)

45

23

261

-22

0(22)

23

266

18

18*

23

271

18

36

23

273

21

57

23

273

23

80

Reservoir full at
the beginning dry
period

*Reservoir empties

575

""

~.,~",,~'"'''-~''~

".-,--"-,"..

~-----~-------",,,-,,~,,,,,,,~

Order of
month

Recorded
run-off
Q

Estimated
draft
D

Comulative
run-off

Deficiency
D-Q

Cumulative
deficiency

23

275

21

101

16

23

291

108

10

23

298

16

124

11

72

23

370

-49

75

12

92

23

462

-69

13

21

23

483

14

55

23

538

-32

0(24)

15

33

23

571

-10

0(34)

"-"""-'"-"-'~~'''''~'~-

Reservoir state

Maximum
deficiency at end
of dry period

Reservoir refilled

"'-~""--""-~'''"'~~'-''''''"'~-'~~-'~---'''''"'~'''-----''--'''

Constant rate of draft = 23 mLI sq km for an average month of 30.4 days.

S.

Negative value indicates sUlpIus.

6.

Negative values are not included in 2: (D-Q) until the beginning of dry period i.e. until
water is lost from storage and there is room to store incoming flows. 'nle surplus
preceding the dry period, however, must equal or exceed the preceding maximum
deficiency; otherwise the reservoir will not be full at the beginning of dry period. 'DIe
cnmulative suq)Ius, calculated backwards from the beginning of dry period, is shown in
brackets in column 6 and is seen to exceed 124 mL/sq km of catchment area. 1be
cnmulative 11m-off curve 'B' has been drawn as shown in the figure.

The cumulative draft Iille fol' the area under consideration is also plotted in the same scale
Qine A) assuming constant draft of 23 mL/sq km of catchment area for a month of 30.4 days. The
slope of line 'ii' indicates the rate of draft.
The maximum deficit of run off from the draft is obtained by dtawing a straight line parallel to
the cumulative draft curve at the crest and through the cumulative run-off curve tangentially. The
vertical ordinate length intercepted between two such parallel lines tangential to the crest and trough
the maximum deficit for the period between the points of intersection of the parallel line with
the mass curve. The maximum cumulative deficiency as observed from the mass cnrve (which could
also be detemlined analytically as shown in the table) is 124 mL! sq km of catchment area. For the
constallt rate of draft of 23 mL/s,! km of catchment area for a month of 30.4 days and for this cycle
of runoff values, the impounded stOtab", needed is for (124/23)x 30.4 i.e 165 days (almost half a
year).
576

Ii

700

1,

600

:3 MEASURE MAXIMUM DEFICIENCY

SOo

CUMULATIVE

0 - e:Q '=:.i24 "I1'It

X" MUST INTER~ECT RUNOFF CURVE, IF

START OF DRY
PERIOD AT P01NT. /~
OF TANGENCY",,/'

400

~.SRYOIA IS TO BE. F\JLL AT START OF

OQY PEA10D.

il

>
'"

Y. ENG e17 DRY PERIOD AT POINT OF

TANGENCY.

)00

&.. M.UST INTERSECT RUNOFF If" RESERVOIR

IS TO rtEFILL.

.J

PARALLEL

2. DRAW PARALLEL TO LINE A AND TANGe-NT

TO CURVE B

"
2

eo

TO RATE OF DRAFT A AND TANGEN TO

CURVE a
.

t:

1)f.lAW CUMULATiVE ORAFT

200 -

'1

ORDER OF

10 f I

!2

13

14

IS

MONTHS

MASS--DlAGRAMFOR IMPOUNDING STORAGE

APPENDIX 5.2
GROUND WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION POTENTIAL

(provisional)
States/ Uts

Total
Replenshihie Ground
Water

Provision For
Drinking
Industrial &
Other Uses

Utilisable
Ground
Water
Resources

Resource

Net Draft

Balance
Availahle
For
Irrigation

Net
Irrigation

Require-

Ultimate
Irrigation
Potential

Potential
Utilised

Balance Irr.
Pot. To Be
Developed

ments

For

Irrigation
(m ha
m/Yr)

(m ha m/Yr)

(m ha
mIYr)

(mha
m/Yr)

(mha
m/Yr)

(Range) (m)

(m hal

(m hal
9

(m hal
10

STATES

V>

-..J

00

Andhra
Pradesh

4.34

0.65

3.69

0.74

2.95

Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam

0.14

0.02

0.12

0.00

0.12

2.35

0.35

2.00

0.05

1.95

1.280

1.56

0.04

152

Bihar

3.38

051

2.87

0.68

2.19

OAOO

7.18

1.70

5A8

Goa

0.061

O.or5

0.046

0.0040

0.0420

0.600

0.076

0.006

0.070

(0558.0909)

5.19

1.04

4.15

0.02

0.002

States/ Uts

Total
Replenshible Ground
\X!ater
Resource

Provision For

(m ha
m/Yr)

(m ha m/Yr)

""

Utilisable
Ground
Water
Resources
For
Irrigation

Net Draft

Balance
Available
For

Net
Irrigation

Irrigation

ments

(m ha
m/Yr)

(mha
m/Yr)

(m ha
m/Yr)

Require-

(Range) (m)

Ultimate
Irrigation
Potential

(m hal

Potential
Urilised

(m hal
9

Balance Irr.
Pot. To Be
Developed

(m hal
10

0.44

025

0.19

4.37

1.37

3.00

0.21

(0.0364
- 0.500)
(0315
-0500)
0.385

L88

1.32

056

0.006

0.023

0.385

0.074

0.016

0.088

0.37

0.005

0.365

0.783

0.012

0.771

0.24

1.38

050

0.88

3.12

0.70

2A20

0.81

0.12

0.69

om

0.62

(0.385
-0.600)
(0.350
- 0.360)
0.690

0.99

0.09

0.90

5.97

0.89

5.08

0.60

4.48

OAOO

12.70

L50

lL20

3.38

0.67

3.20

0.70

2.50

(OAOO

5.84

1.32

452

0.01

-0.750)
0.650

0.016

Confined

022

0.03

0.19

0.11

0.08

Unconfined
Haryana

2.04

0.31

1.73

053

1.20

0.85

0.13

0.72

051

Himachal

0.036

0.007

0.029

Jammu &
Kashmir
Kamataka

0.44

om

1.62

Kerala
Madhya
Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur

Pradesh

Drinking
Industrial &
Other Uses

0.012

0.002

0.G10

0.00

0.016

States! Uls

Total
Replenshible Ground
Water
Resource

Provision For
Drinking
Industrial &
Other Uses

(m ha
m!Yr)

(m ha m/Yr)

1
Meghal-aya

0.043

Utilisable
Ground
~later

Resources
For
Irrigation

m/Yr)

(m ha
m/Yr)

0.036

(m ha

0.000024

:M.izoram

(Range) (m)

Ultimate
Irrigation
Potential

(m hal

Potential
Utilised

(m hal

Balance Irf.
Pot. To Be
Developed

(m hal
10

0.650

0.056

0.00004

0.05596

Not Assessed
0.006

0.001

0.004

0.00

0.004

Orissa

2.33

0.35

1.98

0.10

1.88

(0.34 - 0.44)

5.40

025

5.15

1.80

0.27

1.53

152

O.ol

0400

382

3.80

0.02

1.62

0.29

1.33

050

0.83

(039- 042)

3.44

1.26

2.18

3.35

1.45

1.90

0.06

0.008

0.072

Sikkim

'"
00

0.035976

Net
Irrigation
Requirements

Nagaland

Rajasthan

Balance
Available
For
Irrigation

(m h.
m/Yr)

3
0.007

Net Draft

Not Assessed

Tamilnadu

3.02

0.46

256

1.20

1.36

Tripura

0.06

0.01

0.05

0.005

0.045

(0.360
-0.937)
0.630

Uttar
pradesh
West
Bengal
Total states

8.05

1.21

6.84

2.50

4.34

.360

18.00

1150

650

2.07

0.31

1.76

0.29

1.47

(06-1.67)

1.88

0.23

1.65

45.147

6922

38.225

10.620

27.605

80265

27.862

52.40296

States/ Uts

Total
Replenshible Ground
Water
Resource

Provision For
Drinking
Industrial &
Other Uses

(m ha
m/Yr)

(m ha m/Yr)

1
Say

45.15

UNION
TERRITORIES
Andam-an
& Nicobar
Chandigarh
Dadra
&
Nagar
Havel;
Delhi

0.0035

Daman &
Diu
Lakshadweep
Pondlehefty

en

00

Utilisable
Ground
\Vater
Resources
For
Irrigation

Balance
Available
For
Irrigation

(m ha
m/Y,)

(m ha
m!Yr)

(mha
m/Yr)

3
6.92

Net Draft

38.23

10.62

27.61

0.0035

0.0059

0.0024

Net
Irrigation
Requirements

(Range) (m)

Ultimate
Irrigation
Potential

(m hal

Potential
Utilised

(m hal

Balance Irr.
Pot. To Be
Developed

(m hal
10

80.27

27.86

52.41

0.0075

0.0023

0.0062

0.005

0.0047

0.6500

0.0080

0.0007

0.0073

0.0604

0.0076

0.0428

0.0287

0.0141

0.3850

0.1112

0.0745

0.0367

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

0.0000

Not Assessed
Not Assessed
0.0175

0.0026

0.0149

0.0204

-0.0055

States !Uts

Total
ble Ground
Water

Utilisable

Provision For
Drinking
Industrial &
Other Uses

Water
Resources
For

Resource
v

ha
m/Yr)
1

(m ha m/Yr)

:-:et Draft

Ground

Balance

:-:et

Available
For

Irrigation
Require-

Irrigation

ments

Ultimate
Irrigation

Potential

Utilised

Potential

Balance Ire
Pot. To Be
Developed

Irrigation
(m hal

(m ha
m/Yr)

(m lia
m/Yr)

(m ha
m/Yr)

"I

10350

01192

0.0752

0.0440

(Range) (m)

(m hal

(m hal

10

Total UTs

0.0789

0.0125

0.0664

0.0555

0.0109

Say

0.08

0.01

0.07

0.06

0.01

0.12

0.08

0.04

45.2259

6.9345

38.2914

10.6755

27.6159

80.3842

27.9372

52.4469

45.23

6.93

38.30

10.68

27.62

80.38

27.94

52.44

Total
India
Say

All

'The estimates of ground Water Resources and as per the norms and guidelines laid down by the Ground Water Estimation Committee
(1984) assessed by the working group based by the state Irrigation Secretary incharge of Ground Water Department and comprised of the
head of the Ground Water Organisation in the State Director of State Agricultural Department and representative from Agriculture
Universities and the regional Director of Control Ground \,'ater Board as the convenor.

V'

ex>
N

APPENDIX 5.3
0-002

300

FINE.

J..-

CLAY

-.l--

SILT

-...;.1,'-----

-7
10

-9
10

-7

-6-5

=-*I

DRAI"I"-

I'

:.

=00

=m'

POOR

2
10

-+!<SOULDAS+{

cm8

~ lof'

CLE.AN GRAVE.L-j

I
i

,I

cm8
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

I
2
10

10

DRAINAGE

~COBBLE

2
10

-4

10

lI

CLE.di

10

f~-t- ~~,
NON

10

-)

10

10

GRAVEL

CLEAN SANDSjMIXTVRES OF
SAND ANt> F'INE. GRAVEL

SILT AND CLAY

-3

.1.

SAND

COARSE.

ETC,

-9

FTNE

-3

STRATlFlE.D CLAYS

10

COARSE

10

StLTS, VERY FIE

iUN!'fA11-RE~" MIXTUQES ~NO
CLAYS

MEDIUM

",mE>

GOOD DRAINAGE.

C"'8
RETENTION
CHARACTERISTICS

EFFECTIVE SIZE I" MM

V>

00
W

/"

(++)
COEFFIel!''''!' OF PEItvlEABIUTY Of/SEC. AT U"IT I
'-.J'

GRADIE"T CLASSIFICAT10" OF SOIL

APPENDIX 5.4
V ALUES OF THE WELL FUNCTION F(U) FOR VARIOUS VALUES OF U
N x

N
1

te,15

Nx1(}12

:,

,~-~'""~~.~,~"

NxH}l

Nxl(}8

"-"~""'~"'--'~'~-"~-'--'-'''''''''-''-"''''~''-"-'''''''~''-'~-""""-"'----'-'-~"-'''''''-

1.0

33.96

31.66

29.36

27.05

24.75

22.45

20.15

17.84

15

33.56

31.25

28.95

2665

24.35

22.04

19.74

17.44

2.0

3327

30.97

28.66

26.36

24.06

21.76

19,45

17.15

2.5

33.05

30.74

28.44

26.14

23.83

21.53

1923

16.93

3.0

32.86

30.56

28.26

25.96

23.65

21.53

19.05

16.75

1.5

32.71

30,41

28.10

25.80

23.50

21.20

18.69

16.59

4J)

32.57

30.27

27.97

25.67

2336

21.06

18.76

16.46

4.5

32.46

30.15

27.85

25.55

23.25

20,94

18.64

16.34

5,0

32.35

30.05

27.75

25.44

23.14

20.84

18.54

16.23

5.5

32,26

29.95

27.65

25.35

23.05

20.74

18.44

16,14

6,0

32.17

29.87

27.56

25.26

2296

20.66

18.35

16JJ5

6,5

32,09

29.79

27,48

25,18

22,88

20,58

18.27

15.97

7.0

32,02

29.71

27.41

25,11

22,81

20.50

18.20

15.90

7.5

3195

29.64

27.34

25.04

22,74

20.43

18,13

15.83

8.0

31.88

29.58

2728

24,97

22.67

20.37

18,07

15.76

8.5

31.82

2952

27.22

24.91

22.61

20.31

18.01

15,70

9,0

31.76

29A6

27,16

24,86

22.55

20,25

17.95

15.65

27.11

24.86

22.50

20.20

17.89

1559

31.71

9.5
~o_~_~_

N~~

____

29,41
~

_~_~~

_ _ _

--~----

-~~

---~

584

N
~""

10-7

~""~~,,~-""'"'-"'"

Nx106

NxlO- 4

" " - - " " - - - - - - - - - - _..

Nxl0-3

Nx1O- z

Nx10-1

.,,~~--,-,-,-"'."'"

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

1554

13.24

10.94

863.33

6.132

4.038

1.823

2.194x1O 1

15

15.14

12.83

10.53

8.228

5.927

3.637

IA65

1.()(KlxH)

2.0

14.85

12.55

10.24

7.094

5.639

3.355

1.223

4.890xl0'

2.5

14.62

12.32

10.02

7.717

5.417

3.137

1.044

2.491xl0'

3.0

14.44

12.14

9.837

7.585

5.235

2.959

0.9057

1305xl0'

3.5

14.29

11.99

9.683

7.381

5.081

2.810

0.7942

6.970xl0'

4.0

14.15

11.85

9.550

7:247

4.948

2.681

0.7024

3.779xl0'

4.5

14.04

11.73

9,432

7.130

4.831

2.568

0.6253

2.073%10.3

5.0

13.93

11.63

9.326

7.024

4.726

2,468

0.5598

1.148xHP

5.5

13.84

11.53

9.231

6.929

4.631

.2.378

0.5034

6,409xl(}4

6.0

13.75

11.45

9.144

6.842

4.545

2.295

0,4544

3.601der4

6.5

13.67

11.37

9.064

6.762

4.465

2.220

0,4115

2.034xlO-'

7.0

13.60

11.29

8.990

6.688

4.392

2.151

0.3738

1.155xl0 4

7.5

13.53

11.22

8.921

6.619

4.323

2.087

0.3403

6.583xm s

8.0

13.46

11.16

8.856

6.555

4.259

2.027

0.3106

:l.767xl0 5

8.5

13.40

11.10

8.796

6.494

4.199

1.971

0.2840

2.162xlO 5

9.0

13.34

11.04

8.739

6,437

4.142

1.919

0.2602

1.245xl0'

13.29

10.99

8.685

6.383

4.089

1870

02387

7.185x10 5

10

11

1.0

9.5
-"-"''''-,,-,,

"~-,-,,--

"'''~'"----.

.-,.,,-'''''-'''--,~---~'"'~'''"--'"-",,--''"

,,-",---"---~---,,--

585

APPENDIX 5.5
VALUES

-3

-3
'0

...2XIQ

r, ,

'"'~

-3

-3

4XlQ
-

6XtO
--.
,.-

-3

OF .I,J. f'OR TYPE ClJRV'E

-,

-2

aXIO

10

lX10

4X

-,

-2

6XIO
-

-2

-.

-.

-'.'-

'0

2: e

6
OBSERVE.D

----

POINT

0-

Cg-tlNG

POINi

FE:

"

-;-.

"'!i

,J
3

;;w

o.

>~

I
I

6XIO

8XIO

10

aXle

<n

OC

"-

I"- "-,

4XIO

6XIO

"'$

"9
6

I I

POIfHS At.lO SHifTED TO

fIT POINTS ay TYPE (i;VRvE

0.

extO

CSSE RV ED VALUE S OF

c-

---- "

a:

s:

'-

LOGC1OoLOGC;a

FOR PLOTnNG DeSERVED

"
i ,

lOG U AND lOG (Xft)

TRANSPARENT P.APEP. USED

v::::
2

---- '-,

9"

TYPE CURVE

CURVE

L.t

<l.

POINTS

OBSERVED~

1.

I
I

ll:

Type Curve

10

II t

7
2.); 10

7
04XIO

6XIO

"",0

9
10

an accurate

R9,f.~)

21

.1

ca,:neLl out onll

In

1S

29Ci2

UA&Ej97~-40!-\

pump
started
min

drawdo\VTl

pUll'tP

Rd(m)

1 Jill
12

Iii

1M

10

II!

IOW7

10

1i1MI

1(}.61
'10

588

Time since
pump
started (t)
min
1

Time since
pump
stopped (I')
min

tff

Drawdown S(m)

Residual
drawdown
Rd(m)

Yield
(m3/min)

54

10.22

56

10.37

58

10.49

60

10.26

62

10.04

67

1Ill8

72

10.49

77

10.47

82

10.35

87

1030

92

10.21

97

10.12

102

10.83

117

10.40

132

10.22

147

10'()4

162

10.38

192

10.36

200

9.99

202

101

5.44

203

67.6

4.41

204

SIO

4.26

205

410

416

589

f)

10

11

17

IB
19

jg

11
11
1 .III

16

),1

10

(i,OO

1()

iO

.1 !

Time since
pump
started (t)

Time since
pump
stopped (t')
min

tit'

Drawdown S(m)

Residual
drawdown
Rd(m)

Yield
(m 3 /min)

307

107

2.86

2.10

312

112

2.78

2.01

322

122

2.63

1.88

332

132

251

1.76

342

142

2.40

170

352

152

2.31

1.48

162

162

2.24

135

372

172

2.16

1.17

382

182

2.09

1.05

392

192

2.04

0.90

402

202

1.99

0.78

422

222

1.90

058

442

242

1.82

0.45

462

262

1.76

0.36

482

282

1.70

0.29

492

292

1.68

0.25

512

312

164

0.21

542

342

1.58

0.16

572

372

1.53

0.12

602

402

1.49

0.10

632

432

1.46

0.08

662

462

1.43

0.Q7

692

492

1.40

0.06

592

I.

T
\X/hcrc,

Q is the

\.mUJalk'C

test and

1S

residual drawdown between

.By plotting
ma

T
or T

2(,4
OJl449

It
paper, In this mlll.H..Ul,U
1),98. The high
obviously due to

out
\-vas

so was
as the tnlC

Q.

(;)

W
lI-

'"

<J.
I-

IX

;z

Z
C)

t::i

a:
S?

:;
z

"
H)

::j

a:

15

IlIl

;;;

(;)

Lc

I-

w
::l':

I!0(
12

~0
u

el

'"'"

_.J

"""'

;::

bl
If!

Vl
-I

i5

'"

...J
Q.

594

DISINFECTION
New wells as
doses applied arc gene[aLIY
powder is usua.lly enmlovcd.
DUG WELLS

After the
or
is comr,Jeted,
bel()re the cover platform is

(i)

Remove all cqUt!)!l'terIC

a permanent part
the comj:llelled

(ii)

\Vash the interior walls of the

powder (50 mg/l chlor1nc)

(iii)

Pump the water from

eqUipment
was te!np'oraoiv

out

not
'flUt""'"

01S111,I'

IS

pertelctly

2.

Place the cover over

well and pour
tC"11tltec1 amount of
the well through
manhole or pipe Ot,erlln0,
drop-pipe assembly. The bleaching pc,w(1er
a dose
to distribute the (""'[W'o1
in the volume of water in the welL
over as much of the surface of the watet as possI1ble 10 obtain
mixing of
with well water, which may be facilitated
solution into the well through a
or pipeline as the line is being alternatively ,m,'",'N'

3.

\Vash the exterior surface of

pump cyJ111l.1er
giving 50 mg/l of chlof1nc when the '"s'Ci'<nhh'

4.

Allow the chlorine solution to remain 111

5.

After 24 hours or more have elapsed, the

waste, till the residual chlorine is brought to '1

pIpe
to\'VCI'(:O

111

to

bJe,lching nc,wlie!' SOJ.unon

into the welL

not less than 24 hours.

should

flushed by pumping the water to

should

operated until the well water is as

TUIlEWHLS

\'tihen the well is tested for yield ,the test

clean and free from turbidity as possible.

2.

After the testing eqtllpment has been

solution into the well slowly just prior to

the required amount of bleaching

1"""''''14 the permanent pumping equipment The

595

dose of chlorine should be maintained at 50mg/L Mixing of the chemical with well water may
well through a hose or pipeline as the line is
be facilitated by running the solution mto
being alternatively raised and lowered,
3,

Wash the exterior surface of the

before positioning

drop pipe with bleachmg powder solulion

4,

Allow the chlorine solution to remam in

not less than 24 hours

5,

After 24 hours or more have elapsed,

waste till a residual of 1. mg/l of chlorine is
water level, it may be necessary to resort to
agent in to the well so as to ensure

should be flushed by pumping the water to

In the case of deep wells having a high
'P';Cl:,u methods of introducing the disinfecting
of chlorine throughout the well ,

due to iron bacteria are noticed in the tube wells

Similar procedure is adopted when
particularly when they come out as stringy masses along with the water,
DISINFECTION OF PIPELINES

When a section of water main is laid Of

it is impossible to avoid contaminating the
while the pipes are being fixed into place,
inner surface with dirt, mud Of water in the
or malice; adequate surveillance dur1l1g
Contamination may also occur by accident,
working hours and the plugging of open ends
day's work will reduce these risks, It should
be assumed however that the pipe is contaminated despite all the precautions taken to prevcnt the
disinfected before it is put into service,
entry of foreil,'" matter, Secondly the main must
To obtain good resnlts from disinfection
to avoid the hazards of subsequent obstructions
should be removed before hand by swabbing
and damage to valves, all foreign objects and
and flushing to clean the pipeline, Packing and jointing material should be cleaned and disinfected
of chlorine solution for at least 30 minutes,
immediately before use by immersion in a 50
The presence of hydrants, air valves,
and other openings in and around the section
to be disinfected facilitate the injection
extraction of water for flushing and disinfection,
Recently developed plastic foam swabs are also useful in the disinfection of mains, As they are
inner surface of the pipe, They can isolate
displaced by water pressure, these swabs
the section to be disinfected from the rest of
main and prevent the loss of the disinfected
solution,
Chlorine compounds are the most
used disinfectants for water mains, Strength of
the disinfecting solution should be
higher than that nom1ally used for water
10 mg/l is recommended for a contact period
chlorination, Under normal conditions a
of 12-24 hours, Application for 24 hours is
when the chlorine has to penetrate through
organic matter coating the inner surface, In emergencies, when it is not possible to leave the
a
the pel10d of contact can be shortened by
section of the main out of service
Thus for a contact period of 1 hour the
proportionately increasing the strengtl1 of
strength of solution varies between 120 and 240 mg/I, When strong solutions are used particular
the main after completion of disinfection as
attention should be paid to thorough removal
illness and discomfort may result from using
chlorinated watet and the corrosive action of
the chlorine may damage pipes, valves, hydra,ntB and house hold plumbing and fixtures,

596

PROCEDURE FOR APPLICATION

Chlorine ,,>as may be injected directly under the section of the main by a dry-feed chlorine or
supplied with a special gas diffuser or silver tube and attached to a hydrant or other opening by
means of specially plugged valve, After the
has
thoroughly flushed, the entire valve is
partly shut to bring water pressure below 1,70 Kg/ cm2,
At the hydrant or opening where the water is discharged, the flow rate is measured to
delivered, To obtain a concentration of 10
determine the rate at which chlorme g.ts needs to
mg/l in the section to be disinfected, the chlorine gas mput rate should be 0,9 Kg/24 hours for
chlonne cylinder is npened and adjusted so that
every Iitres per second of flow, The valve of
the dial shows the required rate of chlorine flow,
To ensure that the chlorine concentration remains at 10 mg/I throughout the period of contact,
the strength of the injected solution should be at least twice as high, A table below shows the
amonnt of disinfectants required for pipes of various diameters in order to provide a chlorine
concentration of about 20 mg/I

QUANTITY OF DISINFECTANTS REQUIRED TO PROVIDE CONCENTRATION

OF 20 mg/I IN A 100 m PIPE LENGTH
Powder
(25% available
chlorine)
gm

Calciutn
f I ypochlorite
(7(Wo available
chlorine)
gm

Sodium
Hypochlorite
( 5'X,available
chlorine)
litt"es

46

37

13

1),16

IO()

81

65

23

033

ISO

183

146

53

0,73

200

325

260

92

1,30

250

507

405

145

2,03

3()O

730

584

210

2,92

400

1298

1040

368

5,20

Dia
of pipe
mm

Quantitv
in litres
in which
distn fcctant
has to be
dissolved
10 x litre

75

The volume in Iitres of the disinfecting solution required for 100 m of pipe can be expressed by
y= CI,08 d 2 where d is the diameter of the pipe in mm"
As soon as the odour of chlorine is detected in water discharged from the main, watet' samples
are taken to determine the chlorine content \Vhen chlorine content reaches a value of 20 mg/l at

597

other

s:tltisJa.ctol'Y lfJ. Gua.Jlrv

similar proocd,.tre

1S

section

If the

sechon even
come into contact
rcma.in shut
the

cont.act to

598

j"'

18

IS153619B9 &

24

10

HlOO-1S00

'10

600

RC
45(5w 19HH

Mnximum wc"kine
pressure

(J

30
30

half

the
each

r'(')f u~e

IS
2')0-50-500-100

mams

12()()

WCH1CJ1Q

pres,sure
not to exceed t\vo

third of test

25()-50500"
GOO"

rn;}Jns
not

half lhe

602

Steel

cylinder
Pipes
IS:19161963

RC

200-50-500,
600,700,900
1l00,1200-2001800

I
2
3

5
10
15

20
5

25

SpI
6

Prestressed
concrete Pipes

IS: 784-1978

Electrically
Welded
steel
pipes IS : 35891987

200-2000

M.S

6-100
6-150

Tubes

1239 (Part I)
1

1.5 times design

pressure

80,100,125,15050-500-1001200-200-1800
1
2
3
Spl

15
20
25

IVfedium

50
50

50

603

APPENDIX 6.5
OF PUMPING MAIN

DESIGN FOR ECONOMIC

PROBLEM:

the [()!lowing data;

an econornic size

1)

Discharge

SMLD

Initial

75 MLD

2004

Interm.cdiate

10MLD

Ultimate
2)

7000m

Length of pumping main

3)

head for pump

50fTl

4)

period

30 years

'i)

Combined eHiciency of pumping set

60%

6)

Cost of pumping unit

Rs. 2000 pc, kw

7)

Interest rate

10%

8)

Life of electric motor and pump

15 years

9)

Energy ch:w,es

Rs. 1. per unit

lO)

Design value of 'C' tC)[ C I, pIpes

100
15 years

,)

2 nd 15 years

Disc}'3fisC at installation

5 MID

7.5 MLD

Disch'3f!IC at the end 15 years

75 MLD

10.0 MID

i\ vece""

75+10.0/2

di$clurgc

=8.75MLD
4

)\ ven"," hour~ of pumping fot' average

discharge

6.

23

Hours of pCBnp"',,; for discharge at the

end of 15 ye,us

KW required

tlt

60';;) combined efficiency

6.25
" 19.17

(2)/1O)x8.75
=20.12

pum!)mgset

7.5xIO"x
xlOOx24 ~KW
60 x 60 x 24 x 102 x 60 x 23
'

148J It

KWt

604

x1

pmup:!ng set

11

15 years
pUCrlP1!lg X
x

.65

ttl

to

1.77
most cr(me/mica] pumpmg mam

for

60S

N
(1)

TABLE!

0;
N

0'

m
ill
',"

TABLE SHOWING VELOCITY AND LOSS OF HEAD FOR DIFFERENT PIPE SIZE

,,
_r:.

SL
:":0.

Pipe size in mm

Frictional head
1000m

Velocity in m/ s

Total head in 'm' for 7000 m pipe lengths including 50 m of static

2nd

1H stage How

rit

7.5

2nd stage
flow of
10

MLD

MLD

stage
flow of
10
MLD
6

300

8.00

14.50

1.25

1.68

56.00

5.60

350

3.80

6.70

0.88

l.OO

26.6

2.66

1'; stage

How of

stage
How of
7.5

MLD
1

flow

Frictionalloss m

Other

10

11

12

111.60
say
115.00
78.26

101.50

10.15

46.90

4.69

23.80

Other
losses

Total

Fricrionalloss

Tot:1,1

losses

----~-----~-~~~~~

2.38

161.05
say
165.00
101.59
say
105.00
76.18

say

say

75.00
58.47

1.37

80.00
65.02

say

say

60.00
55.08
say
55.00

0.80

65.00
58.85

say
3

400

450

500

2.00

1.10

0.66

3.40

1.95

1.15

0.72

0.56

0.45

0.87

0.75

0.66

14.00

7.70

4.62

1.40

0.77

0.46

80.00
75.40

13.65

8.05

say
60.00

UA!!.[i~j7~'--4

'In

1) + (15)

rn

91

()

: -.: 7.606

7.606

Liblc

IT !S

seen ;-fur

Class C l. ptDC

water at 11 kgsl em'

Tnain

"

concrete is
tnct1<iln $ ==

1\ "" lin,' minlrnl Ii'll COY cr

kgs Im'- Soil density

is

is 0

cn1S,

onncs
reslst;:U1C('

Mx
tonnes

>< '1

ton,nes

== 3,11 tonncs

tonnes

available
resistance of

tOflnes

LI1ICII11 reslstancc

block
+ Sin ()
Sin ()

Yields

18

,5
0,5

88 .47

IOJ/nc,\'

609

(ii)

Lateral resistance of soil

rnass Le" the portion

(1,8)(0,9)

1S

0:

0,

rcsistanc(~

15 + 88.47t

Total hot1zontal thrust

tonnes

lateral

of

= 13,16/53.4R

~"

19

IS

REINI'ORCEMENT:
The mininnrm
reinforcement in
21 1972 Article 306.4),
bars at 2()U c/ c which is more than 5

not

to yield

TH

CUSHION

Vo '" I

II

AIR VESSEL PARAMETER == 2C oC/QoL

Referring Chart (, k, as 0,50 for limiting Upsurge to 1.20 Ho and Downsurge to 0,5
Air vessel parameter for 2p 0,65 is calculated as follows:

From chart for 2p 1.00x(2Co C/ Q"L)", 10,50

For 2p ::: 0,5, 2Co C/QJ,::: 6,50
By interpolation for 2p

(1,65 and for k, =0,5

Air vessel parameter 2Co C/QoL ==T70

Volume of air Co

==

],7x1.944xlliQill)
2x896.27

== 150,31 Cubic meters

Volume of Air Vessel == Co[HjHm,J'/L;>(l

::: 150,31 [(145)/0,5x(145) liL

== lS0,31x(2) l/L2
267.20 Cum
Increase the capacity by 20'Yo to cater for upsurge of 1.20 H"

267,20 x 1.2

::;:: 320 Cums

WATER COLUMN SEPERATION LENGTH

The water column separation is calculated on the basis of the following fonTIula.
V/ -V Z2

(2g/L) {(t,-t0 V, {II

H= Static Head, (Absolute IIead)

F'= Loss of head due to friction
VI' V 2==Velocities at instances tl,mel
(t c to

Period between time intervals in seconds.

Vo == Initial Vdocity,
L==Lcngth of pipeline

Initial veiocity will come to rest over a time period after the stoppage of pumps,
Assum1l1g a time interval of 0.2.0 seconds and by using above formula the subsequent
velocities arc calculated till the final velocitv (V,) is almost Zero. The water column
separation length I is giV-O!1 by Laws ==
Iwcs:E

lV I +V 2+" ".V,J (t 2-t,)

613

the given diameter

pipe and for the CalCUl.an:u water column separation
Air vessel is calculated.
Length the volume of water required to be stored
For \Vorkcd Example

vI = 2 x J:l:!l_I_(020XLOl145+
18000
t 1
(101)2 .. V32

2 x 981. (020X10J145 + 15'-.--'-..

IOl
18000

1.

Repeat n times till Vn ::: 0.01 m/ sec.

meters.
For a pipe of 1
==~(1.55)2(6.10)

pet dia volume

'=

of water rCljUl'[eU to

fill this separation length

11.51 Cum

4
FIXING THE SIZE OF VESSEL AND LEVELS
CHAMBER

WATER AND AIR IN AIRVESSEL

(i) Air And Water Volume

Air Vessel volume required

:=

320 Cum.

I f two vessels are provided volume of

'" 160 Cum.

Provide 90 Cum of Air and 70 Cum of water in each vessel.

(ii) Determination Of Size Of Air Vessel

Absolute Head at working head of pumps
l'vLLximum upsurge permitted 160.35

1
::: 1

10.35= 160.35 meters.

meters

Pressure == 19.25 kg/ em'

Using 25 mm thick M S Plate i. c 22 mm + 3mm
d

f,
e

xext

P
Permissible tensile strength in steel

:=

1260 kgs/ cm2

= Weld efficiency say 0.9

Thickness in ems of plate

corrosion a1lowance

2.2 em

=Pressure in kgs/ em'

614

2x1260xL90x2.20
.

-,~"-""----,~" -~--

19.25
25~).20

ems

260 ems
two

of vessel
Volume

1",IrH".,!wne,1

cnds.

1t(1
:I

Total Volume of cylinder = 160 cum

150.80 cum

Length of vessel of 2.6 m dia

cum is " 28.40 meters

Prm'ide 2 vessels each of 2.6-m

m long with hcmisphcrical ends.

Air In The Vessel

(iii) Fixing Of Levels Of Water

T'he levels arc fixed by trial by
and spherical portions.

a depth and calcu.lating volume in cylindncal

(a) Normal Working Level

Volume of

=:

Volume of \Vater

90 cum

=70 cu.m
by assummg 1. 15 meter

The !lonnal working level is fixed

bottom. Volume of water == 7(),95 (
nonnal working
will
<ttl.15m

IS

more than
vessel.

water depth from

Cum, I

(b) Upper Emergency l"evel

i\ ir di >solves in wate r in the

of water rises by 1(l':!', of volume
Volume of water == 7(1 Cum

10% Air dissolves in water

i.e.

01'90

depth of water from bottom will

Hence upper emergency level will be 1
m

C~

79 Cum.

m which gives volume of water as 79 Cum.

bottom of vessel.

Ie) Lower Emergency Level

\Vhcn pumps trip as per water column separation about 11.51 Cum of water is re(luircd
to fill the pipeline. As calculated volume
water at a depth
1.00 m from bottom
vessel =: 56.4:1 Cum. Volume of water at mamal working level is 71 Cum,
Quantity of water available is the
emergency level.

diff,'ff't1C1'

between normal workmg level

615

AERATOR

DESIGN OF SPRAY
(Removal of

I.

PRC)BU:M

us

C,,"" ,.

aerator
flow 2S0 m' /ht,

a C value of 1110

mm dla 'I)'

meters /1000 meters

V=: 1

2,

ra\v water :::

3,

UU.ClllU'll

4.

con,::er,tr2,tlc,n of

at

constant (to the common

10 to
U[IC1C;

".",we

art llsl.mll'v

mm

~,

70 em/hour,

at

smrced 111

at ,'flil'l'V8is

tilted 3() to S" to

to 1.0 m

interference due to falling water,

as possible, Variation in no case should be

di"char):(es should
unifonu as
he!lW{'en
the last
should not
discharge
variation 2 to 5"YtJ

4, Velocity of water in

aerator p1pe

5.

nozzle varies

be belLWc:en 1 and 1.5 m/s ,

2 to 9 meter of water (usually 7m),

to 600 lpn,

nozzlle vary

6.

7,

mg/I.

\,eratclt area

per m 3/day of design flow,

L25x 10' to 3,

""')We!

:::; 6000

1.

2,

with an ".'lI"lltlonnn

.3() to the vertical, elia of one drop is

mm,

nrr:SC11t in raw water == 1.8 mg/!.

3.

4.

Pel:mllSS1ble limit

iron in treated water

j ron

== (1.8CU) mg/l

to

'+

fPtrlnVf'd

:=

1.7 m!"jl of
5.

applying

:=

=:

0.1

1.7 mg/l

2Fc,Ol
requires 1.7 x96/224 '"
absorption

(I,

equation m

mg/lof
m

form
616

LoglO[(C, Co)/(C, C,)]= K:'

where
:=

7.92 mg/I at 28C, Co:::: 0.0 mg/1.

C, :::: 0.73 mg/!, K ::: 70 cm/hr

~=~= 265(~~)
7.92
70
6
7
:.loglO--= - - X - x t=--/
7.19 60x60 2.5
150

150
t=-xO.042
7

t=0.9 seconds

= 1 second &

small case

t, == time of rise == t/2 == 0.5 seconds

V ::: nozzle velocity and

a == inclination to horizontal.

V Sin a:::: g.t,

:. v=

Sina

:::: (980xO.5)/Sin (90-3)

== (980xO.5)/Sin 87

:::: 4.91 cm/s

6. Number of nozzles
Assuming:
N :::: No. of nozzles required
q

Discharge through each nozzle:::: Cd X

where,
Cd:::: Coefficient of discharge:::: 0.9 (assuming)
V ::: nozzle velocity

4.91 mps

a = nozzle area == (3.14/4 )d2

d= dia of nozzle :::: 25 mm
617

:. Discharge through "N" number nozzles == N x Cd X V x a

=:

N x 0.9 x 4.91x (3.14/4) x [2Sx10']' m'/sec.

But design flow i.e. discharge through N nozzles == 6000 m 3 / day

N x 0.9 x 4.91x (3.14/4) x [25x10 3]'x 60 x 60 x 24

== 6000 m'/day

:.N

:. Nozzles required == 32 Nos of 25 mm dia each.

7. Spacing of Aerator Pipcs

Radius of spray == V Cosa x 2t,:= 4.91 Cos 87"x2xO.5 == 0.257 m
Assuming wind velocity == 8 km/hr.
\'lind Drag

Cd x Vw x t (assuming
=:

:C.:

0.6)

0.6 x [(8 x 10')/(60 x (0)1 xl:::: 1.33 m

Minimum spacing required =, Radius of Spray + Wind drag

0.257 + 1.33
1.587 m

say::::: 2n1 apart

8. Arrangcment of nozzles
Nozzles arc fixed on 4 rows

f pipes as shown below;

Dl

3M

X-j\

(;

r!1 r 1
-~---------

12M

3M

Hz

No. of nozzles in each pipe == 32/4 == 8

618

Providing a spacing
stayJ2:'crcd position.

f 0.3 m

of

and spacing in two adtacc'n

Wft.W:"

[0\\7$

111

Provide 4 pipes each oflength 3m at a sp:acrng

Allowing 2m space on all

Checking
Aerator pipe:s enciclse an area of 2 x
:. Area provided
deslg!l flow.

of desig;l

(C) ..K. since it is between 1.25 x 10' to 3.

9. Uniformity in distribution

by

The uniformity in distribution

in fil,lUrc above.
Discharge through each
Assuming
V

aerator

as

- (250x24') /

h '" head loss at

v'(Zgh}:;::

4.91 m/s

h:;:: (4.91)' 11(0.9)2x2x9.81]

Assuming variation of head

=:

=:

O.

2(Yo

-a";~~~~1\~)~~1~~I~as~t~n~O~72~'J~e!il~1~tl~le~'~E~ = 0.98

discharge through first nozzle in the pipe

Ilead loss in the pipe: for gradually

:. Corresponding head loss for unifonn flow

flow::: II
00

::=

O.(J() m

== .1H =3xOJI()

::: (U8 m (per aerator pipe length)

:.H.ead loss 11000 m ::; (0.18 /1.5) x1000 :::

10. Design of pipes and head losses:

The arrangement of pipe is shown in
The aerator pipes are so Cil'Dsr:n
velocity remains within 1 to 1.5 mps and corrcsp"m,j1!1lg head
for pipes (CL) are
calculated and are shown in the following

619

I.head

Length

Total

Loss(m)
Loss(m)
4

Ii

200

l.1

0.01

0.025

200

11

(Ul I

0.020

e,c,

151)0

3.0

125

1.42

IJ03

0.090

CD

2.0

125

1.42

0.03

O.OliO

151 II J

3.U

.42

0.03

0.090

Total

0.285

]),D,

1 lead

and specials
-" 0.314

say

at .

tTl

0.32 m

.- Terminal head + Total Head loss

.'

1.52 + 0.32

::: 1.84 m

620

APPENDIX 7.2
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL RAPID MIX UNIT
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT

following data:

Des1gn a mechanical rapid mix unit

250 m' /hr

1, Des1gn flow to be treated

-

2, Detention time

30 sees (20-60 s)
1.5:1 (1-3:1)

3, Ratio of tank he1ght to diameter

-

4, Ratio of impeller diameter to tank d,ameter

0.4: 1(02 - 0.4: 1)

120 rpm (>100 rpm)

5, Rotational speed of impeller

(i Velocity gradient

:=

600S

\> 300S ')

7, Assume temperature of 20 C
SOLUTION

(i) Detennine dimensions of tank

Volume

Flow x detention time

::: 250 x (30/3600)= 2.()83

Diameter of the tank, D, is calculated from (rr/4 )D"(1.5D)

2.()83

Therefore, diameter of tank :;;:; 1.20 m

and height of tank

1.80 m

Total height of the t a n k - 2 m which will provide a

board of 02 m

(ii) Compute power requirements

Power spent, P

::: ~lG2, (Volume of tank)

1.0087x10'x(600)2X U)83:= 756 watts

Power per unit volume

:;;:; 756/2'()S3
=:

Say

Power per unit flow of water =

=:

362,94

watts/m 3
:=

,3,02 watts/m3 /hr of flow

Determine dimensions of flat blades and impeller

Diameter of impeller

x tank diameter

=0.48 m

Velocity of the tip of impeller

(2,n . r,n/60) m/5

-

x 0.48)/2) x (120/60 m/s

621

=
o

BE DE5aGl'IEO

water enters
parts.

DESIGN OF U'IJt'LLm!",

DESIGN OF
-

is

623
2062 UA,').Ej97~-42B

Provide a tank diametcr of 6.6 m.

V. DIMENSIONS OF PADDlES

Total power input to flocculator, P ::::

(40)2 x [0.89 x

101

)l

x Ire x (6.6)2 x 2.5/4J

=:

watts

Po':vcr input:::: (l/2) .CD . p. Ap (V - v)3

\Y,'hcre
CD::::

Newtons cm:tl!'llcflt of

p - Density of water at 25C,

V -

Velocity of the tip of blades

::: OA m/s (recommended

v

.-

Velocity of water at tip

0.25 x OA (25% of V)
0.1 m/s.
122 == 1.8 x 997 x Ap (0.4 - O.

i\::::

/2

5.04 m'

Ratio of area of paddles to cross-sectional area

-

Ap

CD

L\)xh

_. (5.04) / (re .(6.6 .. 0.3) x

) =o.

or

This is acceptable as it is within the limits

Provide 8 Nos. of paddles of height
Two shafts will support eight paddles,
at a distance of (6.6 - 0.3)/4 1.58 In
will rotate at a rpm 0 f 4.
Distance of paddle edge,
V

t,

from the centre

5ur'port1!1lg 4 paddles.
shaft will
of clariflocculator. The pa';lGlCS
vertical

15

given by the equation.

(2.re.r.n) / 60

OA == (2. It.r x 4) / 60
:. r:::: 1 m

Let the velocity of water below the partition wall between the flocculator
clarifier be
0.3 m / minute. Therefore area of opening
for a velocity 0.3 m/min below the
partition wall will be

Area:;: 250/ (0.3 x 60) == 13.9

624

SIUiCl~:e

m case

mechacnical scraper

IS

=: 1L

625

1.

2,

4.

Slze

mm

to

min,

5.
6.

7,
,---

8
9.

water at

"

x v)
1

Reynolds number = (v"d) / v

/ (18

l(

104

l(

(1

(0,02 l(

<1

- 704"

law is

settling velocity is correct.

DETERMINE SURFACE O\"EI1:FLOW

settling basin and

relnoval of minimum size particles, eguate settling
surface over flow rate
removal,

to

VdDClty

v :::

"

10' m/s

x 10 4 x 3600 x

to short ~U'CCHLU'IS'
ov,:rflow rate,
mmmmm

yl

,-

I -

y!

SiZe

in efficiency
in Slll,!a(:c:
which would give expected removal
use following relat1<.m;,nlp,

l'etlU(,mm

111

P la,(Vo!
- 0.75, n :.: 1/4

V,,/

pcr/{)X,mairlCe

l/n([l-yl

of tank)

- 4x [(1,
Hl:nc:e

.L":Slml

(V,

c,Ul:r31:e overflow rate at aw:raJ'" d':Slg;n flow,

I 1.66) ::: 30 761Ui6

Typical values for design

plain sc,dimloutaUC)!1

5llf'tal'i'

:=

O"N'tlom

mid
mle

between 15

30 m'/m'/d, for

CALCULATE DIMENSIONS OF

:)Ulrra(:e area of tank, A

'" (

/\ssumc length to width

Length x width

as 4

= surf:tce area

Width, B~. /(3304~~)

909

Length of tank, L ;;;; 36,36

In

Assume detention period, t, as 4

Water depth of settling zone at "V('f'"(~,

Qx t / A
-~

255.1 x 4

(36,36 x 9,(9)

=:

3J)9 m

627

IS

Vh

x 00410.03)

=Q
10\

5.
stmcrure
sm:nended solids un1tc)m,lv

I'rt)Vllle 0.6 rn

distribute
from (mllet" to reeluce
1I

m)
9.8 I

6. EFFLUENT

The components
an outlet pipe.

structure

(a) Compute weir length & number

outflow from sedimentation tank

=:

250

Assuming a weir loading of 200 m' I d

m length

1.,' ::I

.~

() 1

)( J 0

/ (I

'\/

"

:;;: 255.1 x 24/33.49:;;: 182.8 m 2

Hence diameter of tank :::: 15.26 m

Assume detention period, t, of 2.5 hours as gtven in Table
Depth of tank::::

Q x tl A :::: 255.1 x

1182.8 :::: 3049 rn say 3.5 m

4. CHECK FOR WEIR LOADING

Weirlength :::: periphery of the tank:=

Weir loading

11:

255.1 x 24/47.94::;; 127.7

:;: 11:

x 15.25 :::: 47.94 m

Id.m

< 300 m 3 /d/m

lIenee O.K.

631

APPENDIX 7.6
DESIGN FOR TUBE SETTLERS

t PROBLEM STATEMENT
Design tube settler module of square cross section with foUowmg data
1. i\ verage output required from tube settler

2, Loss

... 250 m'/hr

f water m desludging

3. /I veragc design flow

-' 2% of output

(250 x 1(0) / (100 - 2)

::: 255,1 m'/hr

= 50

4, Cross section of square tubes

required

mm x

50mm

1m

5. Length of tubes

_ 60"

6, Angle of inclination of lubes

2. DESIGN STEPS

1. Compute relative length

I"

:=

f settler

=20

1000 /50

F:ffective relative length 0 f tube, L

L -

LR

0,058 NR

== I" - 0.058 x Vod / v

20 -<0,058 x Vo x (J,()S) / (1.01 x

86400)

20 .," n,O,')3 Vo

where V0 is How through velocity for tube settler in m/ d

3. DETERMINE FLOW VELOCITY THROUGH
:=

11/8

Vo

Vj Vo x (sin 0 +- L cosO)
(1201 V,,) x (sin 60

+- (200,03 V" )cos 60)

388.65 mid

4. COMPUTE TOTAL TUBE ENTRANCE AREA AND

No. OF TUBES

Tube entrance area:::

Q/ VO =: 255,1 x 24 /388.65::: 15,75 m'

No, of tubes required

= 15,75/ (O,OS

x 0,05) '" 6300

Provide 6400 square tubes of 0.05 m x 0,05 with 80 tubes along the Jength of the sCluare
module and 80 tubes along the width of the IBO,ClUle.
Lcnl-,>1:h of the tubc module ::: No, of tubes x (inside dimension of square tubcs + 2 x
thickness 0 f
)

80 x (0,050

2 x 0,0(5) m
6.02

module

SQ1Clal:e

tubes inclined

'" 0,866 m

0,87 m
mx

M_<

at an

:tI) X

L5mm

mxO,87 m

'Ii' ''''n

GO"

DESIGN FOR
1.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

for producing a net

U''>'''.'' rapid gravity

IS

(i) Quantity of ba,:k\vm;h water used

(ii) Time lost during

minutes

washing

(iii) Design rate

(iv) Length to width racio
(v) Under drainage system

(\<'1)

."nmll

ma.nifc)ld with laterals

9mm

of perfOt2ltiO!'IS

SOLUTION

Filter .uim(~n8jorls
Required flow of filtered water
Design flow for filter after accounting

x (1 +0.1)3) x 24

m'/hr

backwash water and time

lost in backwa,.ning
Plan area of filter rccjulred
Provide two frlter units, two being minimum no.
Length x width

'''W'H' !emY! n to width ratio as 1

Width

the filter

Length of the filter

1'""vHI"

In

two filter units, each with a dimension

4.

In

(b) Estimation Of Sand Depth

Assume a depth of sand as 60 cm and "[f"c!,v,,
depth can be checked against break tht'ough
minimnm depth required by Hudson formula
In F.P.S unit Qd'h/l

as

m.

Tnr:ougn sand bed by c>iCll'I'Jtl

Bx

Where Q is the rate of filtration in gpm/sft, d is

size in em, h is the (,,',n1n,,1
loss of head in ft., I is the depth of bed in
b is a breakthrough index whose
between 4 x 10" to 6 x 10,3 depending on
to coal,'lllation and degree
treatment of filter influent,

In metrie units Qd'h/l == B x 29323

Where Q is in

m'/m'/h, d in mm and h & 1 arc in m.

Assume B = 4 X 1(}4 for poor response to filtration and average de!,'Tce of pre-treatment,
terminal head loss of 2.5 m, rate of filtration = 5 x 2 = 10 m'/m'/hr. (Assuming 100 'Yo
overloading of filter under emergencies), and assuming d= 0.6 mm as mean diameter,
10 x (0.6)3 x 2.5

1 == 4

10 4 x 29323

Minimum depth of sand required to avoid breakthrough == 46 em. Hence the assume depth
of 60 em to be adequate to avoid break through of floc.

(c) Estimation Of Gravel And Size Gradation

Assume a size gradation of 2mm at top to SOmm at the bottom .The requisite depth 1 in
inches of a component gravel layer of size d in inches can be computed from empirical
formula
kOog d

+ 1.40)

Where k varies from 10 to 14. 'The equivalent formula in metric units where I is in em
and d is in mm is
2.54 kOogd)
For

12, the depth

f various layers

gravel are

Size, mm

10

20

40

Depth, em

9.2

21.3

30.5

40

49

Increment, em

9.2

12<1

9.5

Provide a !,'Tavd depth of 50 em

(d) Design Of Under Drainage System

Plan area of each filter

5.85 x 4.50

Total area of perforations

3 x 10' x Area of filter

-~

OJJ789

=:

26.33

111'

m'

-- 790 em'

Total number of perforation of 9 mm dia '" 7901 ((rcl 4)(0.90)') == 1241.8

Say 1242
Total cross sectional area oflaterals

-, 3 x Area of perforations
" x 790

Area of central manifold

::: 2370 em'

::: 2 x Area of laterals

2 x 2370 em'
635

4740 em2
x 4

Diameter of central manifold

77,7 em
Provide a commercially available diameter

800mm

Assuming a spacing of 15 em for laterals,

'I'he number of laterals = (2 x 5,85 x 100)/15 = 78
Cross sectional area of each lateral ::: 2370/78 cm2
Diameter 0 flateral

:;:

30,39 cm2

= t30.3~" x 4) = 6.22 em

Provide laterals of diameter of 80 mm

Number of perforation per lateral:::; 1242/78 say 16
Length oflateral

112 ( width of filter dia of manifold)

1/2 (4,5 -, 0,8)

1.85 m

Spacing of perforations = 1.85 x 100 116 '" 11.56 cm

Provide 16 perforations of 9 mm dia at centre to centre spacing of 115 mm,
(E) COMPUTE DIMENSION OF WASH WATER TROUGH

Assume a wash water rate of 36 m 3 I m''I hr

36 x 26,33 m 3 /hr

Washwater discharge for 1 filter

- 947.88 mJ Ihr

= 0.2633

m'/sec

Assuming a spacing of 1.6 m for wash water trough which will run parallel
to the longer dimension of the filter unit

No, of troughs = 4,50

I 1.6

Discharge per unit trough:;: 0,2633

I3

(U1878 m' I sec

For a width of OAm, the water depth at upper end is given by

Q= L376 bh'/2
636

IOU

40

1.

o.

SPECIFICATIONS

Ibc s(mctures
fonning a balance between
appealing and in kceping with

COlwenlcnt

'rhe princip31 requirement must

should
a pleasing appeartl!1c:e
function and form,
the objectives

WllOicS(wt:c ,\vatt:l',

a matter () f individual choice, it

fabncation
different
and

\Vhi.1c the
should be ensured
units including doors

r; ,r hbutal:ory, office

i\decluatc proVIsion
untixu,

'Urn,)H elc 'Ihe area rccluin:mcnl:

!{c,aclwc,vs with adequate lighting shaH be

shaH be provided for easy

walkways should be
the operator to !11O\,(; freely

access to
[(lr maintenance and

All water

nn{'fl,h,;"

cOlnfc,nYlItv with

structures shall
deSigned

nn'md,,''''

:l Tlil while the

to

tender opecifications

rcz.pJlrcmcnts

and

flGme)!], for

The f()llowing

to

"vr,""'tf'

Raw water ana1ys1s

period covering
full
data is not
pH

(ii) Turbidity
(iii) 'I'otaJ /\Ikalinity
(iv) Total hardness
(v) Chlorides
(vi) Coliform

()n~ln>lsrn

(MPN)

(b) Any other additional data, if the water

contarn1nants which an:.~
to

liOUrt'<

prefembly for a full year

the fo.ilowing, I f the
be given:

(ii)

ron

(e)
2

, turbidity,

carl)(ll1'UC

and

treatulcnt

(d)

lollo\v"w ucr:u.I:\, to

:\ SUf.!Jzcsreu

extent

oowing flow through various

size of

as

to

nat.ure
641

rnaXlrnurn

annual

e)
a test run

\Vilter

(ii)
(iv!)

matter

Required

as nl!!Ullm

CanaelfV

maximum amount of

l.nust OCIT'I.'"

Cil

Suction

lift or suction

(ii)

or

V'dmlUI'

10

(ii)

head dcsc!l"mllCln ; constant

(iii)

(I)

head description

of service:

or intermittent

installation: horizontal or verll,cal

1';;,WI'1"

(i) .,,;me

G)
(k)
2.

available 10

of

wet and

the pump.

or lram;portation itrrullttirms

of installation.
,'lice""

requirements with respect to

or Iwrf<mn

f()l1owing requirements may be indicated.

612

(a)

(b)

Anv special duty

should be specified,

or

as

c()rrOS1Ve

6mm

Submerged stnlctUfC
unch:!' normal 'ltln()sf)h()re
(d)

Pritnc

nlUY('r~

LS.

to

The pump equipment as

standards and in
aiJS(:JrlClC:,
standard.

and

n.::ducriun gear, drl\Tc m(::d,arlisln

make.

(e)

;\11
t\VO

(g)

(h)

l'hc surpher of speCIal

chl()nnators, propoftionmg ,h,."Hf:1 I,:ccitrs.
a oJrnpctenr rCf1rcscntauyc
instruct the plant o,,'cralll'" DC1",mf
and to concluc(' tests

I '(luq);fWl1t
can a
rc~r{

nWr~fS

a 'P'(l,l,'" u !)('nod to

most <'Itt,"'n

SCicCIJ(>!l

Iry to

a fleet Cos I. I':'luipment

The contractor shaH

l'tlu;prncnts~ plping etc
conceit(;n and corrcci'1()'n
by them,
On speet:li ('clll1pmcnt
SUpCf\"i:ilOn

()f

a CI>11Onl"I''

Jargt.' cqUlprncnts, t.he

oYer a
1110St

{e;iDtcr! to inslallatJOfL

,\Ii waler submerged

water shall
be tllkcluatch' protected
,md all
contatTlinatHS fr01l1
cleaning
solvent \'apour, alkab
etc. arc
remmcd lw hand chipping, >L'litl'"
grinding. 'Ihe
fmishcd shafl!!w.
surfaces
arc
,"
grease line ()f rust pn)tcctHHl tTIcasurcs. Structural f'Y1cchanislll supp()rt m1lJ
structure. \\alk\\ay, hand
)l'1l'lttpd shafts, etc., shall be protected with at least
lim' olat of primer and two coats
lS; 800 ". 1962 f.,'1\'Cs the code of practise
butkling consltructlon

(>II

if'
:;::

r:t:

<

2;
w;.,l

ex:
'0
~!l

.,' '

(~

C
~;

"'r,"

<)

c;

~,:::i

",OJ

~u

;1';

.D

:J

(I:,

\I;

".~

'" "'I~2

+,

.,

"C)

""'u

?,
""

"0
G!
~

'.I,

:"J

::J

3:

~'3

"0

"$;

"

"u0

~
';'0

I:

"u
8u

E
:2

",r:::;
,

\~;

;'"jj

I:

~+

,1,,",

c:;

Fi

"

5
<"

~J
w

"
U';

"

()

,,~

"M
. S~
(~

";2

~c)

-:~

,is

~~J

647

ff-~

", .. ommern21

Name

No

Fom1s

And

Usual
SoluTIon or

Suspension
1
18.

3
Chioride of

Femc
chloride

Iron

.6H,O

6
sticks

60'%

8
Yellow
brown

Materials
Used For
Handling
Solution

REMARKS

11

12

10

3~S 0/(>

Rubber
lined tank or
stone\--vare
containers

very
19.

Ferric
chioride

"["erne
'

do

Do

Iron

Solution

corrOSive
Brown

Granules

very
c()rrOS1Ve
Red brO\vn

18.5~O.1

\vet

do

pump
iron

wet

SOhltion is

or fey
ferrifloc
COD(rerc

\vct '

or

stainless
21.

do

do

green

,'",

urcen to
brc)'\vnish

steel Piilst,cs
do

Cakes
storAge
G

lime
~Kldition

SoJid
tlOn

Hel

,n

;):;lD~1!S
illn~p()S tP~.i'i\
uO~~tm}qill0::;

UOfnmuUl
.. ,- ,

dwnd

:Jlpcnse
J1 EUI034:J

Um!pOS

S1. lm:;
5"J;\.1 p;:;:;voJ
'\xod;)

LZ

mmpos

Csc

:\ y-,liL'tble

C"suai

_\.11U
"

Forms

Solution

LSed For
Solution

Sodiu111

6U-63

Ld{e broken

corrOSIon

up

Starnless

ppm

coating

Sodiurn

10--+0
solution

90-99

Cc h)lL less

()

rubber
chemical
35.

do
acid

cation

08

do

do

woo
1

107.0

/1

tti\V

+
+

+ excess

Annual consumption ofhme as CaO

(166'()4 x 250 x 24 x 10' x 365 )1 (106 x 10')

363063
trl1S
Soda
Annual consumption
(11 8, 19 x 250 x
x IOJ x
258, 84 metric tons

x 10')

metric tons

654

~;t+~+~~,

\f+~+'~'~

Joe'"

C"'"'''S,t SAND

scm LIlt'ER OF
I~~

2 cp, STONE

REMOVAL

PLANT

655

APPENDIX
DESIGN OF IRON REMOVAl, UNITS
Typical designs

Iron !croon!

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

extra water quantity to

Schemes have been

5,
provide for sedimentation bleed losses and
Power shut-downs are frequent
rardy more
morning and evening, Accordingly, raw water
morning and two hours in
evemng, L,,:,nn,?"
requirements of water are to be puml)cd
flow to the treatment "''''1''1
additional nverlwr',cj
To avoid extra cost
filtered water from
distribution
pumping raw wateL
would
Backwashing of
tank.

supply is available in the

assumed to be 2 hours in the
put'npmg period, total daily
to draw water by

"",""lm',,,,

""""11 water, it is assumed that

pumped for the distribution, I'he
schedule as contemplated
raw water from the nvPt'tll,,,,,j

DESIGN CRITERIA

\Vater consumption
,.

aerator

/m 2 /h

Sedimentation Basin

nun

Uniformity Coefficient

to

Sand Depth

1.2 m

Total

1. 7

m
3

m /m 2 /h

Rate 0 f Filtration

Minimum Backwash Rate

Total IIead for P'ilter Wash
Gravel Depth

12 m
m

656

anCarl,l!f,nClerlts

aft:

as

11'1

(1

8,

rIt

8.

657

OVErlHEftD TftHk

-"""it"! - - - " ~~ rs~

SAND

FIt

SUAP

--""- Yl ~--~

OVERHEAD TANK

AU. DIMENSiONS ARE IN METER

SCALE
~OT TO SC A.LE
FOUNDATION OEPEH)S ON SOll-

-CONOiTiON
SAICK WOOK

GLLorJ

Wl>rX1W (T. w)

OVERFLOW

__lQ._,,'':E_
1Ii--"""CK WORK

1!
I

TRAY
AERATON

PUMP I-IJlJSE
(CENTRiFUGAL' 00 SUBMERSIBLE PUMP)

OVERHEAD TANK
DEEP

SETTLING TANK

RESEVOIR

(SEDIMENTATION)

SUMP AND PIJfIIP HOUSE

aORE WELL

DEEP

WRE WELL

II

l---3'O~

PUIIIP HOllSE

~
I

6-2

OVERHE AD TANk

,1

f+--J.7--->j 1'-1-85--1

TRAY SETTliNG TANK SAND

AERATION (SED....ENTATION) FILTER

RESERVOIR

LAYOUT PLAN

CONTINUOUS IRON REMOVAL FOR COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY CAPACITY 10 m 3/h

NOTE>

ALL OIL4ENSiONS ARE IN METER

SCALE -

NOT TO SCALE

rOUNOAitON DEPEN"bS ON SOIL CONDlnONS

-iC--- dvR

'Fl.J::j#

PIP:

APPENDIX 9.4
SOLAR RADIATION
North
Lat

range Probable average values of insolation - Direct and Diffused on a

Horizontal surface at sea level at Langley's per day.

34

Max'
Min'

114
53

360
155

32

Max
Min

126
63

380
180

30

Max
Min

136
76

400
220

March

February

January

160
78

450
215

176
96

254
141

659
385

258
146

663
395

261
151

875
405

128-1~f:~n;6---n~~~~ri~:-n~~-1~!~--1~~~-n~~ T~~~---1
26

Max
Min

24 ....

156
99

440
280

192
114

230
149

615
390

690
425

'r~t~n~~--r~~~~ r~~~-lI:~--n~f I ~~~- Hn~!--r~~~--l

Max
Min

174
123

480
355

206
132

Max
Min

183
134

500
360

213
140

18

Max
Min

192
144

515
380

16

Max
Min

200
154

'Max

22

20

14
12
I

530
310

241
162

426

270
167

701
440

575
390

246
168

652
440

271
170

703
447

220
150

590
410

250
174

664
459

272
174

70S
452

530
400

226
159

610

255
180

670
473

272
177

707
456

Min

208
163

555
430

233
167

630
450

258
184

680
487

271
179

709
400

Max
Min

216
1 172

572
455

239
176

645

262
189

690
500

271
181

710
462

Max

230
187

610
495

Min

644

665
510
661

APPENDIX 9.4 (Continued)

SOLAR RADIATION
North

range

average values
insolation - Direct and Diffused on a
rizontal surface at sea level at Langley's per day.
May

July

AUb'llst

662

APPENDIX 9.4 (Continued)

SOLAR RADIATION
North

Diffused on a

Probable average
Horizontal surface at sea

Lat

December

September

635

[Min

19

115-4--r1-415-~Tl~-r:310

199

i26-rMax 124D-~16~-j26515SZ--Ti-66--'--1
1M;;:; 1160 1429-1128-~f332--rTi)9 1300f90~~~T26l)~1
124--~r::-:M:-ax--'I-:C244
1659 ~~T2~T568--~-1175 --T480~~~Tl(J1--T 440 l
1

50

f18
1

1680

400

l~229-T605~~

1198

TS38-Ti~-T50o-1

-~1479 ~Tf57~-T418~-n46-/390-1129

169
1228 .

606~T 225

1340-1

15761

-"'1176-T462-~no2 T42()~~1

663

EXPLANATORY NOTE
(a) Calculated from data published by the United States Weather Bureau

(b) Gram Calories per square em ::: Langley

(c) "Visible" Radiation of wavelengths of 4000Ao to 7000Ao penetrating a smooth water
surface.
(d) Total Radiation 0 f all wavelengths in

spectrum.

(e) Value which will not normally be exc:eel:\ed

(f) Value based on or extrapolated from lrmest values observed for indicated month and
latitude during 10 years of record.
Approximate corrections for elevation upto 3000m
Total radiation
Visible radiation

Total(1 +O.6105El)
Vis.(l HW3053El) where ELis in thousands of metres.

Correction for cloudiness (approx.)::::: Min+[(Max-Min) (:I.]Where Cl is fraction

of time weather is dear.

664

APPENDIX 10.1
CALCULATION OF CAPACITY OF SERVICE RESERVOIR
PROBLEM

Find out capacity of storage reservoir

the following two situations viz.,

(i) Power is not available from 6a.111. to 10a.m. daily

(a) 16 hrs. of pumping during lOp.m. to 6a.m. and lOa.m.to 6p.m"

(b) 8 hrs.of pumping during 4a.111. to 6a.m. and 12 noon to 6p.m.

(ii) Power is available throughout 24
(a) 16 hrs.of pumping during 4a.111.to 12 noon and 1p.m.to 9p.m.

0)

8 hrs. of pwnping during 4a.m. to 8p.m. and 2p.m. to 6p.111.

Data given arc:

1. Design population-24,OOO
2. Per Capita water supply-90 Ipd
3. Peak factor-2.25
4. Peak hours: 6a.m. to lOa.m.,lp.m.to 2p.m.,5p.m.to 6p.m.
5. Other than peak hours, houdy demands are as follows:

(i)

20% of average hourly demand: 11 p.m. to 4a.m"

(ii)

40'Y" of.average hourly demand: 4 a.111. to 5 a.m. and 10 p.m. to 11 p.m.

(iii)

60'Yo of average hourly demand: 12 noon to 1 p.m.

(iv)

70% of average hourly demand: 2p.m. to 5 p.m. and 8 p.m. to 10 p.m.

(v)

80'V" of hourly demand: 5 a.m. to 6 a.m.

(vi)

90'Yo 0 f hourly demand: 6p.111. to 8p. m.

(vii)

1()(Y'l<) of hourly demand: lOa.m. to 12 noon

6. Water supply is continuous.

SOLUTION

1. 'rotal demand

=:

24000 x 90lpd

2. Average hourly demand

3. Peak hourly demand

=, 2.16 mId

2.16/24

= (Hl9ml

2.25 x average hourly demand

Tables 1 and 2 show the compilation

for 16 and 8houts of pumping.

a
:::; 2.2Sa

arriving at the capacity of the service reservoir,

In Table 1 data from cols.1 to 3 are applicable for both the given situations (i) and (iD.
Computed data for situation (i) and (ii) are given in cols. 4,5,6,7, those inside the brackets
referring to situation (ii)
665

Similarly in Table 2 computed data outside the brackets from cols. 2 to 5 refer to the
situation (i) while those inside the brackets are for
situation (iO.
Storage required under situations:

(i) (a) 0.8460

or 39%

daily df'I"!ltl

(b) 0.9900 mL or 46'% of daily UClmanu.

(Ii) (a) 0.3285 tTl.L or 15% of daily demand.
(b) 0.7065 lnL or 33% of daily demand.

TABLE 1
SHOWING COMPUTATION .FOR CAPACITY OF SERVICE RESERVOIR
Given data
i

I
I

! 6 hours pumping; pumping rate:

=24xa/6
.

Period in hours

Hourly demand

Cumulative
demand

Cumulative
pumping

(1)

(2)

04-05

OAOOa

I Cumulative deficit I
I

or surplus

(3)~r

{2}

OAOa

ShouTS pumping; pumping rate

= 24xal 8
3a
Cumulative deficit I
I
or surplus
I
I

(4)

(5) = (4) - (3)

(6)

(7) = (6) - (3)

J.50a(1.50a)

+L10a(+1l0a)

3.00a(3.00a)

+260a(+2.60a)

12.80u
13-14

Cumulative
pumping

9.00a(12.00a)

1505a
-~~~

14-17

0.70a

17-18

II

2.25a
I

18-20
20-21
21-22

19AOa

0.90a

21.20a

0.70a

21.90a

0.70a

22.60a
-~-'~'---r

22-23

OAOa

23-01

0.20a

01-04

0.20a

!3.50a(18.00a)

17. J Sa

23.00a
23AOa
24.00a

-3.65a(0.85a)

lS.00a(19.50a)
JS.OOa(22.50a)

II

-:----l

2100a(2 L OOa)

-385a(+3.85a)

-4AOa(-O.lOa)

1
I

24.00a(24.00a)

+4.60a(+4.60a)

-6.20(+UOa)

24.00a(24.00a)

+280a(+2.80a)
+21Oa( -2. lOa)

J5.00a(24.00a)

-6.90a(+2. iDa)

24.00a(24.00a)

lS.00a(24.00a)

-7.60a(+L40a)

24.00a(24.00a)

J6.50a(24.00a)

-6.50a(+LOOa)

24.00a(24.00a) T-+l.OOa(+1.00a)

19.50a(24.00a)

-390a(+O.60a)

24.00a(24.00a)

...,-

.,

2400a(2400aj~

~------"~--~-~-"-

C.OOa(O.OOa)

24.00a(24.00a)

+ L40a(+ 1AOa)
+060a(+O.60a)
"-"-"-""--"'~~

O.OOa(+O.OOa)

TABLE 2

SHOWING CAPACITY OF SERVICE RESERVOIR FOR

DIFFERENT HOURS OF PUMPING
Pumping
hours

Cumulative
surplus

Cumulative
deficit

reservoir

Slorage
Reservoir in mL.
Substituting
Values of

a=O.09mL

+-

O! .

It

ON .----~.4

668

APPENDIX 10.2
NOMINAL

ENLARGED

HEIGHT OF

WEIGHT

DIAMETER

ENDDIA

BELL MOUTH

(APPROX.)

D" (mm)

D, (mm)

hlmm)

(kg)

80

125

100

100

150

150

125

175

150

12

150

200

150

15

200

285

200

23

250

350

200

31

300

450

250

45

350

525

250

58

400

600

300

80

450

650

300

93

500

750

300

120

600

900

410

201

700

IOS0

470

304

800

1200

520

435

900

1350

590

575

1000

1500

650

792

1 I00

1650

710

965

1200

1800

no

1243

1500

2250

950

2092

ISOO

2700

1150

3320

DETAILS OF BELL MOUTH FOR OUTLET CONNECTIONS IN SERVICE RESERVOIRS

669

PP1FNllIX 10.3

PRO

D NET WORK GIVEN

TO ANALYSE T
-="~'

___

___

'_"_M~""'M""_"""

LOW

8 m3/min
8m3/min

2,316km

t.5 ems

3 rrf/min

km

33
I

30cms

~~~:v ALUE S_A~~~~lft8R~SJ:11

670

UA",[iS}7-,.. 4SA

li

, ,
,

1.
(1

1( H)
i,l

I.

~j

()

(I

. J

II
jon

1 1

1,1')

I.

II

}' ()

Iii

Cd'

,
I

1.1

Dailv

\\';1

ter

PLANT

IMIP1NI(;

116 mId

12

Or1L:

due to

ITlinOr

Ius

14

1.3.

11.0 m

L12

9m

11.1

7m

Rising main

14.1

.4.2

.2rn

14.3

Friction

15

RI., of point

1.6

No. of pumps

pipelinel 10 m
59.0 m

16.1 Duty

Stand

1.7

Rl, of ground

8.25 m

1.8

RJ. of high

10.5 m

19

/\ltitude of

1250m

1.111

/\mbient

40" C

2.0

Size

21

Inlet bell rnouth

f pipes

Design
Bell

llumgs

1.5
0.545 m
Say 550 mm

Column pipes
to 3

2.
m/s
m

Column

Say

mm
673

Ddivery pipes and

s

Design "docilr
Diameter of (lell,'lTV prpe .(!(:I1\Crv

o.

&

tTl
) 1'n1'n

2.4

Bell mouth at discharging point

DesiS'" velocity
1.49 m

Bell -mouth diameter

1Sill Imm

3.0

Ilvdraulic calculations

3.1

Combined discharge

4 pumps
121.111 mid

In parallel (116 mid x 24 hr5)/23 hrs

1.4 cubic

hrs running

Rate of total flow with

/s

Discharge of each pump

Mean static head (59m - 9m)
3 ..5

Frictional los> in straight pipe of

rn

main f()t combined discharge.

16

F'rictionaI1os,e, in
&in

3,7

rna111

of(3.5)

J;rictionalloss in taper, ""',,,'rv

& mdividmll delivery pipe of

3.8

(),

111111

HI

Velocity head 10sI: at atmosphere at

as ," /2g ,where v

(1.111

0.5 m/s

Design head- (34)+(3.5)+ (3.6)+(3.7)+

3.9

3.10

RcslStance

\,Llnt"

resistance curves arc prepared bv

total head of flows and based on
following level conditions in sump at minirnum, mean and maximum \\,L The head losses
as
work out in example are as tabulated :i\.

Combined Q

0.25

11.511

II.

m1/hr.
b. Max. S tatie II cad

521'11

c. Mean static head

d. Min static head

1"1"1

41\

Lon

125

1.50

o.

c. I'fiction in

1.

nS111g in,a111

nrl,m 11'1

o.

v'llves and

lUJI
()

on
i

l\!in \'\/1 [

I lead WL
l\la~

\XJ.

14

Note:
s\'stcnl reslsta:rKC

losses arc
Thu:; ,

(1)
(ii) Duty
1'1'1

(ii) f
opcratHH1 to

4.0

, to

SELEcnON

Pump I lead as

:1

I lead loss al cntcrancc

) III! (,

I lead loss in

, 0

(0)
\') ttl 'SIL: !
I IC=II.45

1n

I lead loss in

In cas\'

I IenCl

j(

(
1

a1 t!;

Ii \

In

cd

!,l

[)

! i

\'\'

\vl, to

Thus minimum water depth

pump= U)35 + :\.1l5 = 4075

NPSIIH

(c) Two stage, single suction, 1480

! I,head per stage=54.856/2=27.428rn
n<; -365
- ~ .)

(')05
x N x"
. I 'flO'
'

x 1480 x

=266.65
Attainable efficiency as per

11.1

Suction head required as per figure 11.3 '"

at 30"C

comliuon allowance, head loss in suct10n

Working out as for (a) above
and site ambient and difference in
appurtenances, difference in \'apour 1I,e,SLlICS at
site altitude, suction head required at
vapour atmospheric pressure at mean sea level
condition =2'()5m
Location of eye of impeller below minimum \\'1 and minimum water depth required to
satisfy NPSHR can he worked out as for
The final value arc tabulated in the
Observations: Possible feasible choices

excavation cost etc. arc

(a) Double suction horizontal

pump with depth of excavation
:"Om but added construction cost of pump house (and land )which
l'ecluired to be located at
(b) 2/:1 stage VT pump
construction cost of pump

1$

excavation of 4.32Sm but reduced

which will be located above sump.

(c) Difference between efficiency

(~

b is very insignlficant

From observations and remarks it is seen

suct10n horizontal ccntrifllf,'al pump with pump
lIFL is at RL 10.50 m,Cl 8.25 m and pump

final choice is limited to either double

at site but with some risk of flood as
will be at HL 8.5111 (appl'Ox)<

2 or :\ stage VT pump with pump house

but with 1.25 m extra excavation.

Cost of two alternative will be almost at

J11:;iderin,,; flood risk, alternative with VT
pump is selected .In order to keep operating
from obstruction and pipe work,
delivery is taken below floor level The pump shall
self water lubricated.
5. SUMP DIMENSIONS

(a) Clearance between bottom of sump and lip of suction bell mouth,
C=D/3=550/3=185.3 mm Say 185 mm
~)

Distance between rear well and center of bell

mr)JJ1h

B=3D/4=)j4x550=412.S=400 mm
677

(c) Spacing bel:w,;cn pumps

Desirable spacing between
D i.e. 1
headgear / discharge head (ac:cc:mm()d:ltltlg stuffing
would be approximately 3.5
pipe diameter
mm clearance,spacing will
mm

Cd) Slope
As seen minimum depth
water reqUired is
below minimum
minimize excavation cost,
slope
14 degt'c:e IS
.'1'he
mm
C(';111e1'.
upstream of pump at a distance equal to 3 i.e. 1

to

(e)Straight Approach
The portion under the pump will
rear false wall

flat from

of termination of slope

(f) Rear False Wall

of baSt~ of discharge head will be 1400 rnm, c. 700 mm from center
whereas dimensionB is 400 mm (max). 'lnerefore, cnlmnn and rear wall
to be located at least 1000 mm away from pump center
30() mm m?lr,tltl
fastening, etc. Therefore, rear false wall is
at'a distance of 4()0
pump center:r or false wall will be upto maximum water leveL

(g) Baffles/ Dividing Walls

Dividing walls will be constructed between pumps to above mutual .
of
dividing wall shall be rounded .
0 f dividing wall
front edge
suction bellmouth. At rear end openiug 150-200 mm size
upto minimum
Top of dividing wall will
upto m~"imum \XlL.
5. SIZES OF IMPORTANT COMPONENTS/EQUIPMENT

(a) As calculated in 2. above

Colnmn Pipe

400 mm

Inlet bellmouth

550mm

(b) Line shaft diameter using empirical fommla

\\inere

-" Safe stress in Kgf/ em2

400 kgf/ cm2 for EN 8/ c - 40 shaft

;:: 55.68 mm

Adding corrosion allowance of 3.4 mm

Minimum line shaft diameter;:: 59 mm

be

at

i !m:tmcs.s

o.

1(l1l(J

(1

(I

.1)

10tll
'jt)

\II

i(

VT

Single

1480

158.55

1438

"1

()

is not considered

+ ;11di':at,c5
1ndicates

SlJet!On

OU~UUH

head required

11ft permissible.

.44

as sump

APPENDIX 13.1

as

Pump
mmn

\vorks and
\vatcr

pump

water
rnatn

reserVOir

as per

4
\"i:atcr

reserVOir

rnatt}

InaH1

dear \vater

pUlnp
5

1*

\X/atchman

Note: 1. The abO\T staffing pattern docs not include personnel for billing, collection and
2. Above staffing pattern includes the operating staff rC{'lu!rcd
to be
bchvecn personnel in
I -Iouse
3. *In case the totallcngth of

line

less

8 Km Cndcr2

111

water cn:xrg:es.

4 one

>
4
as

i\SS1stant

..

--.

15

-/,

:>

as

water
ITl;11fl

water

reservolr'

1y

as

4
l"-~ote

: L The above ,,;mlug ruetern docs

('JEC

'!'rc:1trnc1H

3. FroTn ::uflong three

4. I n case the total

catc;2onC't

of nt'C'10lHH"i i:ndicHt'd at SI
lU1Z'

has been

\vo-rk:-<

& 3 8.t k"ast ()nc shuuld

frorn the E!"ctncai &

than 6 K.nL Under

there an:: mmt'([

case_

13

:3

as per flow line

reservOir

No. Categorf

staff

5
1

8
Note; 1. -fhc

be me ud;<-1

of

No,

int,(,I'vol

at

which
mspection &
ina1titenance to

done
One Month
Months

:>

"
& tear

installations

.,
I

15

111

697

to

i)

7.5
mid

699

stream. nyu

if
rainfall or
nature of
9.

rnanUft;:

11

or cnvprl'( I:

'crver.

st:rcanL
COl'Iltnon or ran;:,
or hpln'." nOl'm2iL

701

CHEMICAL

J,

water

IHCleu

\\ii:lr:er

treatment

&

U\JUjU

702

u
1

L \1

AND

704

c)

II

a)

8
I)

I)

705

31

Sulphide

41

44

II ydrocarbon

(pei/I)
a)

b)

alpha

Time of COUe(:tH)f1

47

}V;tiltl rkJ:

l)a!e:

count

o.

(1

.J
l

24

etc

o.
o.

0,1

5)
6

9
1

1(5 1
713

()

17,

0,

21,

0,

0,

0,
0,
0,

14

o.

o.

account
as

alTIOunt in
Sh,)WT\

ViZ.,

aelricel to
suo,vu In

is rC(CClve(l

) be,:ms
0,1

at 8,5'1\) is

'7

accc}'unts is

111

an10unt in two

balance
or,o VISj,cm IS

as accounts
inVenfOries.

lTlilHltcnancc

ate

to

IS

as accounts

the soctors,

717

{L 15:3

1
liL

24

9.

0,

0&

til 12 to

to

0--1

1. \Vater produced
2 Water sold (kid)
3. Revenue (Rs.

615

,.,."I"n'1

908

A. Water supphB. Samtanon

Revenue( f\ +

1;""7')
, !
-

1( 1

4.

0,

1.

1101 B9

11.

111. U1CffiKal

IUi191

(L0017

YL

{),1

U.01

40
v

\1,1

0.1

n,

i}

Income

8.

.Il

(1

II.
Ii.

1.1

{LUI

fJ0474

Increase in
accounts

4.

0.\

cntrcnt

40

0.1410

0.021

5.

2
current

0.0990 0.1862 0.1212

0.1748

in '1

arnnt.lnt

1,(jan

:arn()unl:

rI'C'ei'.'/'iJ

in 1

o (J080

0.0161

0.0:\09

0,0410

0,01

0.\
1.1'1

! 10

01274
S1X

the

loan.

(I

o.
o.

o.
o.
(}
(I
("

u.

o.

ies
(indudi~

1983

(8283)
(Rs m!lhO!1)

Total
assets

current

II

f'-

0.1

\J.

(),2115

J.

assets

in

on
11.

at10n

Net

assets in

on

.6

LG1

a;,scts
on

Ij

,p

il.

.1

(I+ll

L
LIabilities

Account

" ; j ... j

:\"

0"
Jl)

or

\\ ~ltcr

n
/

I).

1992

1983

D.

'1

term

B+
1

assets.

1 "

HI

2.

JnLUHl

JJ

JL
()rganisation anu
Quality and
4,

"Manual

f \ \' atc!

),

'Opauliol1 (lml

lkalth
COJJ,u/IJIJiititJ ,

Deyelopmcnt,
12,

'?)i/,if\~

Umll/book",

13.

"Pump.,-,

()lle.rI'lOI<'J

14,

Ef/pilleer)
"

l{cy,,:cd

,J

1/(,lltrll}OI,'J(

'

oj

15,

!\ssociation, London,
I ()

17

Metbod" jor (he

Editton,1971, American
C
Federation and !\mcrican
A1e!hod.rjor
1:,x(J!JJit!atzl>{!
Indian Council of IVltXl1cal
IIj

i;!llYIfJerJll

Slalll/artir

iI

(;cncv::1.
lenwl,'{)fhJI

,\'Iillillmdtjor [)Ji!lkil{~
C;cneva.

I, \\ odd Hca.lth

21.

1,
of llealth, New

of

1972, United
Social Affairs), New

J\f:"lllIC,\ ",

rIValr!'

Til Farnham
Dij'tniJlttiOiI System '; 1
lStltU(C,

N'lgpur

, \\'J Weber, Wiley

UI'ie/iJl/(!I, ';

Svcd R, Qasim,

& \'(;nston,

", 5'h

1.

'

&T

11 ill
Inc,Ne\1/

Sulzer Brothers Ltd"

"Did/ollary oj lIydr~geiJ!~gy'; I
and
,C()iOt2:1Cal

Robert L
Institute, Falls

Associate
Minneapolis, U
i\, Jackson
Ilh'1ma, t:,SA

F,ditors,

Water Board,

740

4L

1
Co!~lllJJilIII?eJ ItI

44.

, 1978,

"CO"gltkltiOli
Separ:ltion,

In

49.

Journal of Institution

of Bm:toil Society

7n

10

10

o .I -I=:=tllit[jjj~twlli

FOR VALUES 01= C

MULtiPLY

G1VEN

MULTiPLY nNe