the

psychologist
vol 28 no 9

september 2015
www.thepsychologist.org.uk

The transition
to school
Claire Hughes asks what matters
and why

letters 690
news 698
careers 758
reviews 770

from adversity to buoyancy 718

do schools need lessons on motivation? 722
why do we like social media? 724
looking back: the Geel question 776

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From adversity to buoyancy

Marc Smith reconceptualises academic
resilience in schools

718

New voices: Do schools need lessons on

motivation?
Laura Oxley on reward and punishment in
the classroom

722

Why do we like social media?

Ciarn Mc Mahon considers the psychology
behind Facebook and more

724

...reports
news
698
mindfulness trial; British Academy Fellows;
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714

The best choice?

730
Katherine Woolf, Henry Potts, Josh Stott, Chris
McManus, Amanda Williams and Katrina Scior
on selection into the healthcare professions

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The transition to school

Claire Hughes asks what matters and why

society
740
Presidents column; Presidents Award; and more

The Psychologist is the monthly publication of The British Psychological Society. It provides a forum for
communication, discussion and controversy among all members of the Society, and aims to fulfil the main object
of the Royal Charter, to promote the advancement and diffusion of a knowledge of psychology pure and applied.

Managing Editor Jon Sutton

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Associate Editors Articles Michael Burnett, Paul Curran, Harriet Gross, Rebecca Knibb, Charlie Lewis,
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the

psychologist
vol 28 no 9

september 2015

the issue
...debates
letters
690
where is psychologys non-stick frying pan?; clinical supply and demand; people who
are not in education, employment or training; transpersonal psychology; and more

...digests
the tip-of-the-tongue state; drawing cancer; dehumanisation; selective mutism;
and more, in the latest from our free Research Digest (www.bps.org.uk/digest) 708

...meets
interview
Lance Workman talks to Richard Stephens about the Open University,
consciousness, happiness, and more

736

careers
758
we meet Camilla Sanger, and Tina Rae talks about her work as an educational
and child psychologist; and Mike Aitken Deakin welcomes new undergraduates
to their psychology degree
one on one
with Peter Olusoga (Senior Lecturer in Sports Psychology at Sheffield
Hallam University)

780

...reviews
memory and music at the proms
Daniel Levitins lecture reviewed
by Susan Hallam; Girls with Autism;
Fake It Til You Make It; Amy;
plus book reviews
770

Nothing brings a lump to your throat

quite like your offspring donning
their uniform and heading off to
primary school for the first time (or,
as with my own son recently, the last
time). They seem so small, and we
feel apprehensive on their behalf. So
what can parents and teachers do to
ease that transition? Claire Hughes
looks at the evidence on p.714.
Elsewhere, theres more
for teachers as we embark on
a new school year Marc Smith
on resilience, a Big Picture on
playgrounds, and our New
voices article tackles reward
and punishment in the classroom.
A different journey begins for
the thousands of new psychology
undergraduates who will be
receiving this issue free. We
hope the resources at
http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk
and www.bps.org.uk/digest will
guide you through your studies,
and that you will consider joining
the British Psychological Society
(www.bps.org.uk/join). Follow us on
Twitter @psychmag for all the latest,
and find us on Facebook (speaking
of which, hope you Like p.724).
Dr Jon Sutton
Managing Editor @psychmag

770

...looks back
The Geel question
For centuries, a little Belgian town has treated the mentally ill. Why are its
medieval methods so successful? Mike Jay investigates.

The Psychologist and Digest

Editorial Advisory Committee
Catherine Loveday (Chair), Phil Banyard,
Olivia Craig, Helen Galliard, Harriet Gross,
Rowena Hill, Stephen McGlynn, Peter
Olusoga, Tony Wainwright, Peter Wright

776

Seven years ago

Go to www.thepsychologist.org.uk
for our archive,
including Phineas
Gage unravelling
the myth

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Big picture
centre-page pull-out
gaining insights into the world of
playgrounds, with Jenny Gibson

LETTERS

Where is our non-stick frying pan?

contribute

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publication of every letter received.

690

predicted by the theory. The existence of the Higgs boson

was predicted by theory in the 1960s, as a crucial test of the
Standard Model of particle physics. It was finally confirmed
to exist in 2013.
What psychological theory produces predictions that can
be tested in this way? Or to be even more challenging, what
collection of ideas in
psychology have we got
that we can call a testable
theory? What is
psychologys Big Bang?
When it comes to
knowledge in psychology we
are not so much uncovering
it as inventing it. We appear
to use the basic methods of
science by observing and
categorising behaviour in
much the same way as
biologists or medics. But
theres a difference, and
nowhere is this difference
more obvious than in
diagnosis. To diagnose
chickenpox we look for three
symptoms: fever, itchy spots
and loss of appetite. Thats it. But if we want to diagnose PTSD
we look for any of 19 symptoms arranged in four categories.
To make the diagnosis of PTSD you have to judge the patient to
have at least eight of these symptoms across the four categories.
In other words two people might have not a single symptom in
common but still be said to have the same condition. There are,
in fact, 636,120 ways to get a diagnosis of PTSD (Galatzer-Levy
& Bryant, 2013). We are not discovering disorders, we are
inventing them, and this process gives us the various conduct
disorders, phase of life problem, sibling relational problem and
many others as we slowly but surely pathologise all human
behaviour.
So, its not looking good for theory. Maybe we have
transformational products: things that we have invented that
have changed lives? If you search the internet for the greatest
scientific inventions you get suggestions such as penicillin,
TIM SANDERS

If you were asked to list the top five achievements in psychology,

what would you say? Be honest, youd probably splutter for
a bit and then try to divert the question. Ive sprung this on
colleagues and they have come up with suggestions like
attachment theory, the multi-stage memory model or even CBT.
I dont consider this an impressive list. In fact, to me it suggests
a horrible truth for all the bluster
about science, all the fancy equipment
and million pound research grants,
we havent discovered any great new
understandings or technologies about
our core subject ourselves.
Yes, we have produced studies
and papers that cite and excite our
colleagues. When spun in the right way,
psychology can light up the sofa of The
One Show or the Today studio. But does
any of it amount to any more than a hill
of beans? A standard definition of
psychology is the scientific study of
people, the mind and behaviour. So
what are the headline discoveries about
people, mind and behaviour? And do
these findings match up to the
discoveries of the other sciences?
Look at physics. It has split the
atom, it has gravity, it has quantum theory, the Large Hadron
Collider and the Higgs boson. It has the Big Bang theory,
which offers an explanation of how the universe was formed.
Chemistry has the periodic table of elements, a classification of
all substances in the universe. Biology has evolution, a robust
theory of how we came to be here. I could go on.
Psychology is a young science, we say by way of excuse for
the lack of great findings. But 150 years is not that young. There
are younger sciences that have more to show: electronics has the
microchip, genetics has mapped out the human genome.
The central issue concerns how we develop knowledge in
psychology. To start with, other sciences have testable theories;
psychology has testable hypotheses. Whats the difference?
Einsteins theory of general relativity was first presented in 1915
and then spectacularly tested in 1919 when light was shown to
bend round the sun during a solar eclipse to the amount

and much more

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Robert Sternberg, Oklahoma State University
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vol 28 no 9

september 2015

letters

telephones, batteries, frozen peas, lasers, pianos, radar, the

internet itself and my favourite, the non-stick frying pan. In
none of the lists did I find one invention that you could claim
as psychological. Im not asking for an invention with the
impact of antibiotics, contraceptives, the aeroplane, the
combustion engine but surely we have something to match
the non-stick frying pan?
This isnt to say that psychologists have nothing to show
for their efforts. But it is surely a concern that for every CBT
we have a recovered memory therapy, for every attribution
theory we have a mass IQ testing supporting eugenicist
theories and actions.
This is not a treatise of despair, however, because I think
that psychology does contribute to our everyday life just not
in the manner of the other sciences. In his challenging talk to
the APA in 1969 George Miller seemed to come to the same
conclusion. He argued that we are looking in the wrong place
if we are waiting for the great discoveries and applications to
appear. He suggested that the revolution will come in how we
think of ourselves:
I believe that the real impact of psychology will be felt,
not through the technological products it places in the hands
of powerful men, but through its effects on the public at large,
through a new and different public conception of what is
humanly possible and humanly desirable (Miller, 1969,
p.1066).
The brilliance of psychology is that it provides a secular
explanation for our existence, our feelings, thoughts and
behaviour. It is an extension of the Enlightenment, rolling
back the fog of superstition, mysticism and religion to provide
understandings about ourselves that do not rely on
supernatural beings and events. And as the country becomes
more and more psychologically literate these understandings
have become part of the way we explain the world.
So its great that when there is an atrocity or a hate crime
it is psychologists who are commonly asked to comment,
rather than bishops. We might have very little to say or do,
but at least we are looking to ourselves for answers. But I still
call on you all: please, just show me our non-stick frying pan.
Phil Banyard
Nottingham Trent University
References
Galatzer-Levy, I.R. & Bryant, R.A. (2013). 636,120 ways to have posttraumatic stress
disorder. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 651662.
Miller, G. (1969). Psychology as a means of promoting human welfare. American
Psychologist, 24, 10631075.

MINDFUL READING
Psychologists are increasingly appreciating the value of
mindfulness-based approaches in psychotherapy. However, its
philosophy, principles and practices are controversial. For those
who are interested to participate in the ongoing discussion on
mindfulness a monthly Mindfulness Reading Group (MRG)
meetings will be held at BPS London office at 12:0013:30 on
12 October 2015. If you wish to join the Mindfulness Interest
Group email-list and/or simply keep in touch, please contact me.
The meeting is open to both BPS members and non-members.
Dr Ho Law
drholaw@gmail.com

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

A need in NEETs
Young people who are Not in Education, Employment or
Training (NEET) are at high risk of developing longer-term
mental health and/or behavioural problems, and this is a hot
political issue in Europe (see 2012 European Foundation report
at tinyurl.com/phll4fa). Most people know that unemployment is
linked to anxiety and depression, but it is often assumed that this
is a fairly transient condition (Weich & Lewis, 1998). A longer
lasting impact has been shown to occur in the children of
unemployed parents (Office for National Statistics 2004), but
so far this has not been connected with becoming NEET.
Schoon et al. (2012) reviewed the literature on the
intergenerational transmission of unemployment and concluded
that although the academic prospects of the child are largely
dependent upon a familys socio-economic circumstances, these
factors cannot on their own explain why adolescents become
NEET. Anger (2012) has suggested that the intergenerational
transmission of personality could also impact on the childs
economic prospects, and recent data I have looked at seem to
confirm this is the case for NEETs.
A post-hoc analysis of Rentfrow et al.s (2015) self-selected
online sample (N = 386,375) showed that on average all the big
five personality traits of 18- to 24-year-old NEETs (N = 2426) in
England were significantly different from the norms for their age.
Furthermore, there were significant differences in their
personality traits across seven self-reported income brackets. In
the lowest income bracket (< 10k) Neuroticism was higher and
Extraversion and Conscientiousness were lower than in all the
other income levels. This is of interest because Neuroticism
predicts later mental illness, substance misuse, and poor job
performance (Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006), whereas
Extraversion and Conscientiousness are considered to be
protective factors (Cambell-Sillsa et al., 2006).
Thus, there is good reason to believe that intergenerational
transmission of personality and socio-economic prospects
coalesce in the context of parental unemployment to create the
longer-lasting mental health problems that are seen in the NEET
populations (e.g. Serbin & Karp, 2004). While it is hoped that
these findings will inspire local governments to take action on
this most pernicious of public health problems, it is concerning
to think that national governments will lose interest once the
youth employment figures start to improve.
Stephen Adshead RNMH
University of Essex
References
Anger, S. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of cognitive and noncognitive skills. In
J. Ermisch, M. Jntti & T. Smeeding (Eds.) From parents to children (pp.393421).
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Campbell-Sillsa, L., Cohana, S.L. & Steina, M.B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to
personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour
Research and Therapy, 44, 585599.
Office for National Statistics (2004). Mental health of children and young people in Great
Britain, 2004: A summary report. Available at tinyurl.com/l4dg5q5 (05/2015)
Ozer, D.J. & Benet-Martnez, V. (2006). Personality and the prediction of consequential
outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 401421.
Rentfrow, P.J., Jokela, M. & Lamb, M.E. (2015). Regional personality differences in
Great Britain. PLoS ONE 10(3): e0122245.
Schoon, I., Barnes, M., Brown, V. et al. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of
worklessness. Institute of Education & National Centre for Social Research.
Serbin, L.A. & Karp, J. (2004). The intergenerational transfer of psychosocial risk.
Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 333363.
Weich, S. & Lewis, G. (1998). Poverty, unemployment, and common mental disorders.
British Medical Journal, 317(7151), 115119.

691

letters

Psychological support
bridging the gap
I am writing in response to
Fiona Sweeneys article, on
her role in a street triage
team (Careers, August 2015).
The innovative efforts of
the street triage scheme are
addressing a need that was
previously overlooked: a lack
of trained psychological
support for those must
vulnerable and distressed.
I believe, that over the next
few years, this scheme will
become a substantial area of
care for individuals suffering
from poor mental health.
My concern, and the
reasoning behind this letter, is
that there appears to be a lack
of psychological support in
areas much more relevant to
the care of service users. This

conclusion stems from my

experiences during several
occupational placements.
I have previously worked
in a number of different
healthcare settings, with
multidisciplinary teams in
both in- and out-patient
services, where I have found
trained clinical psychologists
are few and far between. This
absence suggests that
psychological support is not a
priority in terms of managing
the care of each service user.
However, whilst working
recently in an outpatient
service, I was surprised by
the amount of time that
was spent, during clinics,
discussing service user
anxiety. Other healthcare

professionals are having

to address these concerns,
and, as with police
officers, these individuals
have only basic
psychological training.
This is not to say that they
cannot deal successfully
with emotional and
psychological difficulties;
I was impressed by how
many adopted a personcentred approach during
appointments with service
users.
However, one must
wonder whether the
attention given to any
psychological issues, in turn,
takes away the focus from the
medical or physical difficulties
the patient originally came to

clinic to address? It is of
general knowledge that care
staff within the NHS are under
significant time constraints.
Therefore, their areas of

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692

220715

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

letters

A new scholasticism with

an old soul

expertise should take

priority, but this is not
always the case. Service
users will take the time
during clinic to address
their primary concerns,
and in some cases these are
psychological, therefore the
professional must meet this
need. It is asking too much
of professionals to address
their own concerns with
service users, and cover
the psychological and
emotional difficulties they
may be experiencing,
within a half-hour clinic
appointment.
Therefore, I argue
that each team, in each
department of the NHS,
needs a dedicated
psychologist. It is not the
case that every service user
seen will require ongoing
psychological support,
however, what should be in
place is the option to meet
with a professional who is
trained and equipped to
deal with any concerns,
should the service user and
family need it.
This then brings us
back to a question that has
been asked numerous times:
why, when there are so
many individuals eager to
become clinical
psychologists, are there not
enough job positions to

offer? There is a torrent

of prospective psychology
students that universities
are churning out each year
who are excellent
candidates for clinical
training, but there seems
to be some discrepancy
between this supply of
individuals and the demand
for psychological support.
The current state of affairs
seems to be that graduates,
like Fiona, are having to
become much more creative
with their career choices if
they want to succeed in the
field of clinical psychology.
I myself am a recent
psychology graduate and
I commend Fiona for her
move into street triage.
Fiona has managed to
overcome the obstacles
associated with a career
in the NHS, by working
in a profession that diverts
the attention back to patient
care.
For the service user
looking for psychological
support, it seems the
responsibility will have
to fall to healthcare
professionals, like lowintensity support, until
the NHS can bridge the
gap between supply and
demand.
Hope Brennan
Glasgow

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

In January of last year I graduated with a masters in transpersonal

psychology (hereafter TP) only to have become thoroughly
disillusioned with the field as a result. For the heights TP professes
to investigate are merely secular theoretical constructs in place of
the hitherto religious (predominantly Christian) pronouncements on
matters spiritual. Friedman (2009) has noted the xenophilia within
TP, or, the privileging of exotic traditions over those more closer to
home. Indeed, in our crippled culture, TP naturally looks to the East
for stable, embedded spiritualities, and, even worse, believes they
can be easily transposed into our midst. Carl Jung, who studied
comparative religion extensively, cautioned that he did not think
Westerners could fully appropriate Eastern religious endeavours
because of the inherent cultural differences. In fact, Friedman
(2005) relays a relevant insightful personal anecdote of how he
once expressed his interest in Zen meditation to a Japanese
colleague who then promptly laughed in his face at the Western
drive towards solitary spirituality a concept unthinkable in the
actual Japanese context. Many have subsequently written on the
cult of self-possession within contemporary religious alternatives
and TPs harshest criticism is that it has fallen into the trap of
psychology as religion (Vitz, 1994). Combine our cultural moment
of rampant individualism with Eastern practices of self-deification
and we see why Friedman (2009) went on to develop a concern for
the fields tendency towards proliferating narcissism.
The alternatives to our cultures
national theism, particularly
emphasised within TP as found
in the likes of Ferrer (2009), etc.
furthermore propagate a philosophia
perennis, which is to say one of
relativism. This is so taken for granted
that I thought I would look deeper
into how we got to such a place
whereby the once perceived spark of
divine intelligence within us was so
undervalued in its ability to render
real truths in the search for the sacred
that one accepts a postmodern
uncertainty over the history of our
land. After all, this has led to rather
embarrassing encouragements of
Carl Jung did not think Westerners
fideism, of the New Age romanticised
could fully appropriate Eastern
kind, whereupon one has the uneasy
religious endeavours
sense that imagination is inseparable
from assent; or, as Faber (1996)
explains in the Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, New Age
thinking is a regression to primary narcissism in which the adult
is returned to an infantile state of omnipotence, magical wish
fulfilment and merger with the mother[/Gaia] (p.608).
I subsequently hunted in the opposite direction and struck upon
how Catholicism has a particularly rich tradition of faith combined
with reason even in the area of psychology. Going right back to the
days of psychologys designation as within philosophys remit,
Catholicism carved out a school of thought based on traditional
philosophy under the banner of Neoscholasticism. The goal of the
Neoscholastics was to integrate the conviction of the soul with the
scientific study of the human mind. In fact Kugelmann (2005) lays
out how in the same year Wundt opened his psychological institute
1879 Pope Leo XIII issued a mandate for all Catholics to study
Thomistic philosophy of being. It is St Thomass equation of the soul

693

letters

with the intelligence that inspired my coining of the phrase

desouling for our breakdown in penetrative thinking in the
above areas. Neoscholasticism, for many myriad reasons lost
its soul (cf. Kugelmann, 2005 for full details) around about the
1960s when TP precisely took off.
While I have the privilege of seeing retrospectively that
Neoscholastic philosophy simultaneously underappreciated
the role of culture (because it was more overtly Christian then
anyway) and the individual (or rather personality), I found its
grounding in a workable philosophy of being the cornerstone
of my proposal that scholastic spiritual elaborations of our
intelligence cannot go far wrong. Those who search for the ghost
in the machine must encourage the division of labour between
ontology and science as TP adopted doing; whereas the
Thomistic rational soul is at least both empirical and preservative
in the face of those such as Dennett (1991), who delight in
exposing possible material causes for key but suspect fixtures
in transpersonal theory like consciousness, for example. Our
wisdom tradition, however, has a reasoned argument for assent
to the once great province of psychology itself the soul.
Perhaps if we recover this one element we can prevent the
slipping into uncertainty that categorises a lot of the confusion
modern seekers after the truth encounter in our day?

Faber, M.D. (1996). Narcissism. In D.A. Leeming, K. Madden & S. Marlan (Eds.)
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (pp.607609). New York: Springer.
Ferrer, J.N. (2009). The plurality of religions and the spirit of pluralism. International
Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 28(1), 139151.
Friedman, H.L. (2005). Problems of romanticism in transpersonal psychology: A case
study of aikido. The Humanistic Psychologist, 33(1), 324.
Friedman, H.L. (2009). Xenophilia as a cultural trap. International Journal of
Transpersonal Studies, 28(1), 107111.
Kugelmann, R. (2005). Neoscholastic psychology revisited. History of Psychology, 8(2),
131175.
Vitz, P. (1994). Psychology as religion: The cult of self-worship (2nd edn). Carlisle:
Paternoster Press.

obituary

Sabrina Halliday (19552015)

The recent passing of Sabrina
Halliday (married name, Levy)
was shocking she was such
a vital person and her to do
list was in no sense complete.
Sabrina started life and
graduated in Northern Ireland,
moving to do research/

David Bench MSc

University of Northampton Alumnus
References
Dennett, D.C. (1991). Consciousness explained. London: Back Bay Books.

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EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
A CRITICAL INTRODUCTION

teaching at Leeds, including

De-institutionalisation
Moving Children with Mental
Handicaps from Long Stay
Hospital to Community Care
in the mid-1980s. Children
hospitalised for being learning
disabled!? Services were so

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EDITED BY

VIREN SWAMI

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The only
series fully accredited
and approved by the
BRITISH
PSYCHOLOGICAL
SOCIETY

BPS TEXTBOOKS

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name
address

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Send your entry (photocopies accepted) marked prize crossword, to the Leicester office (see inside front cover)
deadline 12 october 2015. Winner of prize crossword no 82 Jordan Smith, Lincolnshire
no 82 solution Across 1 Stroop effect, 9 Malleable, 10 Shako, 11 Nectar, 12 Absinthe, 13 Incite, 15 Scornful, 18 Stressed, 20 Reason, 22 Trimaran, 23 Update, 26 Brand, 27 Maharishi, 28 Conditioning.
Down 1 Semantics, 2 Relic, 3 Operant, 4 Elba, 5 Feedback, 6 Cashier, 7 Cast-offs, 8 Dose, 14 Carnival, 16 Lingering, 17 Becalmed, 19 Stand to, 21 Esparto, 22 Toby, 24 Assai, 25 Shot.

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vol 28 no 9

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letters

was expressed generally

in active support for antiapartheid, feminist politics
and the charity Shelter. She
also trained in family therapy,
a natural development for her
belief in collaboration and
relationships.
She pioneered a Life Span
family therapy clinic and she
helped raise the profile of
systemic approaches in work
with people with learning
disabilities and their support
network. In 2002 she moved
to Somerset LD services where
she continued to work
effectively in a range of roles
management, clinical, teaching
and research. Much of this was
innovative (dementia
screening, rapid intervention
team, health psychology, etc.)
and courageous for example,
she set up and chaired a Good
Practice Panel which
successfully considered the
difficult ethical and legal

different Sabrinas
commitment, clear thinking
and resourceful approach
ensured this project was key to
the start of normalisation for
the local Service.
Training as a clinical
psychologist enabled more
involvement in making change
happen for individuals. Her
instinct for equal opportunity
and equal value led to
respected inter-agency and
multidisciplinary input and

issues of complex, challenging

presentations.
In 2010 a health scare
prompted retirement and
return to Northern Ireland to
give more time to her family
including her mother, husband
Dave, brother and sisters and
her beloved daughter Amy,
whose upbringing reflected the
essence of Sabrinas approach
in life: serving ,valuing,
enjoying and facilitating
fulfilment in others.
To the end Sabrina was
modest about herself, but
she positively glowed with
humanity. She set herself and
others high standards and
occasionally her frustration
with those who fell short,
stirred that glow into a shower
of sparks, but for the majority
she was a much-loved and
trusted team player with an
infectious chuckle.
More recently, Sabrina had
re-awoken her professional

energy and started to do some

clinical work in Ireland. No
doubt, even in that short time,
she will have made a
difference.
Sabrina would have been
the first to acknowledge that
any human system requires
a complex and varied mix of
individuals (i.e. diversity is
not only politically correct, it
is socially essential), but there
is also little doubt that there
would be more happiness and
less trouble in the world (and
the NHS!) if more were like
her. Thank you, Sabrina, you
will not be forgotten.
Judy Fox
Somerset Partnership, Clinical
Psychologist Retired
Lorna Robbins
Clinical Psychologist ALD
Psychology Lead, Somerset
Partnership
Maggie Potts
Manager and Clinical
Psychologist, Leeds ALD Service

obituary

I across

I down

9
10

11
12
13
16
17
19
21
24
25
26
29
30
31

Former PM's slump leads to

clinical disorder? (5,10)
Unlike cheese not down to score
(5,2)
Archaic exclamation about drink
that's knocked back is a
giveaway (7)
Former pupil's extremely
opaque source of notes (4)
Cut down moorland (4)
Partner no longer having appeal
is shown the door (4)
Settled ways to perform
international duties? (7)
Confection filling staff yard (5)
Sleep disorder? Shucks! (5)
Grass and ecstasy tablets
provide endless rave with love (7)
Keeping hold of love is girl's aim
(4)
Tailless snake recalled in
Scandinavian book (4)
First of olive oil put back in stew
(4)
Have a ball on unclosed luggage
conveyance (7)
Clout in design of block print (7)
A blip, or cryptically, does it
reveal mental illness? (7,8)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
14
15
18
20
22
23
27
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Little may be seen through this

instrument (10)
Fervent leader replaced by Jack
Green (7)
Smooth ladies' man (4)
Some cafes press out strong
brew (8)
Draw unfinished hotel (6)
See poet try to adapt to
simplified generalisation (10)
Accepted barrister to sum up?
(2,5)
Left a long time over holiday (4)
Fuddy-duddy to whip up oil, say
(6,4)
With typo, ruined grocer's flier
(10)
Naked girl reported in capital
(3,5)
He got ripped for part of selfserving exercise (3,4)
Put new strings in part of
orchestra accepting resin (7)
Face different directions during
swerve (6)
One regarded with contempt in
south, caught sailor (4)
Intelligence from home and
foreign office (4)

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Dennis Bromley (19242015)

Dennis Bromley, Emeritus Professor of
Psychology at the University of Liverpool,
died on 27 April 2015. He spent his entire
academic career at Liverpool University and
became Head of Department in 1974. His
prolific research produced books including
The Psychology of Human Ageing in 1966,
Personality Description in Ordinary Language
in 1977, Behavioural Gerontology in 1990 and
Reputation, Image and Impression Management
in 1993. There were also journal articles and
chapters in several text books on ageing.
In 1968/9 Dennis took sabbatical leave to
work in the Jewish Geriatric Centre in Philadelphia. In 1979/80
he again took sabbatical leave to work in the University of
Calgary and the Fanning Centre.
Dennis enjoyed his academic persona and was first and
foremost a scholarly person with a strong belief in learning.
He always maintained his interest in flying after time in the
RAF before university. He was a keen member of the University
Air Squadron and gained his private pilots licence after he
retired. He maintained an extraordinary level of fitness in the
University Sports Centre and by jogging in local parks and home
environs. The fact that he lived to the age of 91 is testimony to
this.
Dennis died after only two days in hospital after a long
period of physical and mental decline. He leaves his wife Roma
and their son Damian, and also his daughter Ruth from a
previous marriage.
Roma Bromley
Liverpool

695

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696

vol 28 no 9

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4th Annual Military Psychology Conference

Resilience Through Change

The Ark Conference Centre, Basingstoke
Tuesday 3 November 2015
Professor Sir Simon Wessely Director Kings College Londons Centre for Military Health Research;
President, Royal Institute of Psychiatrists
Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes Director, Institute for Veterans and Families Studies, Anglia Ruskin
University; President, British Psychological Society
This very successful annual conference continues to bring together experts working within and with its partner
professions in the field of Military Psychology. The British Armed Forces are facing continuing flux in their
involvement in challenges around the world, and how they operate with their partners within defence and
security. These challenges are also experienced by families of serving military personnel, reservists and veterans.
This 4th Military Psychology Conference will address the current models of resilience and whether they are fit
for purpose and how in practice resilience develops in individuals, teams and groups. As ever, the conference
also provides a personal reflection to help inform the work of practitioners and policy makers.
This Conference is preceded by a workshop; Normalising trauma? A possible model of psycho education for
military families led by Lynne Hipkin. Please note if you wish to attend this workshop you would need to book
separately. Further details and fees can be found via www.kc-jones.co.uk/militaryworkshops2015
Conference fees
Wessex Branch Member 105 + VAT = 126. BPS Members: 125 + VAT = 150
Non-members: 162.50 + VAT = 195. (see website for other membership categories)
Poster submissions still may be accepted
Abstracts should be submitted by e-mail to wellbeing@kc-jones.co.uk
Please visit the event website (see below) for further information
Sponsorship and exhibition opportunities are available
Please visit the website for further information

This event is organised by BPS Wessex Branch

and administered by KC Jones conference&events Ltd, 01332 227775.

For further information, please go to:

www.kc-jones.co.uk/military2015

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

697

NEWS

Mindfulness on trial
The potential benefits of mindfulness have barely left
the scientific or public consciousness in recent years (see
http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/mindful-moment). Now,
in the first large randomised control trial of mindfulness,
a Wellcome Trust study will aim to look into its effect on
the mental health of thousands of teenagers.
Teams from the University of Oxford, University College
London and the Cambridge MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences
Unit in collaboration with the University of Exeter will spend
the next seven years looking into the effects of mindfulness
training compared with teaching as normal. Seventy-six
schools, involving nearly 6000 students aged 11 to 14, are
due to participate. The three-part, 6.4 million study, will also
include experimental research to assess whether mindfulness
improves the mental resilience of teenagers, and an evaluation
of the most effective way to train teachers to deliver
mindfulness classes to students. The trial will involve training
students in over 10 lessons within a school term. The work is
scheduled to start in 2016 and will run for five years, including
a follow-up period of two years for each student.
The teenage years present a multitude of challenges and
change to young people and can be a very vulnerable time for
the onset of mental illness; more than 75 per cent of mental
disorders begin before the age of 24 and half by the age of 15
(see http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/teenagers-debunked for
a full transcript of our recent session on the topic at Latitude
Festival). The researchers will also look into secondary

698

outcomes of mindfulness training including peer relationships,

anxiety, student attainment and teacher wellbeing.
In the second, lab-based, part of the study researchers from
UCL and the MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit are
testing exactly how mindfulness affects wellbeing and whether
mindfulness training is more beneficial at some stages of
adolescence than others.
Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore (UCL), whose work has
looked extensively at the teenage brain, said it was becoming
clear that the early teenage years were crucial for development
of the brain. She added: Alongside the trial in schools, we are
trying to find out experimentally whether mindfulness
improves cognitive and emotional resilience in young people.
Using experimental tasks in the lab, we will study whether
mindfulness affects how young people think and feel and make
decisions under stressful or emotional conditions. We are
trying to establish whether mindfulness training, compared
with a control intervention, has different effects at different
stages of development, and therefore if there is a best time
for teenagers to be trained in the technique.
In the third strand of the study, researchers at the
Universities of Oxford and Exeter are assessing how best to
train teachers to deliver mindfulness to their students. The
study involves 200 teachers and is evaluating different training
methods (intensive mindfulness short course versus guided
self-help mindfulness training and web-learning) and how
easily and cost effectively teacher training can be scaled up. ER

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

news

BRITISH ACADEMY FELLOWSHIPS

The British
Academy has
elected four
psychologists
among 65 new
Fellows 42 UK
Fellows, 20
Corresponding
Fellows and
three Honorary
Fellows (the
latter including
poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy
and former Chief Executive of
the British Library, Dame
Lynne Brindley). The latest
election of 42 UK Fellows
takes the total number of
living Fellows to more than
1000 for the first time.
Professor Stephen
Reicher (University of St
Andrews) was one of the
psychologists who was newly
elected as a Fellow. Reichers
work has focused largely on
the relationship between
social identities and collective
mobilisation, with emphasis
on topics such as crowd
behaviour, nationalism and
national identity, leadership
and mass social influence,
conformity and
obedience, and
the psychology
of tyranny.
Among his
achievements,
Reicher has
published more
than 200
academic
articles and
chapters, and is
the author of
nine books, most recently The
New Psychology of Leadership.
He has also advised the UK
and Scottish governments
and his work on crowd
dynamics has transformed
public order policing in the
UK and across much of
Europe.
Professor Reicher said:
One of the great paradoxes
of academic life is that
achievement is always
collective, but reward is

always individual.
In my work, I
have always
benefited from
wonderful PhD
students,
collaborators and
colleagues. I find
it impossible to
define where my
contribution begins
and theirs
ends.
So, delighted
as I am to be given
this Fellowship,
I see this less as
a personal
accolade than
recognition for
our way of doing
psychology which
is socially engaged,
which challenges
the idea that
human nature limits
the worlds we can create,
and which focuses on the
collective processes that can
bring about social change.
Also, like Groucho Marx, I do
feel that any association that
would have me as a member
can't be all that its
cracked up to be.
The second
British psychologist
to be elected was
Professor Nicholas
Tarrier (University
of Manchester).
His work has
looked into the
psychological
and psychosocial
mechanisms
underlying mental health
problems, particularly
schizophrenia, psychoses
and post-traumatic stress
disorder and the development
and evaluation of
psychological treatments for
these problems.
Also named as a fellow
was emeritus Professor of
Psychology Janette Atkinson
for her work on models of
visual brain development,
underlying visual, spatial

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

and social cognition in both

typical and at-risk infants and
children, including those with
very premature birth and
Williams Syndrome.
Atkinson said she was
very pleased at her election
and added: I see this honour
as reflecting not only my own
leadership role, but also the
work of my team in the Visual
Development
Unit and all my
collaborators
around the
world who have
helped in the
progress of
our basic
developmental
research and in
translating
these findings
into educational
and clinical areas.
I believe that my election,
with others, reflects the
Academys recognition of
the diverse interdisciplinary
range of modern psychology,
as well as a gratifying
appreciation of the gender
balance of our discipline.
Finally, from across the
pond, Professor Elizabeth
Spelke (Harvard University)
was made a Corresponding
Fellow thanks to her work
in cognitive development
looking at the nature and
origins of knowledge of
material objects, animate
beings, number, geometry,
and the social world.
Lord Stern, President
of the British Academy, said:
Our fellows play a vital role
in the work of the Academy;
encouraging younger
researchers, engaging in
public discussion of the great
issues and ideas of our time,
and contributing to policy
reports. Their collective work
and expertise are testament
to why research in the
humanities and social
sciences is vital for our
understanding of the world
and humanity.

SUPPORT FOR
SURGERY
An organisation representing
plastic surgeons has called for
greater psychological support
for its patients after
reconstructive treatment. More
than 90 per cent in a survey of
100 members of the British
Association of Plastic,
Reconstructive and Aesthetic
Surgeons, said having specialist
psychological assessment and
treatment was important to their
patient group.
Two thirds of those surveyed
also reported seeing patients in
need of psychological support
every week, while 27 per cent
felt waiting times for
psychological help were
unacceptable.
Jo Tedstone, Consultant
Clinical Psychologist and
Associate Fellow of the BPS,
runs a psycho-oncology service
at Kings Mill Hospital, Mansfield.
She said psychological support
for physical health problems
was an area that was often
forgotten. There is plenty of
evidence that providing these
services improves patients
mood and quality of life as well
as reducing overall healthcare
costs. Illnesses that require
reconstructive plastic surgery
can have a huge impact on dayto-day life of the patient and
their family. Many people
need psychological support
to rebuild their lives. However,
at the moment simply not
enough people get the help
they need. ER

699

news

The 30th Annual PsyPAG Conference

This years Psychology Postgraduate
Affairs Group (PsyPAG) conference, held
in Glasgow in July, not only attracted
more delegates than ever before over
200 but also more presenters. The full
and varied programme of symposia and
posters was a real testament to the breadth
and range of postgraduate psychology in
the UK.
The first day was filled with
highlights. Professor Daryl OConnor
spoke on behalf of the Societys Research
Board, and our first keynote speaker,
Professor Richard Wiseman, grabbed
the audiences attention by opening with
a magic trick.
On Wednesday Glasgow City Council
provided a Civic Reception at Glasgow
City Chambers for a truly memorable
evening. Addresses by The Lord Provost
of Glasgow, Sadie Doherty, and BPS
President Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes
really added to the sense of occasion.
The sessions on Thursday and Friday
were just as successful as the first day and
we were pleased to welcome Dr Rachael
Jack and Professor Padraic Monaghan to
the conference as keynotes. The
conference dinner on the Thursday

evening was also a massive success,

with many of the delegates trying ceilidh
dancing for the first time.
Overall, this event was a fantastic
demonstration of everything PsyPAG
has to offer. The environment at the
conference was enthusiastic and
supportive and the social events provided
postgraduate students the opportunity to
network and relax. Throughout the
conference there was a sense of pride in
the achievements of PsyPAG over the last

30 years. The Twitter hashtag

#PsyPAG2015 attracted a huge volume of
attention almost 1000 tweets during the
conference alone.
It was a real privilege to host the 30th
Anniversary PsyPAG Conference, and we
hope to build on this success in the
coming years.
Niamh Friel, Jason Bohan, Stephanie Boyle,
Ben Dunn, Gemma Learmonth,
Kieran OShea and Yulia Revina
(Members of PsyPAG organising committee)

Takete or maluma?
Professor Padraic Monaghan (Lancaster
University) opened his keynote speech
on sound symbolism with this interesting
question. If we are shown a spiky shape or
a more rounded shape, we are more likely
to give the latter the title of maluma. Why
is this and how much meaning can we
retrieve from the sounds within words?
During his brilliant talk Monaghan
spoke about the aspects of meaning held
within phonoaesthemes, clusters of letters
which present a certain meaning, for
example the gl in words relating to light,
such as glimmer, glisten and gleam, as well
as the sn in nose-related words, snout,
sniff, sneeze, and, yes, snot.
These parts of language do not always
express the same meanings the sound
symbolism relationship is not perfect.
However even in other languages we may
not understand, we can often tell which
words mean whether something is large
or small, for example the word big in
Finnish is suuri, in Polish duza, and
Japanese oogata Monaghan said there
is a sound correspondence in languages
which can sometimes express size.

700

Sound symbolism may also be more

prevalent in other languages. He pointed
to the example of ideophones in Japanese:
there are thousands of words in the
language which express very particular
types of movement, for example
buruburu which expresses trembling
or shaking. Monaghan also said some
researchers have suggested sound
symbolism makes learning a language
easier, or even that it makes language
acquisition possible in the first place.
However within linguistics there is
a largely anti sound-symbolism feeling.
Many argue that there are many long
words for small things, small words for
big things, and the relationship between
sound and meaning is an arbitrary one.
Monaghan and his team have looked
at all monosyllabic English words, finding
a small but significant effect suggesting
that some of the monosyllabic words had
sounds that related to their meaning.
They also looked into whether there is
a soundmeaning link across 69 different
languages, finding that there was sound
symbolism in all other languages tested

(apart from Georgian), but no more than

seen in English.
So does sound symbolism make
language-learning easier? While previous
experiments have been forced-choice
between two novel words to name a given
object, Monaghan required participants to
learn new sound-symbolic names for
different objects. They were good at using
sound-symbolism to categorise objects
(rounded or spiky shapes) but could not
use the information for better learning
of the more fine-tuned individual words
(e.g. to define between two spiky shapes).
Monaghan suggested, if sound
symbolism could help us to learn basic
categories for objects then it could well be
useful in acquiring language in the first
place. He looked at the age of acquisition
of certain words and the amount of sound
finding that the earlier words we acquire
are more sound symbolic than we would
expect by chance. Monaghan concluded
that sound symbolism is prevalent, it has
only a small effect, but can be helpful in
learning categories of objects, and in some
of the earliest words we learn. ER

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

news

Facing up to expression
Are facial expressions truly universal?
This fascinating question, and many
others, have been tackled by Dr Rachael
Jack (University of Glasgow) and her
team using some unique technology.
In the past it was believed that the six
facial expressions of happiness, surprise,
sadness, fear, disgust and anger could be
recognised across the world. However, it
emerged in the late 1960s that while
Westerners have a high level of accuracy
distinguishing these, people from East
Asian cultures often confuse fear with
confusion and disgust with anger.
Dr Jack and her team hoped to find
out why this might be, starting
investigations using eye tracking
technology. While Westerners fixated
across the whole of a face when
distinguishing facial expressions, East
Asians tended to focus more on the upper
half of the face, particularly the eyes.
Jack also gave some interesting anecdotal
evidence, that in texts and online
Westerners use the smiley face :) where
the mouth is varied to suit the expression,
however in East Asian smiley faces such
as: ^.^ the eyes are varied to illustrate
expression and the mouth is altered very
little.
In her later work, Jack used a unique
computer platform to present participants
with 3D images of faces showing
randomised facial expressions. These
images were created using the Facial

Action Coding System, which identifies

the 40 specific muscles used in making
facial expressions. Specially trained people
who are able to move all of these 40
muscles individually were scanned and
recorded, therefore allowing the team to
generate images of faces with random
combinations of each of these movements.
In this later experiment a set of three
action movements were randomly selected
and combined together and presented as
one face; the participant then had to select
an emotion category for that face. Dr Jack
found that East Asians tend to use the
eyes more to signal emotion; for example,
in the East Asian results the stimuli most
correlated with anger and disgust looked
very different in the eyes, when compared
with the Caucasian stimuli where the two
emotions look similar in the eyes yet the
mouths are very different.
Jack has also used these stimuli to
investigate the face as a social tool, asking
how much information people glean from
facial movements as opposed to the
natural morphology of the face. She used
the stimuli described above to model the
dynamic facial expressions that indicate
dominance, attractiveness and
trustworthiness. Dynamics emerge as
more important: if a person who is rated
as looking untrustworthy pulls a
trustworthy face, they are then rated as
being as trustworthy as the most
trustworthy face. ER

Magic and dreams

Many psychologists will know Professor
Richard Wiseman from his regular
mentions in the media he is the UKs
only Professor in the Public
Understanding of Psychology, based at
the University of Hertfordshire. But you
may not know that Wiseman began his
working life as a magician, before going
on to take his degree and PhD in
psychology, ultimately pursuing an
academic career in the field.
Wiseman spoke of his early career
experiences, one of which was coming
up with the best idea for an experiment
that could be done live on TV. Wiseman
won the opportunity to test a hypothesis
related to the psychology of lying,
attracting a 41,474-strong group of
participants. This was a time before reality
TV was commonplace and before Big Data
became ubiquitous. The study, showing

that it is easier to tell if someone is lying

if you disregard the visual cues and just
close your eyes, was published in Nature.
More recent work demonstrated the
impact of so-called change blindness,
which reveals that in certain contexts,
despite thinking you are looking carefully
at visual cues, having your eyes wide open
generally doesnt help you to see what is
going on right in front of you. This fact is
visually expressed in his colour changing
card trick (tinyurl.com/9rsejv).
Finally, Professor Wiseman talked
about one of his most recent projects,
Dream On, which invites us to be part of
the worlds largest dream experiment (see
tinyurl.com/owpf2eh). It was launched at
the 2012 Edinburgh International Science
Festival and over 13 million dream
reports have already been submitted.
Dr Rene Bleau (University of Glasgow)

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Men rate women as more attractive when

they appeared on a short-term dating site
(such as Tinder) in comparison with the
same picture on a long-term site (like
e-Harmony). The reverse pattern is found
in women. Jack Livingston Woodward
(University of Glasgow) pondered whether his
findings were proof of an evolutionary theory
of mating men may hope to reproduce
more often with more diverse mates, while
women may look for more nurturing partners
with more resources.
Queen Margaret University student Hope
Christie compared participants reactions
to real footage of the aftermath of road
accidents, a scary game and Stanley Kubrick
movie The Shining. She found, although
fictional, the game and film caused
physiological responses and emotional
reactions, but the road traffic footage, also
used in prior experiments into trauma, left
participants more interested than scared.
All caused some intrusive thoughts but
these faded quickly; Hope concluded these
types of stimuli might not be best for
looking into trauma.
Could the energy drinks children consume be
linked to their behaviour and achievement at
school? Gareth Richards (Cardiff University)
looked into surveys of more than 2000
children involved in the Cornish Academies
Project. High amounts of caffeinated soft
drinks and chewing gum were related to low
attendance, low achievement in English and
maths, and higher levels of detention.
Stephanie Powell (University of Sheffield)
found that if children are shown a high
number of different ways to play with
a novel object they, in turn, develop a higher
number of their own novel uses or ways
of playing with the toy rather than being
restricted to imitating the original actions.
Natalie Bowling (Goldsmiths University
of London) showed participants a scale
of computer-generated images; on one end
a dolls face, morphing across the scale into
a human face. She found that female stimuli
were seen as less animate than males and
happy faces were more quickly rated as
animate than neutral ones. Male faces
were rated as more alive, more likely to
have a mind and more likely to feel pain.
Harriet Smith (Nottingham Trent University)
said evolutionary psychology would suggest
we might be able to learn about a persons
age, height, weight and even attractiveness
from their voice. She found that people
could match faces to voices, better than
chance, even if the face was a static image.

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14th European Congress of Psychology

Ella Rhodes reports from Milan

The nowness of PTSD

Receiving the Wilhelm
WundtWilliam James award
for her extensive and
internationally recognised
work in developing therapy
for people suffering with posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), Professor Anke
Ehlers (University of Oxford)
spoke about the rationale
behind the treatment.
Following a traumatic
event, people who develop
PTSD will often re-experience
brief parts of the event. These
episodes are more than mere
memories and are usually
accompanied by very strong
emotions, as well as a feeling
that the event is happening
again they have a sense of
nowness which is absent
from normal memories. Ehlers
also explained that these
intrusive memories can be
triggered by a wide range of
stimuli and, although rare,
some people experience

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dissociative flashbacks where

they feel as if they are actually
re-living an event and lose all
sense of current reality.
Ehlers and her colleague
Professor David Clark
proposed a model of PTSD,
where people with persistent
PTSD symptoms perceive a
power threat accompanied by
strong emotions and arousal
symptoms. The two sources
of this threat are negative
appraisals of the trauma and
the nature of the memory.
Compared with survivors
of trauma who dont develop
PTSD, those who do tend to
find their intrusive memories
are triggered more easily
and they have a sense of
nowness rather than simply
a similarity to a usual
remembered event. Ehlers
explained that triggers of
these memories do not often
have a meaningful association
with the trauma.

Parts of therapy for PTSD

are based on the idea that
certain memory processes may
be involved. There may be
a strong perceptual priming
during a traumatic event,
making a seemingly neutral
stimulus an eventual trigger
for intrusive memories. Ehlers
gave the example of one
patient who was stabbed in
an assault. His intrusive
memories were once triggered
while attending an art
exhibition by a certain quality
of light playing over glass.
Ehlers tested this idea and
found when pictures of
neutral objects are presented
during a traumatic story (in
the form of a slide show of
pictures), these are more easy
to recognise when participants
are later presented with
blurred images of these
objects. The therapeutic
technique which emerged
from this and similar findings

is to conduct stimuli
discrimination training with
PTSD sufferers. A therapist
will work through a persons
triggers and train people to
focus on the difference
between that trigger, for
example a neutral object or
even sensory event, and the
actual trauma itself.
Ehlers and her team
also hypothesised that the
autobiographical memory
that comes back to be reexperienced by someone with
PTSD is disjointed from other
autobiographical memories:
they are retrieved without
context. She gave the example
that many people during a
traumatic event feel like they
are about to die, and, although
they did not die, when reexperiencing event they again
feel very strongly they will
die. She suggested that these
re-lived moments remain
threatening because the

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news

Beating tax aversion

takes trust

meaning of the event hasnt

been updated.
Therefore another part of
therapy for PTSD is to update
these trauma memories.
A therapist will identify the
worst moments of a trauma
and the idiosyncratic meaning
attached to these (e.g. the
thought a person is going to
die or was to blame for the
trauma) and then look for
information that updates the
meaning of these memories.
Ehlers concluded her talk
by presenting data that
demonstrated the effectiveness
of such therapeutic techniques
for people with PTSD. She
said very few people drop out
from such therapy and it can
be used for adults, children
and people who have
experienced multiple traumas.
Ehlers hopes to expand her
work to deliver her treatments
over the internet, thus helping
people globally.

What role do power and trust play in how

we could tackle tax avoidance and the roles
of power and trust? Erich Kirchler (University
of Vienna) argued that tax avoidance large
corporations using loopholes in laws of certain
countries to shift profit is a far larger problem
than tax evasion. We need more to educate and
empower people to establish a sense of
wrongdoing, he said.
Professor Kirchler added that despite
large benefits to tax avoidance it comes
with reputational costs and can be associated
with a decline in a companys stock market
value. While audits and fines have their place
in motivating compliance, there are other
factors including the psychological at play.
Kirchler pointed to studies of attitudes
towards tax revealing that if people are asked
whether they would drive for 30 minutes to
purchase a television with an 8 per cent tax
discount compared with being asked if they
would drive 30 minutes to purchase a television
with a 9 per cent non-tax-related discount,
a majority will say yes to the former option
but no to the latter.
Kirchler said: Something is going wrong
here, audits and fines might be necessary but
theyre not the whole story. He suggested that
since we live in a social system a better way to
encourage positive interactions between people
and institutions was to look at the roles of trust
and power.
In his Slippery Slope Framework Kirchler
distinguishes between voluntary compliance
with taxes or compliance that is forced, and he
looked at how the perceived power of and trust
in institutions affects compliance. He said an
authoritys power comes from its capacity to

punish tax evaders while trust in an institution

is related to transparency.
In a cross-cultural study Kirchler and his
colleagues asked more than 14,000 people in
44 countries whether trust or power were more
important in their intended compliance to
pay taxes. He found that high levels of both
power and trust together lead to higher
intended compliance with taxes across
countries.
With this main finding aside, Kirchler and
his colleagues found a second surprising effect.
When comparing countries, he saw that in
some (e.g. India, Iran and Pakistan) high trust
and low power leads to more intended
compliance, whereas in others (e.g. South
Korea, Japan and the UK) high power and low
trust leads to more compliance.
Kirchler said he was initially puzzled by this
effect and speculated that in many European
countries trust in institutions is quite high and
people would accept it if they manifested more
power. He said we could learn from social
psychology, which suggests that it is important
for institutions to build trust first followed by
power. Whereas in other countries trust is
lacking in institutions and this could be why
people in these countries would comply more
if trust was higher.
Kirchler concluded that though audits
and fines are needed, they should be carefully
applied. Both power and trust are needed to
encourage compliance but power needs a
legitimate and trustworthy basis to be effective.
We should invest in peoples representations
of the public, the state and taxes and we might
think about changing the paradigm which
emphasises cooperative relationships.

Evil and heroism explained

Professor Philip Zimbardo
(Harvard University) the
researcher behind the
(in)famous Stanford prison
experiment of the early 1970s,
gave the closing keynote of
the conference around the
themes of evil and heroism.
He began by admitting that
growing up in the Bronx he
had friends who got in with
the wrong crowd, giving into
temptation and carrying out

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evil deeds for money while

others resisted.
He said this experience
led him to ask questions about
the nature of evil, and what
separated those who took the
different routes. Professor
Zimbardo outlined the
psychological definition of
evil, which involves exercising
power to hurt people
psychologically. At the level
of nations, this involves

committing crimes against

humanity; in corporations it
comes from allowing fraud,
corruption and bullying.
Although psychologists
began by exploring the nature
of evil at an individual level,
Zimbardo said it took
psychologists like himself
to point out that people are
always in a social context and
always have an audience. He
concluded that psychologists

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news

must take into account an

individual and their situation.
So what is the recipe for
turning ordinary people evil?
The biggest factor, according
to Zimbardo, is
dehumanisation thinking
of others as less than human.
He also pointed to diffusion
of responsibility, obedience
to authority, group pressure,
moral disengagement and
anonymity as factors.
After a brief summary
of his Stanford prison
experiment, where college
students were assigned as
guards or prisoners in a fake
prison setting with many

guards then treating the

prisoners inhumanely,
Zimbardo said he had
concluded that anyone is
capable of good or bad if a
situation induces it.
On the flip side, Zimbardo
asked, what are the conditions
necessary for ordinary people
to do good things? Although
there is little research in this
area, he suggested courage
mindfulness, empathy,
morality and compassion
but said sometimes these
dont lead to action. Therefore
Zimbardo refers to heroism as
the part of compassion that
causes people to act.

He outlined two types

of hero; those who are heroic
when immediately reacting to
a situation and those who are
heroic after reflection (e.g.
the Enron whistleblowers).
He suggested that while many
children are exposed to
superheroes as a role-model
for doing good, a better role
model would be ordinary
people carrying out heroic
acts.
Zimbardo then spoke
of the creation of his Heroic
Imagination Project a nonprofit educational programme
that is run in schools to teach
children how to take heroic

action and act in a prosocial

way. The lessons taught are
based on challenging
mindsets, situation blindness,
bystander effect, peer
pressure/conformity/adaptive
attributions and stereotype
threat, prejudice and
intergroup conflict.
There are activities around
each theme, all of which end
with the suggestion that the
children spread the word
about what the have learned.
The project is now being
taught in around 1000 schools
in Hungary alone to change
attitudes and encourage
prosocial behaviour.

Does religion breed personal values?

Does it matter if youre a Protestant,
a Catholic, a Jew or a Muslim? Is
religion enough to account for
individual differences? So began
Professor Shalom Schwartz (University
of Jerusalem) in his fascinating talk,
aimed at convincing the audience that
religion doesnt matter for individuals
personal values. Schwartz added: Im
talking about religion as a cause in
leading to people having one set of value
priorities not about religiosity. That
does matter; people who are highly
religious have different values than
those who are secular.
In his investigations Schwartz used
data from the European Social Survey,
which was conducted between 2002 and
2012 over 36 countries and involved
face-to-face interviews with more than
250,000 people between 15 and 102
years old. The survey included 21
questions that were intended to measure
10 values, which Schwartz condensed
into six categories, including selfconformity and tradition, self-direction
and need for stimulation.
Religion accounts for very little variance in
Schwartz found some marked
individual values
differences between religions and their
values, including high levels of
conformity and tradition within Muslim
people but low levels in the non-religious
when looking at each group individually
and Jews. The highest levels of hedonism
we see some large differences; for
were found in Jewish people and the nonexample, the Protestant group were much
religious, with the lowest levels seen in
older on average, the Jewish people had
Eastern Orthodoxy.
comparatively higher levels of education
Schwartz said that almost every
and the Eastern Orthodox group
possible between-group comparison he
contained more females.
found was significant; but was religion
Schwartz said it was vital to control
actually the main factor in these personal
for these variables, and when doing so
values differences? Schwartz said that
almost all of the variance in personal

704

values seems to be due to individual

characteristics. Another potential
confounding variable is a persons
country of origin: religious groups
within the same country are much
more similar to each other; Schwartz
suggested being of a certain religion in
a country where that religion is in the
minority could impact on personal
values. For example, Muslim peoples
values stood out most when they were
in a minority and were grounded in
anxiety and self-protection.
Schwartz concluded: People say
without religion people tend to be selfinterested. But that doesnt seem to be
terribly important for what people are.
Non-religious people were just as high
as Protestants in concern for others and
just as low in concern for the self and
taking advantage of others. He also
pointed out that identifying with a
religion was not important for
benevolence and that religion accounts
for very little variance in individual
values.
Schwartz did point out that his study
was limited by its focus on Western
monotheistic religions and only looked at
European countries. He also said that we
should consider that each religious group
would probably differ in its values and it
may be that certain people with certain
values are drawn to particular religions or
being non-religious. He added that many
psychologists had completely ignored the
fact that most people in Europe identify
as non-religious. In the future, Schwartz
said, he hoped to look at the values of
people who were once religious but no
longer are.

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news

The psychobiology of stress

Some fascinating insights into stress and
the potential for later illness, as well as
stress in stimulated life-threatening
situations, were discussed at a British
Psychological Societyfunded symposium.
Members of the Psychobiology Section
drew in scores on a hot and humid day.
Dr Mark Wetherell (Northumbria
University) opened with his work on the
effects of anticipation of a forthcoming
demanding situation on cortisol. He began
by explaining the role of cortisol in
maintaining the fight or flight response,
and its longer-term role in sleepwake
regulation and glucose metabolism.
Cortisol has an immediate peak after
waking, the cortisol awakening response
(CAR). This response, if reduced, is
related to burnout and exhaustion, and if
exaggerated can be the result of increased
job and life stress. If a person has a
demanding event ahead of them, this
anticipation (even if the event is positive)
can lead to an exaggerated CAR.
In his own work at the Northumbria
Centre for Sleep Research which is laid
out to look like a comfortable twobedroom apartment in an attempt to
increase ecological validity Wetherell
has looked to assess this effect of
anticipated demand. In one study
participants entered into either a sleep or
stress study and measured their cortisol,
general wellbeing, wakesleep patterns
over a 14-day baseline assessment before
attending the lab. In the stress condition
they were told that the following day they
would do a range of demanding tests each
hour throughout the day until bedtime. In
the sleep study they were told they could
spend the day in the lab and watch TV
and relax. He found those in the stress
study were more tense and physically
aroused compared with their 14-day
baseline. The stress group also had greater
secretion of cortisol during CAR and a
greater CAR peak.
Angela Clow (University of
Westminster) continued by speaking
about the individual difference of
attachment style in predicting cortisol
responses. She explained that the stress
and cortisol systems could become
dysregulated over time if a person is
repeatedly exposed to stress, and that
our responses or evaluation of stressful
situations have a bearing on how we cope
with them. Just as exaggerated stress
responses can predict morbidity in later
life, having close attachments can also
predict life-course morbidity. The
insecure-anxious attachment style, which

manifests itself in a fear of rejection and

high desire of company, is associated
generally with more health problems
across the lifespan.
With this as a starting point Clow
looked into the stress responses of
students to a modified version of the Trier
Social Stress Test, where six participants
were confronted with a non-empathetic
and powerful panel of people and asked
to give a two-minute speech and then do
mental arithmetic. Those with an anxious
style attachment had a higher peak in
cortisol levels than those with a secure
attachment style. Clow concluded that
an anxious attachment style could be
a surprising and significant individual
difference factor predicting future
vulnerability to ill health.
Dr Michael Smith (Northumbria
University) has been looking into the
sometimes controversial link between
Type D personalities, physiological
symptoms and dysregulated reactions to
stress. He began by explaining a Type D
personality is categorised as a person
having high levels of negative affectivity
(being worried, irritable or unhappy) and
social inhibition (high levels of inhibition,
being closed and reserved). Early studies
in this area have found that people with
this personality type are more likely to
have recurrent heart attacks after an initial
heart attack.
However, the area has been heavily
criticised, with many studies failing to be
replicated. Smith pointed out that some
have argued abandoning Type D research
would be premature, as it can be useful
in predicting cardiovascular outcomes.
In one study Smith and his colleagues
worked with 77 people who were asked
to carry out a multitasking stressor
experiment where four tasks must be
completed at the same time, each
requiring a different response while blood
pressure and heart rate are monitored.
He found, surprisingly, that at most
points during the task Type D people
showed reduced blood pressure reactivity.
He explained, though, that blunted
cardiovascular activity is related to poor
health outcomes too. A further study
found a similar blunted response in Type
D people to mental arithmetic.
Another psychobiological reaction
seen in Type D personalities, Smith
explained, is cortisol levels. Previous
research has found Type D coronary
patients have an elevated CAR and
a greater cortisol secretion throughout
the day. In his own work Smith found

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no relationship between this personality

type and cortisol levels, but in Type D
participants aged 26 to 44 he observed
higher social inhibition and higher levels
of cortisol during CAR than in other age
groups, along with higher levels of
cortisol throughout the day. He
concluded: With repeated stresses
physical systems become stressed and
respond in an aberrant way. Personality
might be another individual difference
factor thats important in terms of
demands on the physiological system.
Finally Sarita Robinson (University
of Central Lancashire) spoke about the
psychobiology of facing simulated lifethreatening situations, its impact on
cognition and the potential for nutritional
interventions to help dampen these
effects. Dr Robinson has carried out work
at a nautical college where participants
have to escape from a helicopter cockpit
that is submerged underwater and rotated
180 degrees. She said there is a peak in
cortisol around 30 minutes following the
exercise, although participants feel relaxed
by this point. In terms of cognition,
participants have no working memory
problems before the exercise but straight
after do show some problems with this.
Some of Robinsons participants are
also tested for cortisol levels and cognition
after completing a simulated fire fighting
search and rescue. During this work she
came across the idea of cognitive
collapse, where survivors of an emergency
feel cognitively capable during the event,
but following a stressful event cognitive
ability seems to fall away. Robinson began
to look at whether drinking an energy
drink prior to the fire search and rescue
exercise would help prevent this cognitive
collapse. She found a high glucose drink
did help with memory performance and
mood, while both high caffeine and high
glucose drinks helped with information
processing. A further study looked to
asses whether chewing gum, either regular
gum or that containing caffeine or Ltheanine (an amino acid found in tea and
thought to aid relaxation), would help
with cognitive collapse. No effect was
found of chewing gum on stress or
cortisol levels, while caffeine gum had
some effect on visual declarative memory.
She concluded that some interventions
should be considered for the time after an
emergency or life-endangering situation,
and that interventions such as chewing
gum which have had good effects in the
lab may not be useful in real-life
stressful situations.

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news

Being together apart

Three researchers who have looked into
the use of forums in supporting people
with a chronic illness gave talks about the
challenges of psychologists working with
technology, the difficulty of being a forum
moderator and the use of forums more
generally as support networks.
Jeff Gavin (University of Bath) began
the discussion by explaining that, with the
NHS under intense strain, more research
is being aimed at how technology may
help people self-manage their own chronic
conditions. While much work looking
into forums is done retrospectively the
researchers wanted to create a forum from
scratch aimed at people with complex
regional pain syndrome (CRPS).
Dr Gavin explained that CRPS is an
incurable disorder that leaves sufferers
with debilitating pain. It is a difficult
condition to diagnose and can be
extremely isolating. The study aimed not
only to create a conventional forum but
also, following this, to encourage users of
that forum to contribute to a wiki page on
CRPS to give a patient perspective of the
condition this unique idea would allow
the researchers to see discussions among
the authors who were creating the page.
The original forum was set up and
monitored for six months, and in that
time there were 62 members and more
than 200 posts. However, Gavin said there
had been some key challenges within the
study. These included working with web
developers to produce a user-friendly and

attractive site, and regaining momentum

after a hacker created several fake profiles
on the site causing it to be shut for several
days. Gavin also outlined an interesting
ethical dilemma faced when one of the
forum users seemed to be struggling with
symptoms of depression. One researcher
wondered whether it would be ethical to
intervene, a second suggested setting up
a fake profile on the forum to offer help
that way, the third researcher disagreed
with the ethics of this and suggested
asking another of the group members to
offer some support. Eventually it turned
out this person had received much
support on other social networks.
In conclusion, Gavin said there was
an issue with the lack of participant
engagement, particularly with the
intended wiki task. None of the forum
users wanted to write about their
condition publically. As a result the
research team created a series of leaflets
about CRPS from what they thought was
the forum users point of view. He said
this should perhaps tell researchers to
stick to studying existing technology and
familiar mediums for communication.
Neil Coulson (University of
Nottingham) gave an interesting talk into
his work with forum moderators, those
who help to run and offer support to
people using the sites. Dr Coulson said
moderators, who are usually also patients
themselves, were an incredibly important
group who have been under-studied, and

he asked what
psychologists could
do to support them.
One study
looked into 59
moderators across
six online
communities (all
for physical and
mental health
problems) to see
what they do. Two
thirds of messages
sent by moderators
in this study were
aimed to support other members, doing
things with a supportive intention,
offering advice, validating feelings and
telling them not to feel alone.
Coulson and his team also conducted
extensive face-to-face interviews with 33
moderators across 24 online support
groups. He found three major themes;
emergence, empowerment and nurturing.
Emergence is the first step of most
moderators in setting up online
communities due to a lack of support
outside of the internet, he found a want
to care for others as a big drive for this.
Empowerment, Coulson explained,
involved a moderators experience
of learning and growth and turning
the challenging experience of having
a medical condition into something
positive. He pointed out the difficulty
of serving that dual function of helping

GRASPING THE ORGANISATION OF THE BRAIN

How are objects represented
in the brain? Eminent cognitive
neuroscientist Alfonso
Caramazza (Harvard University)
argued that it is on the basis of
both domains and attributes,
and he backed up this view with
neuropsychological evidence.
Professor Caramazza
described patients with agnosia,
a difficulty in recognising objects,
and apraxia, who have trouble
with actions related to objects.
Patients with selective
impairments of certain parts of
cognition about objects give some
proof that the brain must be
organised in a certain way.
For example, some patients

706

struggle with identifying an

objects attributes; Caramazza
pointed to patient WC who
performed only at chance when
asked which two objects (out of
a piano, pen and typewriter)
matched in the manner in which
one uses them (piano and
typewriter). They were able,
however, to say which matched
in function (pen and typewriter):
Caramazza said this shows we
have separate object knowledge
in the brain, part dealing with
function and part dealing with
the manipulation of objects.
Some patients are impaired
in their knowledge of object
domains; for example patient EW

showed a selective difficulty in

naming animals (animate objects)
but performed normally naming
inanimate objects. The visual
system within the brain,
Caramazza pointed out, is
organised by categories; there
is an area for faces, animals,
bodies, body parts, trees and
buildings. However the major
organisation of the brain is
complex and is seemingly split
into three domains; animate,
inanimate, and big vs. small
objects. There are peaks of
preference for each of these
in certain areas of the brain.
Caramazza suggested that this
organisation by size serves a vital

function small things are

graspable while things that are
large can be used for navigational
purposes.
In terms of the development
of highly specialised areas for
objects, size and function,
Caramazza asked how these
develop and whether they are
truly visual areas. It seems,
thanks to recent research, that
even the congenitally blind have
brains organised for inanimate,
animate, small and large objects.
Caramazza concluded that brain
organisation does not arise due
to visual experience but must be
a result of evolutionary pressures
to organise the brain.

vol 28 no 9

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news

others while helping the self

and said engaging with an online
group helped people to learn
more about their conditions as
well as accessing a communal
brain or resource hub. Finally
Coulson explained nurturing,
and asked what it takes to
nurture a forum and be a
moderator. He said there was
some tension between living with
a disease and devoting a lot of
attention to helping others, and
that moderators felt a strong
need to set clear boundaries. The
notion of self-care also came out:
moderators spoke about having
armour to deal with spam and trolls.
Coulson concluded that we need
moderators but that there was an
argument for moderator training to
develop the skills and resilience needed
to carry out the role.
Finally, Professor Karen Rodham
(Staffordshire University) described
examining a forum from its birth. She
said this gives researchers much scope to
assess how themes, cultures and quirks
develop. When first using the CRPS
forum, Rodham found that people tended
to use their real names and speak about
their journey to diagnosis, contact with
health professionals, and their hobbies.
There is much misdiagnosis with CRPS,
treatment is often simply aimed at
alleviating symptoms, and people may
find the right medication through trial
and error. Rodham therefore suggested
this standard introductory format served
to establish an individuals credentials as
an authentic member of the community
and someone with a right to join.
Rodham has also examined the type
of language used on pro-anorexia
websites. She found many of the
troubling symptoms (such as hair loss)
are framed in a positive light, and that
some members encourage others to
actively hide the fact they were anorexic,
using sinister language that suggested
telling others would lead to disaster.
Across forums common themes occur,
with sites often starting with a positive
outlook but over time turning negative.
Rodham said that although venting can
be helpful and positive, there is a danger
that forums turn into a collective rant.
The growing feeling on some forums that
only a person with a particular condition
could understand their pain, can lead to
greater isolation in the real world.
Rodham concluded that health
professionals should be armed with
quality sites and good information,
and harness the positivity of forums to
complement face-to-face interactions.

PSYCHOLOGY AT LATITUDE FESTIVAL

The Psychologist made a successful first appearance at a major UK festival in July. The
Psychologist and Wellcome Trust presents slot at the Latitude Festival in Suffolk paired
Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore (University College London) with author Fiona Neill, for
a discussion in the Literary Arena chaired by our editor Dr Jon Sutton.
The arena was full for Being Young Never Gets Old Teenagers Debunked. Our editor
reports: We were thrilled to peep out from backstage to see so many people. The session
went very well, the audience questions were fantastic and we received lots of positive
feedback both on site and on social media. Professor Blakemore was interviewed on BBC
6Music and there was coverage in The Guardian. And it was nice to be in the programme and
on the t-shirts! All in all, I think it was a great way to reach a large and different audience.
A full transcript is at https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/teenagers-debunked. We are
now looking into potentially repeating the session at a literature festival, and will be
discussing options for Latitude Festival 2016 later in the year.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

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DIGEST

Why words get stuck on the tip of your

tongue, and how to stop it recurring
Someone in a tip-of-the-tongue state will invariably writhe about
as if in some physical discomfort. I know it, I know it, hang on...
they will say. Finger snapping and glances to the ceiling might
follow, before a final grunt of frustrated submission No, its
gone.
Psychologists studying this phenomenon say it occurs when

In Cognition
there is a disconnect between a words concept and its lexical
representation. A successful utterance requires these two steps
to be bridged, but in the tip-of-the-tongue state, only the concept
is activated (and possibly a letter or two) while the complete
translation into letters and sounds fails. Whats more, new
research shows the very act of being in this state makes it more
likely that it will recur.
Maria DAngelo and Karin Humphreys provoked their
participants into experiencing tip-of-the-tongue states by
presenting them with the definitions for rare words (e.g. What
do you call an instrument for performing calculations by sliding
beads along rods or grooves?). Sometimes the students knew
the word straight-off, other times they said they simply didnt
know, but occasionally and these were the important trials
they said they definitely knew the word, but couldnt quite spit
it out.
The researchers quickly (after 10 or 30 seconds) put the
students out of this last, uncomfortable tip-of-the-tongue state
by telling them the answer. However, a key finding was that
being in a tip-of-the-tongue state for a particular word on one

708

occasion increased the likelihood of being in that state again

for the same word on later re-testing, whether that second test
came five minutes, 48 hours or one week later (thus replicating
and extending previous research by the same lab). This
recurrence is despite the fact of having been told the word after
the initial tip-of-the-tongue state.
This suggests the state involves an unhelpful learning
process. Imagine a hiker who is lost en route to his destination
this is your brain trying to find the path between word
concept and letters and sounds. The findings suggest that
walking the wrong route once actually makes it more likely
youll get lost again as you unintentionally come to learn the
wrong way to your destination.
Consistent with this account, spending more time
deliberately but unsuccessfully attempting to resolve a tipof-the-tongue state made it even more likely that it will recur
(but note, contrary to the researchers prior work, this time
this effect was only found when participants put a lot of
unsuccessful effort into resolving the tip-of-the-tongue state).
In real life, this means that if youre hopping about in
a frustrated tip-of-the-tongue state and I tell you the word
youre hunting for, I wont have done you any favours next
time you need that word, youre likely to get stuck again.
The researchers believe this is because although Ive told you
the word, you havent arrived at it through your own wordsearching processes. To follow the hiking analogy, its a bit
like Ive picked you up by car and fast-tracked you to your
destination by doing so, I will have done nothing to teach you
the correct route.
So, is there anything you can do to help a person in a tipof-the-tongue state? A clue comes from the fact that when
the students in these experiments spontaneously resolved
a tip-of-the-tongue state (i.e. they finally managed to find the
word before the researchers told it to them), they were
subsequently far less likely to get stuck again. Such
spontaneous resolutions suggest that the word-search process
has managed to resolve itself and when this happens, the correct
conceptword connection is usually remembered. This is like the
lost hiker managing to find his own way to the destination and
remembering the route for future use.
The way to help someone in a tip-of-the-tongue state, then,
is to nudge them towards a spontaneous resolution. When the
researchers helped their student participants resolve a tip-oftongue state by giving them the first few letters of the solution,
this prevented the state from recurring on later testing. Point the
hiker in the right direction and if he finds the right way himself,
he will remember the correct route in future. This nicely
complements an established phenomenon from research on
word learning known as the generation effect: that is, generating
words from clues (such as a word stem) leads to better memory
for those words than being told them whole.
These findings may have potential applications for both
educational, and therapeutic settings, in which a student or a
patient with neurological damage is trying to retrieve a difficult
item, the researchers concluded. CJ

vol 28 no 9

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digest

Drawing cancer

New method reveals our blatant dehumanisation of minority groups

In Psychology and Health

In Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Early diagnosis of cancer can save lives,

yet so many people wait before reporting
important symptoms. A pilot study uses
an unusual approach to explaining why, by
asking skin cancer patients to draw their
melanomas.
Suzanne Scott at Kings College, London
and her colleagues recruited 63 skin cancer
patients (average age 64), around half of
whom had a thinner melanoma, and half
a thicker melanoma (prognosis is poorer
for the latter group). Four of the patients
had had their melanomas spotted
opportunistically by a clinician; the others
had waited between 1 week and 303 weeks
before reporting their first symptoms.
All were asked to produce annotated
drawings of their melanoma as it looked
when they first noticed it, and how it
changed over time. Fifty-three of the
patients agreed (three had their wife or
daughter produce the drawings), while four
were unwilling or unable to do the drawing.
Overall, this suggests that the idea of
drawing their symptoms is acceptable and
practical for most patients. Men tended to
produce more drawings than women. In all,
137 drawings were produced by 53 patients.
The researchers said the level of detail
produced shows that most patients tend to
pay attention to their skin changes, but that
they often dont act on the changes. This
implies that public health interventions
need to do more to educate people about
the meaning of their skin changes and when
it is appropriate to seek help.
Another key finding was that patients
drawings correlated in size with their actual
melanomas (as measured in histology
photos), and yet there was no correlation
between size of drawings and the time
taken to seek medical help. The
researchers said this further suggests that
it is likely that it is patients interpretations
of the meaning of their symptoms, rather
than their perception of the physical nature
of the symptoms per se, that explains their
decisions as to whether or not to seek help.
Its also notable that patients often depicted
changes in size and colour in their drawings
(two key diagnostic features), but other
important factors including shape and
border irregularity were rarely depicted.
The study is limited by the small sample
size and the reliance on asking patients to
remember how they had perceived their
melanomas. Nevertheless, the researchers
concluded that patient drawings add a
deeper understanding of patient perception
of their lesion [and] can facilitate
discussion of symptoms perception and
appraisal. CJ

The scale seems particularly useful

Ghanaian footballer Emmanuel Frimpongs
when the in-group feels under direct threat
match in Russia recently ended nastily:
of violence. In the two weeks following the
When the match was stopped, he said,
Boston Marathon bombing, US participants
the fans started shouting monkey at me.
showed significantly higher Arabic
Redefining human beings as animals in this
dehumanisation on the Ascent scale than in
way, or as vermin, or insects, is no small
data collected two months before. This was
thing; time and again it has augured the
again a strong predictor of many of the
worst that our species has to offer.
measures described above and of
In the wake of the Holocaust, early
eliminativist attitudes such as agreeing with
researchers sought to understand blatant
a tweet that all Muslims should be wiped off
dehumanisation, such as peoples greater
the face of the earth. A similar result was
willingness to apply an electric shock to
obtained with a British sample following the
subjects who were depicted as inhuman.
murder by Islamic converts of the off-duty
More recently, researchers have turned to
studying infrahumanisation: a more
subtle variant where certain groups
are assumed to be less prone to
embarrassment, compassion or
other more sophisticated human
emotions. But blatant
dehumanisation is still with us, and
a new paper suggests that by
measuring it we can better predict
peoples intentions (especially when
theyre feeling threatened) towards
degraded minority groups.
Across several online surveys,
hundreds of US and British
participants were asked a host of
attitudinal questions and asked to
rate different ethnic groups on how
evolved they were, using a graphic
British soldier Lee Rigby: dehumanisation of
depicting the famous Ascent of Man.
Muslims was high, and this time correlated
By setting a slider somewhere between the
with support for drone strikes, punitive
two ends, participants were free to consign
treatment of the perpetrators, and
ethnic groups to being less than human.
aggressive counterterrorism policy against
Initial results found US citizens
Arabs and Muslims.
dehumanise Arabs and Muslims the most,
In this papers initial surveys, the
so the paper focuses on these groups,
measures of more subtle dehumanisation
although a similar, weaker pattern of results
was also for the other groups, such as South (infrahumanisation) had offered some
explanatory value, sometimes overlapping
Korean or Mexican people.
with the Ascent scale results, sometimes
Where the US participants placed
complementing them. This was much
the Arabs on the Ascent scale turned out
less so in these last two post-crisis
to be revealing of their wider attitudes:
it correlated with
their desire for
The material in this section is taken from the Societys
reducing Arab
Research Digest blog at www.bps.org.uk/digest, and is
immigration, lack
written by its editor Dr Christian Jarrett and
of sympathy towards
contributor Dr Alex Fradera.
an unjustly treated
delinquent teen of
Arab ethnicity, and
endorsement of acts
of violence, such as
advocating torture or
bombing an entire
Arab country (this
was true even after
controlling for
measures of
infrahumanisation).

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Visit the blog for full coverage including references and

links, additional current reports, an archive, comment,
our brand new podcast, and to book your place at our
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Subscribe to the fortnightly e-mail, friend, follow and
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709

digest

situations. Pre versus post Boston Marathon,

the participants subtle dehumanisation
scores didnt budge, failing to reflect the
overt changes in attitudes evinced by the
participants (on immigration etc.), or the
hostile advocacy of the US-Boston
participants and the UK-Rigby participants.
This is not to say that measures of
infrahumanisation are redundant they
capture a different aspect of Othering, one
that could occur in low-stakes, everyday
interactions. But this more subtle
dehumanisation appears to shift more
slowly perhaps through the drip-drip of
culture whereas blatant dehumanisation,
as measured by the Ascent scale, seems to
better capture our states of mind in volatile
contexts. In an age where nationalism and
ethnic identity are returning to the political
centre stage from the rise of the European
far-right to the emergence of the so-called
Islamic State which treats those unlike
themselves as non-human its important
that we are able to measure and understand
this treatment of the other. AF

Experiences of adults with selective mutism, in their own words

In Qualitative Research in Psychology
Some people have a condition that means
in most situations, they cant speak. Theres
nothing wrong with their tongue or vocal
chords , and they don't have aphasia which
is when brain damage affects speech. Yet
most of them time, they feel completely
unable to speak.
In 1934 the term elective mutism was
coined to describe this condition based on
the idea that people fitting the diagnosis
were choosing to remain silent. But the
favoured term, at least in the UK, has since
changed to selective mutism to reflect the
fact that for many, their inability to talk in
some situations does not feel like a choice.
For instance, someone with selective
mutism might talk perfectly normally when
home alone with their parents or other
close family, but find themselves totally
incapable of speech in public or at school
or work.

LINK FEAST
Why Do Babies Laugh Out Loud?
Babies cant possibly get a joke, so what causes their
giggles? The answer might reveal a lot about the making
of our minds, says Tom Stafford at BBC Future.
www.bbc.com/future/story/20150728-why-do-babieslaugh-out-loud
The Virtues of Cold Blood (audio)
Sam Harris interviews psychologist Paul Bloom about the limitations of empathy as
a guide to moral reasoning.
www.samharris.org/blog/item/the-virtues-of-cold-blood
Making Friends in New Places
The first three weeks are crucial, says Nicholas A. Christakis at the New York Times.
www.nytimes.com/2015/08/02/education/edlife/making-friends-in-newplaces.html
Experimental Psychology: The Anatomy of Obedience
Brendan Maher at Nature reviews two films probing notorious US psychological
experiments.
www.nature.com/nature/journal/v523/n7561/full/523408a.html
Are You a Head Person or a Heart Person?
At New York magazine, Digest editor Christian Jarrett looked at research that says
your answer to this question is telling.
http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2015/07/are-you-head-person-or-heartperson.html
Facing Shadows (YouTube video)
In April 2015 seven young people who had been to a Child and Adolescent Mental
Health Service (CAMHS) for help with their depression came together, with the aim
of making a short, animated film about what it is like to suffer from depression as
a teenager.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdmRPKUhNEY

710

Psychologists have struggled to

explain selective mutism some have
suggested it is an extreme manifestation
of social anxiety; others point to links
with autism. What has been almost
completely missing from the literature
so far has been the perspective of people
with selective mutism. Helping to fill that
gap, a new study presents the
experience of five people with the
condition, in their own words. Four of the
participants were interviewed at length
using instant messenger (a text-based
way to converse) on Skype, and the fifth
participant was the study co-author Aaron
Walker, a prize-winning psychology student
who has largely overcome his selective
mutism and who provides his own
reflections from diary extracts.
Analysing the interview transcripts,
Walker and his colleague Jane Tobbell
identified several key themes, some of
which challenge the idea that people with
mutism are choosing to stay silent. One
theme was the participants sense of
separation from their mutism, as if it was
not a part of their true identity. Hannah,
aged 26, was diagnosed at age 17 and has
since then only been able to speak verbally
with her parents. She described this sense
of dissociation: It isn't me. I know who I am
and Im not shy or quiet, maybe that makes
it harder. When Im with my parents I can be
myself but around everyone else its like it
[selective mutism] takes over. I can get the
words in my head but something wont let
me say them and the harder I try the more
of a failure I feel like when I cant.
The participants also described how
their silence became self-fulfilling as others
came to expect them to be voiceless. Sam,
21, has had selective mutism since the age
of eight and is only able to speak to his
parents and close friends whom he knew
before that age. He put it like this: When
I was at secondary school, because no one
expected me to say anything it became kind
of impossible to say anything, like, other
kids just avoided me. Even the teachers
would treat me differently. In History class
the teacher would just skip past me when
we had to read things out. On one hand it
helped, I wouldnt have been able to talk
anyway.
The researchers said examples like this
show how selective mutism is maintained
not only through the behaviour of the
person with mutism, but also through the
expectations and behaviours of others. Not
surprisingly, this leads to extreme feelings
of isolation for people with mutism. Ben, 30,
has had selective mutism since early

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

digest

DIGEST DIGESTED
Full reports are available at www.bps.org.uk/digest
A survey of the UK autism community has uncovered a plurality of views on the most
appropriate way to refer to the condition. So-called autism-first terminology, as in autistic
person, is favoured by autistic people, while researchers prefer person-first terminology,
as in people with autism. Autism
The smell of fish improves peoples reasoning skills.
Researchers found that people exposed to the smell
of fish were less prone to a trick question (How
many animals of each kind did Moses take on the
Ark?) and less vulnerable to the confirmation bias.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
stuck outside looking in
childhood and he painted a vivid picture
of his loneliness: It's like that scene from
Scrooge where he looks through the window
and he can see people having fun being
together. I'll always be stuck outside looking
in.
The final theme related to the
participants feelings of regret for a wasted
life, their lament for the normal life they
had missed out on. Lily, 23, was diagnosed
at the age of 12. She said: A lot of the time
I worry about things I haven't done, that
I should have. [Interviewer: What kind of
things?]. All the things normal people do.
I could have gone to university, I always did
well at school. But it was different there,
teachers knew about my problem. Maybe
Id have been able to get a job and be in
a relationship. A lot of the time I imagine
what my life would be like if I didnt have
selective mutism.
On a more positive note, Walker [the
co-author with selective mutism] said that
he had managed to achieve some kind of
normality. Not only can he give lectures,
which once would have seemed
unimaginable, but, he added, even small
everyday things such as asking for a train
ticket or ordering a meal are reminders
that selective mutism can be overcome.
This study helps us understand the lives
of people with selective mutism, thereby
making a valuable addition to a scholarly
literature that is dominated by the
perspectives of parents, teachers and
clinicians. While its not clear how
representative the findings are of other
peoples experiences with the condition
(a contrasting 2007 interview-based study
talked of people with mutism being strong
willed and having a conscious
determination not to speak), Walker and
Tobbell make a powerful point: this
study, they said, has demonstrated that
there are ways to hear the voices of those
with selective mutism, if we are willing to
listen. CJ

An intervention designed to reduce sexism among male undergraduates has met with mixed
results. The procedure involves participants in a group challenging sexist remarks. Overall,
participants sexist attitudes were reduced, but the exercise had no impact on rape-related
attitudes or on beliefs how many other men endorse sexist attitudes. Gender Issues
Researchers have uncovered
bi-directional influences
between personality and
loneliness. Specifically, people
who scored higher in
neuroticism in their twenties
tended to be lonelier in midlife; and people who felt less
well and lonelier in their
twenties tended in mid-life to
score higher on neuroticism,
but lower on extraversion and
conscientiousness. Journal of
Personality
The reason why sensory metaphors are so popular is that they are easier to remember
than their non-metaphorical equivalents. Whats more, an analysis of sensory metaphors
used in millions of books published since 1800 found that those that sustained their
popularity were easier for contemporary students to remember. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology
Women rate men as more attractive when theyre pictured alongside a handsome son, as
compared with when theyre pictured alongside a less attractive son. Its argued that the
presence of the handsome son is taken as a sign that the father has good genes, thus
increasing his appeal as a mate. Archives of Sexual Behaviour

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

A survey of undergraduate
drinkers has uncovered a
preliminary taxonomy of drunken
personality types: Hemingways
who are little affected by
intoxication; Nutty Professors
who become highly extraverted;
Mary Poppinses who remain
pleasantly agreeable when drunk;
and Mr Hydes who show large
decreases in agreeableness and
conscientiousness. Its hoped the
findings will help explain why
some students behave in harmful
ways when drunk while others
dont. Addiction Research & Theory

711

Psychology heaven and hell

Wednesday 9 December
7-10pm
Senate House, London

#digestblog10
For further information and booking

www.bps.org.uk/digest/10

Celebrating a decade of the

British Psychological Societys
Research Digest blog
Introduction Dr Jon Sutton
(Managing Editor, The Psychologist)
Methods Dr Christian Jarrett
(Editor, Research Digest)
Results Professor Andy Field
(University of Sussex)
Discussion Professor Uta Frith
(University College London)
Conclusion Wine and nibbles
Supported by

www.psypress.com

712

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

CPD Workshops
Teaching Clients to use
Mindfulness Skills
With Dr Maggie Stanton & Dr Christine Dunkley
10th Sept 2015 - Exeter
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8 Oct 2015 - BPS London

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12th Sept 2015 - BPS London
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Extended with RFT and FAP
All our ACT trainers are ACBS peer reviewed
Including assessment of your learning through regular supervision
1. ACT Experiential Introduction with Martin Wilks & Henry Whitfield

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9th Oct 2015 - BPS London

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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

For details and for our full range of workshops :stantonltd.co.uk or grayrock.co.uk

713

ARTICLE

The transition to school

Claire Hughes asks what matters and why
Alongside the birth of a sibling,
the transition to school is the first
major event in many childrens
lives. This period is, for most
children, exciting and enjoyable but
it also brings social, practical and
academic demands that some find
challenging. Longitudinal studies
confirm the importance of
individual differences in early
school success, but explanations
remain elusive. Challenges include
the lack of consensus about how
school readiness should be
defined, the dearth of simple
measurement tools, and difficulties
in making causal inferences about
family influences on childrens
development. Nonetheless, recent
years have seen progress in
research, leading to interventions
that could narrow the achievement
gap between children from affluent
and disadvantaged families.

questions
resources

Williford, A.P., Maier, M.F., Downer, J.T. et

al. (2013). Understanding how
childrens engagement and teachers
interactions combine to predict school
readiness. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psych, 34(6), 299309.

references

How should school readiness be

defined and measured?

Allhusen, V., Belsky, J., Booth, C. et al.

(2003). Early child care and motherchild interaction from 36 months
through first grade. Infant Behavior
and Development, 26(3), 345370.
Barbarin, O.A., Early, D., Clifford, R. et al.
(2008). Parental conceptions of
school readiness. Early Education and
Development, 19(5), 671701.
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. &
Van IJzendoorn, M. (2007). For better

714

s the end of summer is upon us,

parents of four-year-old children
will almost certainly begin to
wonder about how their childrens lives
will change once they start school. What
can they do to prepare their offspring?
Are they ready?
School readiness is a term that means
different things to different people. For
politicians and many parents, school
readiness hinges on achieving foundation
skills in literacy and numeracy (Barbarin
et al., 2008). Teachers, however, are more
likely to highlight the importance of
childrens behaviour and socio-emotional
development. For example, in a USA
survey of more than 3500 kindergarten
teachers, respondents reported
adjustment problems in half or more of
their class (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000).
Confirming the validity of these teachers
concerns, robust links have been reported
between preschoolers control of attention
and behaviour and key long-term
outcomes, including academic
achievement (e.g. McClelland et al.,
2013).
Defining school readiness is also
complicated by the fact that learning
takes many forms: from surface learning
(e.g. letter recognition) to deep learning
(e.g. problem solving). Reflecting this
heterogeneity, the UK Department of
Education has issued Foundation Stage
Goals that encompass both Areas of
Learning (e.g. literacy, numeracy) and
Characteristics of Effective Learning
(e.g. self-regulatory and social skills,
motivation to learn). Likewise, Blair and
Diamond (2008) have argued that

How can families promote childrens

successful transition to school and what
can we do to support this?

and for worse. Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 16, 300304.
Blair, C. & Diamond, A. (2008). Biological
processes in prevention and
intervention. Development and
Psychopathology, 20, 899911.
Blair, C. & Raver, C. (2014). Closing the
achievement gap through
modification of neurocognitive and
neuroendocrine function. PLoS ONE,
9, art. no. e112393.

effective learning depends not only

on cognitive skills but also on the
physiological systems involved in
adaptive responses to stress. Extending
this multi-layered approach upwards,
other theorists have noted that academic
achievement is linked to variation in
childrens beliefs for example, about
whether intelligence is fixed or malleable.
That is, children who believe that they
can, through effort, improve their
performance on a task will be more
motivated to persist in their efforts or to
try out different strategies.
Finally, it is worth noting that the
very term school readiness can be seen
as intrinsically unfair, in that it appears
to place the burden of responsibility for
success in the transition to school on the
child. Given the social inequalities in
many societies, assessing whether or
not a child is school ready is, arguably,
a myopic exercise. Instead, leading
theorists have recently proposed an
interactive model in which families,
schools and communities share a joint
responsibility for childrens school
readiness (e.g. Williford et al., 2013).
From this perspective, the definition of
school readiness should encompass not
only childrens ability to meet everyday
social and practical challenges but also
key aspects of social support (which
I will discuss later).

Measuring school readiness

In the past, school readiness has been
assessed via detailed psychometric tests of
specific pivotal cognitive skills. Adopting
this traditional approach, this autumn the
UK government will ask Reception
teachers to complete a base-line
assessment for every child within the first
few weeks of school (2015 is a pilot year;
the plan is for these tests to become
mandatory in 2016). Understandably,
teachers have voted to boycott this mass
testing of four-year-olds; likewise, many
famous childrens authors have signed an
open letter of protest, arguing that
children in the UK already face too many

Blanden, J., Gregg, P. & Machin, S.

(2005). Intergenerational mobility in
Europe and North America. A report
supported by the Sutton Trust:
Centre for Economic Performance,
London School of Economics.
Brinkman, S. A., Gregory, T. A., Goldfeld,
S. et al. (2014). Data resource profile:
The Australian Early Development
Index (AEDI). International Journal of
Epidemiology, 43(4), 10891096.

Devine, R. & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations

between false-belief understanding
and executive function in early
childhood: A meta-analysis. Child
Development, 85, 17771794.
Engle, P.L. & Black, M.M. (2008). The
effect of poverty on development and
educational outcomes. Vol. 1136.
Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences (pp. 243-256).
Ferretti, L. & Bub, K. (2014). The

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

school transition

tests and that four-year-olds are just

too young to be assessed. From a
psychologists perspective one might also
add that formal psychometric assessments
do not capture problems of behaviour
and emotion regulation, which are
increasingly recognised as key barriers
to school readiness. So do we have more
promising alternative strategies?

achievement. For example, in a study of

Italian children, Lecce et al. (2011) found
sensitivity to teacher criticism at age 10
mediated the association between age-9
theory of mind and age-11 academic
achievement. Other findings from this
Italian research group highlight both the
importance of theory of mind for
childrens meta-knowledge about reading
(Lecce et al., 2010) and the scope for
achieving sustained improvements in 9year-olds understanding of mind through
a school-based training programme
involving group discussions about story
characters and their motivations,
thoughts and feelings (Lecce et al., 2014).
These findings have real practical
implications in that acquiring a theory of
mind is likely to foster school success via
multiple pathways, both direct (e.g. being
able to understand teachers and peers
intentions and so respond appropriately
to instructions/social overtures) and
indirect (e.g. forming and maintaining
friendships that promote wellbeing and
school engagement) (Hughes, 2011).
Variation in theory of mind is closely
related to individual differences in
executive function (for a meta-analysis,
see Devine & Hughes, 2014), which are
also very important for childrens success
in the transition to primary school

Socio-cognitive skills
Experimental measures of childrens
socio-cognitive skills could be used to
predict success at school. Two aspects of
childrens socio-cognitive development
that show striking individual differences
are: (a) theory of mind (with a particular
focus on childrens understanding of the
fallible nature of beliefs); and (b)
executive functions (the higher-order
cognitive processes such as working
memory and inhibitory control that
underpin flexible goal-directed
behaviour). Importantly, theory-of-mind
tasks involve brief and engaging puppet
stories, and so are quite different from
formal tests. Unlike the large body of
research on the social origins of
individual differences in theory of mind
(for a review, see Hughes and Devine,
2015) research on social and academic
consequences is much more recent.
In a meta-analytic review,
Slaughter et al. (2015)
found an overall link
between theory of mind
and peer status, which
was clearer for positive
measures (e.g. popularity)
than for negative measures
(e.g. rejection) and
significantly stronger in
girls than in boys
perhaps reflecting early
gender differences in
intimacy within
friendship.
Other recent studies
have focused on potential
mediators of the
Teachers have voted to boycott mass testing of
association between theory
four-year-olds
of mind and academic

influence of family routines on the

resilience of low-income
preschoolers. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology, 35,
168180.
Hanscombe, K., Howarth, C., Davis, O. et
al. (2011). Chaotic homes and school
achievement. Journal of Child Psych
and Psychiatry, 52, 12121220.
Hughes, C. (2011). Social understanding,
social lives. London: Psychology

Press.
Hughes, C., Daly, I., White, N. et al.
(2015). Measuring the foundations of
school readiness. British Journal of
Educational Psychology.
doi:10.1111/bjep.1207
Hughes, C. & Devine, R. (2015). A social
perspective on theory of mind. In M.
Lamb (Ed.) Handbook of child
psychology and developmental
science: Vol. 3. Socioemotional

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

(Hughes & Ensor, 2011; Hughes et al.,

2010). Children draw on their executive
functions when they are required to:
(a) hold information (e.g. teachers
instructions) in mind; (b) resist
distraction (e.g. from peers); (c) inhibit
impulsive responses (e.g. calling out or
grabbing); or (d) switch goals (e.g. from
playing to tidying up). These key
components of executive function show
contrasting developmental trajectories;
as a result, efforts to identify their relative
salience for school success have so far
produced mixed findings.
Although there is no single litmus
test of executive function (to parallel the
false-belief task that is so widely used in
theory-of-mind research), one engaging
and cheap (no materials required) multicomponential test is the Heads-ToesKnees-Shoulders task (HTKS), which is
akin to the childrens party game Simon
Says. Performance on the HTKS in
kindergarten predicts academic gains
across the transition to formal schooling,
especially in mathematics (McClelland et
al., 2014). However, much more research
is needed to establish causal pathways
and identify the specific mechanisms
through which executive functions can
promote school readiness. Children who
make greater gains in executive control
across the transition to school display
more positive academic self-concepts
(Hughes & Ensor, 2011), which in turn
are known to play an independent role
in predicting individual differences in
achievement (Paunesku et al., 2015).
Poor executive function in preschool is
also a robust predictor of problem
behaviours (for a meta-analysis, see
Schoemaker et al., 2013). Thus, in
addition to direct effects, gains in
executive control are likely to benefit
childrens academic performance through
both an increased motivation to learn
and more positive interactions with
peers.
Teachers questionnaire ratings
An obvious alternative to testing
childrens socio-cognitive skills directly is

processes (pp.46). New York: Wiley.

Hughes, C. & Ensor, R. (2011). Executive
function trajectories across the
transition to school. Journal of
Experimental Child Psychology, 108,
663676.
Hughes, C., Ensor, R., Wilson, A. &
Graham, A. (2010). Tracking
executive function across the
transition to school. Developmental
Neuropsychology, 35, 2036.

Hughes, C., Roman, G. & Ensor, R. (Eds.)

(2014). Parenting and executive
function (Vol. 1). Wiley.
Jacobs, J.E. & Weisz, V. (1994). Gender
stereotypes. Roeper Review, 16,
152155.
Janus, M. & Offord, D.R. (2007).
Development and psychometric
properties of the Early Development
Instrument (EDI). Canadian Journal of
Behavioural Science, 39(1), 122.

715

school transition

to harness the skills and experience of

teachers to identify children who lag
behind their peers in the key components
of school readiness. Adopting this
strategy, a Canadian research team (Janus
& Offord, 2007) developed the Early
Development Instrument (EDI) to enable
teachers to monitor preschool childrens
developmental health and wellbeing in
five distinct subscales (social, emotional,
physical, cognitive and communicative
ability). The EDI has been used in
epidemiological studies of four- and fiveyear-olds in several different countries.
For example, an adapted version of the
EDI was used in a national census of
261,147 Australian five-year-olds (i.e.
97 per cent of all five-year-olds in the
population), which revealed worrying
regional disparities in the proportion
of children with developmental
vulnerabilities (Brinkman et al., 2014).
Although the EDI is clearly a useful
instrument, three limitations deserve
note. First, the EDI does not include
any items about family support and so
provides only a partial view of school
readiness. Second, the EDI was developed
for Canadian children who start school
between the ages of five and six and so
is not really developmentally appropriate
for children in the UK who typically enter
an educational setting at three years of
age, with some receiving government
vouchers to attend preschool from as
early as two years of age. Third, at seven
pages (104 items) long, the EDI would
take a teacher many hours to complete
for a class of 30 children; time that would
probably be much better spent in helping
children to settle in.
In response to the above challenges,
my research team and I have developed
a one-page questionnaire the Brief Early
Skills and Support Index (BESSI), for
educators working with children aged 2.5
to 5.5 years (Hughes et al., 2015). The
BESSI encompasses not only traditional
aspects of school readiness but also items
about salient daily living skills for
younger children (e.g. independence in
dressing/using cutlery/personal hygiene)

Johnson, A., Martin, A., Brooks-Gunn, J.

& Petrill, S. (2008). Order in the
house! Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54,
445472.
Jones, T.L. & Prinz, R.J. (2005). Potential
roles of parental self-efficacy in
parent and child adjustment. Clinical
Psychology Review, 25, 341363.
Lecce, S., Bianco, F., Devine, R. et al.
(2014). Promoting theory of mind
during middle childhood. Journal of

716

correlations (.51 and .34

respectively) with scores for
Language/Cognition the
traditional core measure
of school readiness. Home
reading is well recognised
as important for childrens
success at school, but the
strong links with ratings for
fun at home are novel and
encouraging, in that they
indicate that parents who
do not enjoy reading can
Home reading is well recognised as important for
nevertheless contribute to their
childrens success at school
childrens school readiness
simply by spending time and
having fun together.
and indicators of family support
Variation in family support also
(attendance, punctuality, sleepiness,
differed by gender and birth order.
regular reading, receiving praise and fun
Compared with girls and with first-born
at home). These items were identified
children respectively, family support
through focus groups with teachers,
ratings were, on average, lower for boys
conducted to ensure that the BESSI had
and for children with an older sibling.
good face-validity for informants.
Worryingly, the strongest gender
Teachers ratings for just under 1500
difference was for the item talks about
children revealed three latent child factors
fun activities at home that, as noted
(behavioural adjustment,
above, was an especially strong predictor
language/cognition and daily living skills)
of positive child outcomes. The birthand one family support factor. The BESSI
order effect is also of concern: while the
can be used reliably from 2.5 to 5.5 years
need to support adults making the
and does not show any age-related bias.
transition to parenthood is well
For each of the four BESSI subscales,
recognised, this contrast highlights the
problems were, on average, about twice
as likely in boys as in girls and in children importance of supporting parents who
face the additional challenges that come
from low-income families (defined by
with caring for more than one child.
eligibility for the pupil premium) as
Findings from other large-scale
compared with their more affluent peers.
studies support the results of this BESSI
Overall then, the BESSI appears to
study. For example, an NICHD study of
provide a promising brief alternative to
1300 children followed from birth
the EDI.
provides further evidence that the quality
(as much as the content) of parentchild
Family influences on school
interactions matters for childrens school
readiness
readiness (Allhusen et al., 2003).
The BESSI study described above
Specifically, both maternal sensitivity in
yielded two interesting sets of findings
late-preschool and increases in maternal
concerning family support. First, the
sensitivity from infancy to preschool
poorer outcomes noted for children from
predicted greater social competence,
low-income families were explained by
fewer problem behaviours and reduced
contrasts in family support. Of the six
conflict with adults positive outcomes
family support items, two (talks about
that are likely to contribute to school
fun activities at home and reads regularly
readiness. Further findings from this
at home) showed particularly strong
NICHD cohort showed that attachment

Experimental Child Psych, 126, 52-67.

Lecce, S., Caputi, M. & Hughes, C. (2011).
Does sensitivity to criticism mediate
the relationship between theory of
mind and academic achievement?
Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 110(3), 313331.
Lecce, S., Zocchi, S., Pagnin, A. et al.
(2010). Reading minds. Child
Development, 81, 18761893.
Mashburn, A.J. & Pianta, R.C. (2006).

Social relationships and school

readiness. Early Education and
Development, 17, 151176.
McClelland, M.M., Acock, A.C., Piccinin,
A. et al. (2013). Relations between
preschool attention span-persistence
and age 25 educational outcomes.
Early Childhood Research Quarterly,
28, 314324.
McClelland, M., Cameron, C., Duncan, R.
et al. (2014). Predictors of early

growth in academic achievement.

Frontiers in Psychology, 5, art. no. 599.
Melhuish, E., Belsky, J., Anning, A. et al.
(2007). Variation in community
intervention programmes and
consequences for children and
families. Journal of Child Psychology
and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,
48(6), 543551.
Paunesku, D., Walton, G., Romero, C. et
al. (2015). Mind-set interventions are

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

school transition

security at 24 and 36 months predicted

IQ and school performance in middle
childhood, with parental quality of
assistance and support for homework
(alongside children's self-regulatory skills
and social relationships) playing a
mediating role in these predictive
relationships (West et al., 2013).
As the above results suggest,
positive child outcomes depend upon
a combination of parental qualities.
That is, children require both warmth and
high-quality instruction from caregivers
and teachers (Mashburn & Pianta, 2006).
High-quality instruction (also known as
scaffolding) includes at least three
dimensions (Hughes et al., 2014):
I Cognitive support: This involves
making the task simpler for
example, by breaking it down into
manageable stages (e.g. for a jigsaw,
finding the corner pieces, then
connecting all the edge pieces, etc.).
I Emotional support (e.g. praise,
encouragement, playful interactions):
This motivates the child to persist
even when the task is challenging.
I Autonomy support: This involves a
process of contingent shifting
providing extra help if the child is
struggling or demoralised and then
reducing this support when the child
begins to master the task.
Parents are particularly well placed to
use scaffolding in this way to set their
children upon a positive journey to
learning: for example, providing the
appropriate form and level of support is
much easier if one knows a child well;
moreover, parents are not only childrens
first teachers but also the people who
matter most to them, such that parental
praise and encouragement is particularly
powerful. Parental cognitions also matter:
childrens achievements are often more
clearly related to parental views of their
ability than to their previous actual
performance (e.g. Jacobs & Weisz, 1994).
It is, however, important to avoid
simplifications. For example, parental
support for early literacy requires not

a scalable treatment for academic

underachievement. Psychological
Science, 26, 784793.
Rimm-Kaufman, S., Pianta, R. & Cox,
M. (2000). Teachers judgements of
problems in the transition to
kindergarten. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 15, 146166.
Scarr, S. (2000). American childcare
today. In A. Slater & D. Muir (Eds.)
Blackwell reader in developmental

only a belief in the value of reading and

in the childs ability and interest, but also
both a recognition of the importance of
making reading fun (Sonnenschein et al.,
1997) and a sense of their own efficacy as
parents (for a review, see Jones & Prinz,
2005). This complex network of influence
makes it difficult to draw causal
conclusions about family influences on
school readiness. In addition, beyond the
obvious challenge of distinguishing effects
of nature and nurture, children vary
markedly in their susceptibility to
parental influences (Belsky et al., 2007).
Perhaps the most fundamental
problem, however, is the non-linearity of
parental effects. In some ways, this can be
explained by the psychoanalytic construct
of good enough parenting (Winnicott,
1953). That is, rather like gardeners,
parents need to tend their infants with
patience, attention and care, but should
not expect success at every turn. Applying
this gardening metaphor to the transition
to school, one could argue that just as
good gardeners allow seedlings to harden
off before moving them from the
greenhouse to the soil, so too good
parents provide children with gradually
increasing autonomy and responsibility
for decision making and emotional
regulation. In other words, more
parenting does not necessarily equal
better parenting. As a result, while the
contrast between poor versus adequate
parenting is vitally important, beyond
the threshold of good enough parenting
variation in parenting quality often only
has very modest effects (Scarr, 2000).

Narrowing the gap

Social mobility in the UK has dropped
dramatically and is now on a par with the
USA and lower than in Canada, Germany
and Scandinavia (Blanden et al., 2005).
Pivotal to this problem of social
immobility are contrasts in educational
aspirations and achievement (e.g. Engle &
Black, 2008). Many sources of stimulation
for children are free (e.g. public libraries,
parent-toddler groups), but parents living

psychology. Oxford: Blackwell.

Schoemaker, K., Mulder, H., Dekovi, M.
& Matthys, W. (2013). Executive
functions in preschool children with
externalizing behavior problems: A
meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal
Child Psychology, 41, 457471.
Slaughter, V., Imuta, K., Peterson, C. &
Henry, J. (2015). Meta-analysis of
theory of mind and peer popularity
in the preschool and early school

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

in poverty may well lack the confidence

or motivation needed to take advantage
of these resources (particularly if this
requires transport). Family chaos is
another salient index of adversity that has
been shown to predict unique variance in
early reading (Johnson et al., 2008). Twin
findings demonstrate that genetic factors
underpin one third of the association
between family chaos and poor school
performance (Hanscombe et al., 2011).
In other words, most of this association
is environmental; moreover, in a recent
Early Head Start study both resilience and
cognitive development in preschoolers
was enhanced by fostering family routines
(Ferretti & Bub, 2014).
For costbenefit reasons, interventions
are, however, typically school-based. For
example, a recent cluster randomisedcontrol trial of an intervention to promote
executive function in early school years
has produced clear improvements in
academic outcomes that were particularly
evident in the context of poverty (Blair &
Raver, 2014). As these authors have
argued, a focus on executive function
in early education holds real promise for
closing the SES-related achievement gap.
Communities and neighbourhoods should
also be active participants in helping
children navigate the transition to school
and empowering parents to ensure that
they in turn can provide children with
sensitive and stimulating care. Support for
the effectiveness of this approach comes
from a review of Sure Start initiatives in
the UK (Melhuish et al., 2007). The
importance of this endeavour is wellcaptured by the words of Nelson Mandela:
There can be no keener revelation of a
societys soul than the way in which it
treats its children.

years. Child Development, 86 (4),

11591174.
Sonnenschein, S., Baker, L., Serpell, R.
et al. (1997). Parental beliefs about
ways to help children learn to read.
Early Child Dev and Care, 111118.
West, K.K., Mathews, B.L. & Kerns, K.A.
(2013). Mother-child attachment
and cognitive performance in
middle childhood. Early Childhood
Research Quarterly, 28, 259-270.

Claire Hughes is Deputy

Director, Centre for Family
Research at the University
of Cambridge
ch288@cam.ac.uk

Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects

and transitional phenomena.
International Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 34, 8997.
Williford, A.P., Maier, M.F., Downer, J.T.
et al. (2013). Understanding how
childrens engagement and
teachers interactions combine to
predict school readiness. Journal of
Applied Developmental Psychology,
34(6), 299309

717

ARTICLE

From adversity to buoyancy

Marc Smith reconceptualises academic resilience in schools
Despite the growth of so-called
non-cognitive skills interventions in
schools, such as resilience training,
there often exists a degree of
dissonance regarding the definition
of such terms. Resilience
interventions have been found to
use the term in different ways,
reducing the significance of any
measureable outcomes.
Reconceptualising our view of
academic resilience as academic
buoyancy helps to distinguish
between traditional views of
resilience and the more useful role
of learners ability to bounce back
from seemingly minor, yet
subjectively crucial, daily setbacks.

questions
resources

Martin, A.J. (2013). Academic buoyancy

and academic resilience: Exploring
everyday and classic resilience in
the face of academic adversity. School
Psychology International, 34(5),
488500.
Pekrun, R. & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L.
(Eds.) (2014). International handbook of
emotions in education. New York:
Routledge.

references

How do emotions impact on students

academic success?

Bouteyre, E., Maurel, M. & Bernaud, J-L.

(2007). Daily hassles and depressive
symptoms among first year
psychology students in France. Stress
and Health, 23(2), 9399.
Coyne, J. (2013). Positive psychology in
the schools: The UK Resilience
Project. PloS blogs. Retrieved 18
October 2014 tinyurl.com/nt6ehs5
Duckworth, A.L., Peterson, C., Matthews,
M.D. & Kelly, D.R. (2007). Grit:

718

ver recent years there has been

growing interest from
educationalists and politicians in
so-called non-cognitive or soft skills,
resulting in attempts to introduce
programmes such as character building
and resilience training into schools. This
growing interest counters what many
have seen as an overemphasis on testing
and the view of schools as exam
factories. There have been calls from both
sides of the political divide for character
and attentiveness lessons (Prynne, 2014)
as well as grit and resilience training
(Vaughan, 2014) to be part of the
educational curriculum, highlighting the
importance being placed on what many
view as skills that can be taught just like
any other school subject.
The role of resilience is perhaps where
the greatest emphasis has been placed.
Many schools in the UK have
implemented resilience- and grit-building
programmes as part of the school culture
in an attempt to encourage a positive
attitude towards hard work and
perseverance. While such attempts
remain laudable, problems often arise
when we attempt to measure the impact
of such interventions and to disentangle
related concepts that rely too heavily on
techniques that dont necessarily measure
those characteristics that the intervention
is attempting to promote.
A recent systematic consultative
review found that many resilience
programmes within schools used the
term resilience is such a vague and
conceptually weak manner that the
authors found it difficult to identify those

How can teachers help students bounce

back from personally significant
setbacks?

Perseverance and passion for longterm goals. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 92(6), 10871101.
Dweck, C.S. (2000). Self-theories.
Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
Eccles, J. & Wigfield, A. (2002).
Motivational beliefs, values and
goals. Annual Review of Psychology,
53, 109132.
Finn, J.D. & Rock, D.A. (1997). Academic
success among students at risk for

that could be realistically described as

resilience-based (Hart & Heaver, 2013).
This would suggest that interventions
have been implemented with very little
understanding of the desired outcome
measures or, indeed, any specific
measures at all. With the teaching
profession becoming ever hungrier for
evidence-based interventions, it remains
disappointing that potentially valuable
programmes are being implemented in
the absence of both an evidence base and
measurement strategies. Interestingly,
results from the largest UK trial of
resilience training in schools (the UK
Resilience Project) continue to be largely
ignored, perhaps due in part to
disappointing outcomes and criticism
concerning the intervention package
(Coyne, 2013).
While the implementation of such
interventions remains problematic, so
does the terminology. When politicians
responsible for education use terms
interchangeably, they give the impression
that skills such as resilience are
synonymous with other skills such as grit,
when not only do these terms represent
different skills, they may not even
represent an appropriate label for that
which is being promoted. Furthermore,
while promoting these skills, little
attention has been paid to how they
interact with and impact on other aspects,
such as emotions, emotional regulation,
motivation and engagement.
Resilience has been defined in the
literature as good outcomes in spite
of serious threats to adaptation or
development (Masten, 2001); and,
although the term is often used to denote
student responses to everyday setbacks
and the ability to bounce back, resilience
research has tended to concentrate on
children at risk from psychopathology
rather than the ways in which they cope
with daily setbacks or general adversity.
Those children who thrive and develop
well in spite of these serious threats are
said to be resilient. Adversity itself can
be seen as any threat that might
undermine development: for example,

school failure. Journal of Applied

Psychology, 82(2), 221234.
Fredrickson, B. (2001). The role of
positive emotions in positive
psychology. American Psychologist,
56(3), 218226.
Gadbois, S.A. & Sturgeon, R.D. (2011).
Academic self-handicapping. British
Journal of Educational Psychology,
81(2), 207222.
Gervais, R.L. & Hockey, G.R.J. (2005).

Daily hassles, daily uplifts, sleep loss

and stress. Proceedings of the British
Psychological Society, 13(2), 153154.
Goetz, T., Preckel, F., Zeidner, M. &
Schleyer, E. (2008). Big fish in big
ponds. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping,
21(2), 185198.
Gonzalez, R. & Padilla, A.M. (1997). The
academic resilience of Mexican
American high school students.
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

academic resilience

Finn and Rock (1997) examined the

academic success of students at risk of
school failure, distinguishing between
resilient and non-resilient school
completers and non-completers.
Others (e.g. Overstreet & Braun, 1999)
have investigated social factors, such
as exposure to community violence,
and their relationship to academic
achievement and functioning or the
achievement of ethnic minorities (e.g.
Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997).
While some have seen resilient
individuals as being in some way special,
others view the process as arising from

Academic buoyancy is the ability of students

to successfully deal with academic setbacks

normative functions of the human

adaptational system (Masten, 2001,
p.227). In other words, rather than being
remarkable individuals with extraordinary
psychological strength, at-risk children
are more, not less, likely to display high
levels of resilience.
While research into these at-risk
groups has provided some useful clues
concerning individuals at risk of

Sciences, 19(3), 301317.

Hart, A. & Heaver, B. (2013). Evaluating
resilience-based programs for
schools using a systematic
consultative review. Journal of Child
and Youth Development, 1(1), 2753.
Hewitt, P.L., Caelian, C.F., Chen, C. &
Flett, G.L. (2014). Perfectionism,
stress, daily hassles, hopelessness,
and suicide potential in depressed
psychiatric adolescents. Journal of

psychopathology, they tell us little

about how students cope with everyday
setbacks and even less about why some
students are able to bounce back while
others struggle to recover. Such setbacks
(e.g. a bad grade on a test or competing
deadlines) cannot necessarily be viewed
as major assaults on developmental
processes, but rather as minor setbacks
and daily hassles. Resilience research
investigates cases of extreme adversity
rather than the daily problems students
face, suggesting that day-to-day resilience
is a particular form of resilience with
a much lower research base. Martin and
Marsh (2008) have suggested that
the ability to cope with these daily
setbacks and minor adversities can
be reconceptualised as academic
buoyancy in order to distinguish
the term from the traditional view
of academic resilience.
Academic buoyancy is the
ability of students to successfully
deal with academic setbacks and
challenges that are typical of the
ordinary course of school life (e.g.
poor grades, competing deadlines,
exam pressure, difficult
schoolwork) (Martin & Marsh,
2008, p.54). Although the term
resilience can be used in different
ways, there is a tendency to
associate low resilience with
chronic underachievement, being
overwhelmed and incapacitated,
debilitation in the face of chronic
failure or anxiety, clinical affect
such as anxiety and depression,
truancy and disaffection from school,
and comprehensive and consistent
alienation or opposition to teachers.
Academic buoyancy, on the other hand,
is associated with the process of dealing
with isolated poor grades and patches of
poor performance, typical stress levels
and daily pressures, threats to confidence
due to poor grades, low-level stress and
confidence, dips in motivation and
engagement, and the way in which
learners deal with negative feedback
on schoolwork (Martin & Marsh, 2008).

Psychopathology and Behavioral

Assessment. doi:10.1007/s10862-0149427-0
Martin, A. (2002). Motivation and
academic resilience. Australian
Journal of Education, 46(I), 3449.
Martin, A. (2003). The Student Motivation
Scale. Australian Journal of Education,
47(1), 88106.
Martin, A.J. (2013). Academic buoyancy
and academic resilience. School

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Although resilience and buoyancy appear

related to each other and buoyancy
appears to be a good predictor of
resilience, the differences relate to the
difference of degree (e.g. threats to
confidence) and differences of kind
(e.g. dips in motivation). Another study,
of Australian high school students,
suggested that buoyancy and resilience
were separate constructs sharing around
35 per cent variance, with buoyancy more
salient in protecting from low-level
negative outcomes and resilience more
salient in buffering major negative
outcomes (Martin, 2013)
So is academic buoyancy just another
term for the ability to cope with daily
hassles? Daily hassles research involves
the measurement of how incidents impact
on the individual and their relationship to
other negative emotional outcomes (e.g.
Bouteyre et al., 2007; Hewitt et al., 2014)
and the use of certain coping strategies
(Gervais & Hockey, 2005). Similarly, the
relatively recent identification of grit as
a specific trait associated with achievement
has led to erroneous comparisons with
both resilience and buoyancy. Grit has
been defined as perseverance and passion
for long-terms goals (Duckworth et al.,
2007); and while there remains the
possibility of a reciprocal relationship
between them, buoyancy and resilience,
being conceptually similar, are viewed
as dynamic emergent constructs, whereas
grit is generally viewed as a trait that
may or may not be teachable. Academic
buoyancy, therefore, relates to the ways
in which the individual responds to and
attempts to deal with these everyday
challenges.
The ability to bounce back from
daily setbacks is likely to be influenced
by several interconnecting factors.
Martin and Marsh (2006) have proposed
a number of motivational predictors of
academic buoyancy, the so-called 5Cs:
Confidence (self-efficacy), Coordination
(planning), Control (low uncertain
control), Composure (low anxiety) and
Commitment (persistence). Longitudinal
studies have found the 5Cs to be

Psychology International, 34(5),

488500.
Martin, A.J., Colmar, S.H., Davey, L.A. &
Marsh, H.W. (2010). Longitudinal
modelling of academic buoyancy and
motivation: Do the 5Cs hold up over
time? British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 80(3), 473496.
Martin, A.J. & Marsh, H.W. (2006).
Academic resilience and its
psychological and educational

correlates. Psychology in the Schools,

43(3), 267281.
Martin, A.J. & Marsh, H.W. (2008).
Academic buoyancy: Towards an
understanding of students everyday
academic resilience. Journal of
School Psychology, 46(1), 5383.
Masten, A. (2001). Ordinary magic.
American Psychologist, 56(3), 227238.
Overstreet, S. & Braun, S. (1999). A
preliminary examination of the

719

academic resilience

significant predictors of academic

buoyancy and to partially mediate
between prior and subsequent academic
buoyancy (Martin et al., 2010). Earlier
research had identified three resilience
outcome constructs representing a
breadth of students experiences and the
capacity to effectively deal with challenge,
adversity and setback within a school
context (Martin & Marsh, 2006). These
three constructs consist of enjoyment
of school (a school-related cognitiveaffective measure), class participation
(a behavioural measure), and self-esteem
(a global affective measure).
The identification of these three
outcome constructs are themselves related
to earlier (pre-buoyancy) studies into
students motivation and engagement,
and factors in the Student Motivation
and Engagement Wheel (Martin, 2002).
Adaptive dimensions of student
motivation consist of self-efficacy, valuing
of school, mastery orientation,
persistence, planning and study
management. Maladaptive dimensions
consist of anxiety, uncertain control,
failure avoidance and self-handicapping.
The wheel, therefore, represents the
psychological and engagement
dimensions that underpin academic
resilience, while academic resilience
predicts the three outcome constructs of
enjoyment of school, class participation
and general self-esteem.
The 5Cs, as predictors of academic
buoyancy, represent a useful starting point
for the planning and implementation of
school-based interventions aimed at
strengthening students day-to-day
resilience and their ability to bounce
back from seemingly minor but
personally significant setbacks in the daily
lives of learners. Specific factors related to
self-efficacy address students beliefs
about their own capabilities and issues
regarding academic self-concept. Effective
goal-setting and the development of selfregulatory skills further develop the
ability to plan and persist while
interventions designed to reduce anxiety
can diminish students fear of failure and

relationship between exposure to

community violence and academic
functioning. School Psychology
Quarterly, 14(4), 380396.
Prynne, M. (2014, 10 February). Children
must be taught resilience and
attentiveness, Tristram Hunt claims.
The Telegraph. tinyurl.com/naf9bdr
Putwain, D.W. (2008). Test anxiety and
GCSE performance. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 24(4), 319334.

720

reduce the likelihood of them employing

self-handicapping measures.

The role of negative emotion:

Test anxiety
Further studies have discovered that the
concept of academic buoyancy explains
a significant proportion of variance in all
four components of test anxiety
(cognitive: worry and irrelevant thoughts;
emotional: tension, bodily symptoms)
beyond that explained by coping
(Putwain et al., 2012). However,
academic buoyancy was found to be
inversely related to test anxiety but
unrelated to coping, suggesting that
academic buoyancy does not reflect
a general tendency towards adaptive
coping. The authors have suggested that
the measures included in the scale used
to quantify academic buoyancy may not
be challenging enough to engage those
processes related to coping, further
suggesting that although coping might
be related to resilience, it does not appear
to be related to academic buoyancy.
Furthermore, it is more likely that
buoyancy is related to positive and
adaptive outcomes rather than threat
appraisal directly.
Test anxiety represents a particularly
relevant area in relation to academic
buoyancy as the 5Cs framework would
suggest that higher levels of test anxiety
result in lower levels of academic
buoyancy and, subsequently, lower levels
of achievement. Research into test anxiety
and academic buoyancy also highlights
an emotional component within the
academic buoyancy construct. Test
anxiety is a situation-specific form of
trait anxiety that incorporates a general
tendency to appraise assessments and
examinations as threatening (Spielberger
& Vagg, 1995) and is associated with
a number of negative academic and
personal outcomes, including risk to
personal wellbeing (Putwain, 2008),
lower competence beliefs (Goetz et al.,
2008), stronger goal-avoidant orientations
(Putwain & Daniels, 2010; Putwain et al.,

Putwain, D.W., Connors, L., Symes, W. &

Douglas-Osborn, E. (2012). Is
academic buoyancy anything more
than adaptive coping? Anxiety, Stress,
and Coping, 25(3), 349358.
Putwain, D.W. & Daniels, R.A. (2010). Is
the relationship between competence
beliefs and test anxiety influenced by
goal orientation? Learning and
Individual Differences, 20(1), 813.
Putwain, D.W., Woods, K.A. & Symes, W.

2010), stronger academic selfhandicapping (Gadbois & Sturgeon,

2011) and maladaptive forms of coping
such as avoidant and emotion-focussed
strategies (Zeidner, 1998).
It has been speculated (Putwain et al.,
2012) that buoyant individuals may not
view academic failure as threatening to
either personal aspirations or self-worth
due to their belief in the ability to bounce
back from failure. This in turn would
suggest an incremental (growth) rather
than an entity-based (fixed) attributional
style as hypothesised by Dweck (2000).
It can also be speculated that buoyant
individuals do not hold an expectation of
failure because of a belief in their ability
to respond positively to the challenge of
evaluative-performance events, suggesting
further that academic resilience is based
on positive ways of approaching academic
setbacks rather than attempting to cope
with them. This would suggest that
academic buoyant individuals are better
able to employ positive emotional
responses to potentially threatening
situations; however, this remains
speculative due to the lack of research
in this area.

Academic buoyancy and positive

emotions
If negative emotions such as anxiety
reduce the ability to cope with daily
setbacks within an education setting,
can positive emotions fuel the ability to
bounce back? Martin and Marsh (2008)
have suggested that academic buoyancy
can be viewed as a positive psychology
version of resilience. Resilient individuals
do appear to display more positive
emotions than less resilient individuals
and also tend to be more curious and
open to new experiences. In addition,
they are able to utilise positive emotions
to bounce back from stressful experiences
more quickly and effectively than less
resilient individuals (Tugade &
Fredrickson, 2011).
Positive emotions also appear to
regulate more negative emotions through

(2010). Personal and situational

predictors of test anxiety of students
in post-compulsory education. British
Journal of Educational Psychology,
80(1), 137160.
Schiefele, U., Krapp, A. & Winteler, A.
(1992). Interest as a predictor of
academic achievement. In K.
Renninger, S. Hidi & A. Krapp (Eds.)
The role of interest in learning and
development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum.
Spielberger, C.D. & Vagg, P.R. (1995). Test
anxiety. In C.D. Spielberger & P.R.
Vagg (Eds.) Test anxiety: Theory,
assessment, and treatment (pp.314).
Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
Thomas, C.R. & Gadbois, S.A. (2007).
Academic self-handicapping. British
Journal of Educational Psychology,
77(1), 101119.
Tugade, M.M. & Fredrickson, B.L. (2011).

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

academic resilience

the use of positive coping strategies,

including, positive reappraisal, problemfocused coping or infusing day-to-day
events with positive meaning (Tugade &
Fredrickson, 2011). Perhaps students
who are able to proactively use and
nurture positive approaches are less likely
to be negatively affected by daily
pressures and regular setbacks. In
addition, academic buoyancys emphasis
on growth and the suggestion that
buoyant individuals display incremental
attributional styles further emphasises the
positive aspects of the buoyancy
construct.

Promoting academic buoyancy

Identify negative emotions
Students often divulge their anxieties about learning through their language. Identifying
patterns of language that can lead to self-handicapping (those pre-emptive excuses we use
to justify future failure) allow teachers to spot those students in danger of anxiety and
underachievement. Statements such as Im not clever enough to get an A in maths or Ive
done my homework but its probably wrong could well be indications that negative emotions
are stifling attainment.
Growth goals over attainment goals
Setting goals can be a powerful tool, particularly if they are incremental and represent a
better than last time or personal best approach. And never neglect good feedback.
Praise effort over intellect
Praising the effort a student has put into a task, rather than their innate
intelligence, reinforces the view that success is incremental. Incremental
views of intelligence, in turn, allows students to understand the where they
need to improve.

Broaden, build and buoyancy

Fredrickson (2001) describes a subset
of positive emotions that broaden an
individuals momentary thoughtaction
repertoire. This broaden-and-build
framework suggests that positive
emotions promote positive behaviours;
for example, the positive emotion of joy
sparks the urge to play and the positive
emotion of interest sparks the urge to
explore.
Broaden-and-build theory suggests
that positive and negative emotions have
distinct and complementary adaptive
functions and both cognitive and
physiological effects, so, while negative
emotions such as anxiety narrow the
thoughtaction repertoire by preparing
the individual to employ specific
behaviours (e.g. fight or flight), discrete
positive emotions broaden the
thoughtaction repertoire by expanding
the range of cognitions and behaviours
and therefore creating more available
options. This broadened mindset then
builds on the individuals physical,
intellectual and social resources.
The broaden-and-build framework
would suggest an emphasis on building
on strengths that nurture proactive rather
than reactive approaches to setbacks and
challenges, which could go some way to
explaining why those students who
experience positive emotions during daily
setbacks are able to benefit from these

Resilient individuals use positive

emotions to bounce back from negative
emotional experiences. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2),
320333.
Vaughan, R. (2014, 30 September). Nicky
Morgan: We must lift the burden on our
hero teachers. Times Educational
Supplement.
Zeidner, M. (1998). Test anxiety. New York:
Springer Science & Business Media.

The power of yet

When students display their anxieties through verbalising their inability to grasp a complex
concept, emphasising that learning takes time and effort shifts the emphasis away from I
cant do it to one of I cant do it yet.
A whole-school growth mindset approach
According to Dweck (2000), those who view intelligence as malleable rather than a fixed
entity tend to display higher levels of resilience and academic buoyancy. Ensuring that this
growth mindset remains consistent and part of a whole-school initiative can help students
move beyond their last test result.

broadened mindsets and regulate negative

emotional experiences as well as view
failure in more positive terms. Certain
individuals are able to draw on positive
emotions in times of stress and are
consequently able to cope better with
daily setbacks through the effective use of
such emotions. Buoyant individuals are,
therefore, better equipped to deal with the
low-level hassles and negative experiences
encountered on a daily basis within a
school setting through a kind of positive
academic-psychological capital. For
example, it has been found that individual
interest maintains positive relationships
with students use of cognitive strategies,
perceptions of skill and academic
achievement as well as making a
significant contribution to several aspects
of the learning process (Schiefele et al.,
1992) while also displaying a significant
link to academic achievement, even after
controlling for the effects of ability (Eccles
& Wigfield, 2002).
In the scramble to promote so-called
non-cognitive skills in education, it would
appear that much of the research that
could provide a suitable foundation on
which to build interventions has been
neglected. The growing research base for
such interventions has been largely

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

ignored, and those interventions that have

been implemented often lack both the
research base and the design methodology
that would promote and encourage
replication (Hart & Heaver, 2013).
A closer relationship between researchers
and teachers would certainly help to
eliminate the possibility that expensive
and labour-intensive interventions yield
very little in terms of outcomes.
Finally, any intervention that aims
to strengthen day-to-day resilience and
academic buoyancy must take into
account other aspects of emotion and
cognition. The encouragement and
nurturing of positive emotions and the
awareness of the consequences of negative
ones should be incorporated into both
research and interventions in order for
these interventions to be properly trialled
and systematically reviewed.

Marc Smith
is a Chartered Psychologist,
teacher and PhD student at
the University of York
marcsmithrs@gmail.com

721

NEW VOICES

Do schools need lessons

on motivation?
Laura Oxley on reward and punishment in the classroom in the latest in our
series for budding writers (see www.bps.org.uk/newvoices for more information)

yle knew that he wasnt supposed

to use his mobile phone during
lessons. Yet here he was at 3.30pm,
the end of the school day, and he was
trudging down the corridor to another
detention. It wasnt his fault he had
arrived late to the lesson, and he felt
a smouldering anger towards the teacher
who made a sarcastic comment about the
time as Kyle sidled into the room, trying
to remain unnoticed. He would like to see
how that teacher managed after a sleepless
night with his baby sister screaming and
his mum arguing with her latest
boyfriend. When the morning finally
arrived, there was no sign of his school
uniform in the chaos of the laundry pile
and, glancing in at the barren fridge, Kyle
knew that breakfast was simply not going
to happen. When he did get to school, the
work for the lesson had already been
handed out, and Kyle stared at the
worksheet in front of him
uncomprehendingly, silently asking
himself why on earth he needed to know
what 2n + 3y equals. He glanced over at
the teacher, considering asking for help,
but the teacher was with someone else at
that moment. Slumping down in his seat,
Kyle pulled his mobile phone out of his
pocket and started texting. The shout
from the teacher interrupted this as he
stormed over to Kyle and demanded that
he put his phone away and get on with
the work. Sullenly returning his phone
to his pocket, Kyle turned back to the
worksheet, no more comprehending than
he had been before, and now with the

references

722

Bennett, T. (2015). New behaviour tsar

Tom Bennetts top ten tips for
maintaining classroom discipline.
Retrieved from tinyurl.com/qefkt2n
Bombr, L.M. (2007). Inside Im hurting:
Practical strategies for supporting
children with attachment difficulties in
school. London: Worth Publishing.
Department for Education (2013).
Permanent and fixed term exclusion
from schools in England: 2011 2012

prospect of yet another detention after

school weighing him down.
Sadly Kyles tale is not an anomaly. This
is the experience of a core minority of
children and young people who are
trapped in a cycle of punishments and
sanctions due to their schools ineffective
and inflexible behaviour policies. As a
professional working for the last 10 years
in the education sector with young people
at risk of exclusion from school, I have
seen various strategies used to try and
support them with their behaviour. Not
all the strategies have been supportive;
some have been punitive and designed to
shock the young person into behaving,
for example in the case of a short fixedterm exclusion from school. The strategies
that have worked best have been those
that include the young people in the
process of change and acknowledge that
systemic changes often have to be made
to enable that young person to learn new
ways of behaving.
Having embarked last year on a PhD
study about behaviour management
systems in English schools, I have found
that my professional experience resonates
with the literature in this area. Yet the
predominant approach to behaviour
management in many English schools
remains based on a system of
punishments and rewards. Despite
research (Geddes, 2006; Greene, 2009;
Kohn, 1993) and statistics (Department
for Education, 2013) that suggest that this
approach is not effective for all students,

academic year. Retrieved from

tinyurl.com/pab4wrr
Department for Education (2014).
Behaviour and discipline in schools.
Retrieved from tinyurl.com/nod9uqf
Flanagan, H. (2014, July). Restorative
approaches. Presentation at training
event for Cambridgeshire County
Council, Over, Cambridgeshire, UK.
Geddes, H. (2006). Attachment in the
classroom. London: Worth Publishing.

it continues to be used by the majority of

schools and is promoted by government
guidance (Department for Education,
2014) and policy advisers (Bennett,
2015).
Punishment is a way of controlling
the behaviour of others. The use of
punishment is based on an unequal
power relationship, with the will of the
teacher being imposed on the student
under the threat of a negative experience
if they do not comply (Kohn, 1993). The
majority of students are able to conform
to the school rules and follow
instructions with little difficulty. However
the minority of students, like Kyle, can
find themselves in trouble on a regular
basis. Students are rarely unaware of the
rules, yet often they lack the skills to
respond adaptively to the situations
they find themselves in (Greene, 2009).
A punitive response does not help these
young people to learn these skills and
instead creates feelings of resentment and
rejection, often resulting in more extreme
behaviour (Martinez, 2009). If a young
person were to make an academic
mistake, the school would offer extra
support to teach the young person how to
correct this, even if they were making the
same mistake again and again (Flanagan,
2014). This level of support is rarely
offered when a student makes a
behavioural mistake.
It is debatable whether this system of
behaviour management is even effective
for those students who are not repeatedly
in trouble. At first glance it may appear
to be so, but research shows that most
people actually conform to rules because
of their own values and their
relationships with others, rather than
through fear of consequences (Flanagan,
2014; Greene, 2009). For the student
who strays from their usual path of good
behaviour, the short sharp shock of a
detention may seem to make a difference.
But research (Greene, 2009) suggests that
it may actually be the disappointment of
parents or the isolation from peers that
causes them to avoid this experience in
the future.

Glasser, W. (1985). Choice theory in the

classroom. New York: Harper
Perennial.
Greene, R.W. (2009). Lost at school: Why
our kids with behavioural challenges
are falling through the cracks and how
we can help them. New York: Scribner.
Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards. New
York: Houghton Mifflin.
Martinez, S. (2009). A system gone
berserk: How are zero tolerance

policies really affecting schools?

Preventing School Failure: Alternative
Education for Children and Youth, 53(3),
153158.
Ryan, R. & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25(1), 5467.
Thorsborne, M. & Blood, P. (2013).
Implementing restorative practices in
schools. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

new voices

Serious incidents or repetition of

like learning to read, which is something
challenging behaviour can eventually lead
in which it would beneficial for children
to an exclusion from school. The statistics
to develop a lifelong interest, rewards are
for school exclusions nationally show
unlikely to achieve this goal.
that almost half of the students who had
The behaviourist principles of
received a fixed-term exclusion from
sanctions and rewards are so embedded
school had received this sanction more
in our school discipline system that it can
than once in one school year. They
also show that the majority of fixed
-term exclusions from school are
recorded as being due to
persistently disruptive behaviour
(Department for Education, 2013).
This suggests that there was a
prolonged period of challenging
behaviour leading up to this
serious sanction, with the
implication that any interventions
attempted prior to the exclusion
were not effective in changing
student behaviour.
With the recognition that
a punitive response is often
ineffective, many teachers are
already trying to move away from
the use of punishments to control
behaviour (Kohn, 1993). Rewards
and praise are seen as better ways
of encouraging students to do
what is required of them in the
classroom. However, while this
is certainly a kinder way of
responding, the basic premise of
rewards and praise is little different
The use of punishment is based on an unequal
to that of punishment. Both
power relationship
rewards and sanctions are forms
of extrinsic motivation, specifically
aiming to control behaviour and
ensure compliance with the will of
seem difficult to think about trying
another. The problem with using rewards
something else. Yet, in the famous quote
in a learning environment is that this
attributed to Einstein, the definition of
detracts from the value of learning for its
insanity is to continue to do the same
own sake.
thing again and again while expecting
Ideally, students should be
different results. The good news is that
intrinsically motivated to learn how to
there are evidence-based alternative
read and solve maths puzzles, but clearly
approaches to behaviour management
this is not always the case. However,
available and some schools are already
when children start school, they are eager
beginning to adopt these approaches.
to learn and curious about being
One of the more well-known alternative
introduced to new tasks. So what happens
approaches is restorative practice.
to change that as they continue on their
Originating in the criminal justice system,
educational journey? The answer is likely
where it has been shown to be both more
to be that these young people become
effective and less costly than traditional
caught in a cycle of extrinsic motivators
punitive approaches (Flanagan, 2014),
(Kohn, 1993). For those who are
restorative practice is based on building
fortunate enough to have the skills to
and maintaining relationships, repairing
conform to school rules and avoid
any harm caused, and working
punishment, the lure of rewards and
collaboratively on a way forward
praise often becomes the sole reason for
(Thorsborne & Blood, 2013). This
completing school work. Many studies
approach takes commitment and support
(Kohn, 1993; Ryan and Deci, 2000) have
from all school staff and would initially
shown that the use of extrinsic motivators
be more time-consuming than continuing
reduces future intrinsic motivation for the
with a system of punishments and
same or similar tasks. For ensuring
rewards. But in the long term this
obedience, rewards may be the way
approach would be far more beneficial
forward, but when concerned with a task
to the young people involved as they are

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

given the opportunity to learn the skills

they need to respond adaptively to lifes
challenges and to develop emotional
awareness and empathy. Schools that
have implemented this approach have
seen improvements on both social and
academic measures, such as a decrease
in school exclusions, a reduction in
persistent absence, and increased
achievement in both English and maths
(Flanagan, 2014; Thorsborne & Blood,
2013).
Other alternative approaches, such
as Glassers choice theory (Glasser, 1985),
Greenes collaborative problem solving
(Greene, 2009), and practical strategies
for working with students with
attachment difficulties (Bombr, 2007;
Geddes, 2006) are also based on
collaboration and relationships. The basic
principle of all of these approaches is that
school staff are working with the young
people to solve challenging behaviour
issues, rather than imposing solutions
on them. Research shows that choice and
autonomy are key elements in building
intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Enabling young people to participate in
decision making about what happens to
them in school is an effective way to
engage students and teach valuable
decision-making skills.
The aim of my own PhD study is
to explore the experiences and beliefs
of senior school leaders with regard to
different approaches to discipline within
schools. Through this study, I hope to be
able to identify the perceived barriers that
are preventing applied innovation in the
field of school discipline and suggest
possibilities for overcoming these. Further
implementation of alternative approaches
to behaviour management in schools is
needed in order to build a strong
evidence base for a change in school
discipline. The role of psychologists
should be to disseminate knowledge
about these alternative approaches to
school staff and provide support in
implementing these different ways of
working with challenging students. By
focusing on building positive learning
relationships, the emotional and relational
needs of both students and staff can be
more effectively met, and young people
like Kyle can be given the opportunity to
achieve success against the odds.
Laura Oxley is a
postgraduate student in the
Department of Education at
the University of York
lo590@york.ac.uk

723

ARTICLE

sources of new and stimulating

information. Consequently, even beyond
the updates posted by our connections,
social media sites generally update their
design every couple of months, simply to
keep our attention.
In terms of behaviour per se, the main
labour of social media users is adding
new connections. However, in building
Ciarn Mc Mahon considers the psychology behind Facebook and more
the network, I cannot connect with
everyone equally. For example, if I click
add as friend on Facebook, that person
It has been around a decade since
hen I first considered writing an
must accept my request for me to be able
social networking websites first
article like this some years ago,
to see their updates (generally speaking).
entered public consciousness now
I imagined that Facebook would
On Twitter, clicking follow means I will
they seem like an indispensable
become supplanted by some other
see their updates straightaway (usually),
part of daily life for many of us.
website, in the same way that it had
though at the same time they may or may
What has psychological research
displaced MySpace. Yet Facebook is now
not follow me in return. In both cases,
shown about why these sites have
more globally dominant than ever, and,
the user can choose to positively reinforce
become so popular?
as if to underline my hubris, MySpace is
my behaviour with their reward of their
resurgent. Often
personal information
written off as passing
though it is by no
fads for teenagers,
means certain that
these websites now
they will do so. So
have billions of users
my behaviour of
not only with
making a connection
Facebook, Twitter,
request follows
Google Plus, YouTube,
a variable schedule
Instagram and
reinforcement (Ferster
MySpace in the West,
& Skinner, 1957)
We are witnessing something of a boom
but with hugely
paradigm: sometimes
in social sciences scholarship pertaining
popular sites like
it is rewarded, and
to social media (see example resources
Tencent Weibo,
sometimes it is not,
below). Naturally, communications
Vkontakt and Orkut
meaning that I am
studies have been to the forefront, but
in the rest of the
very likely to continue
it could be argued that psychology as
world. Social media
to engage in it.
a discipline has been slow to pick up on
marches on. But,
Cleverly, many
social media as a topic of study. Why is
from the point of view
social media websites
this, do you think?
of peer-reviewed
have concentrated this
If we were to review the disciplines
Often written off as passing fads
psychological research,
reinforcement
body of work as a whole, and apply it
what do we know about for teenagers, social media sites
paradigm across several
to website design, what kind of social
march on
what makes these
activities into a single
media should result?
websites popular?
signal: the notification
icon. By creating
a bright, and usually red, +1 for every
Behavioural and cognitive
time we have received a new piece of
The Psychology of Cyberspace:
Almost a truism at this stage, the human
information whether it is a friend
http://psycyber.blogspot.co.uk
preference for novelty first described by
request accepted, a new message, new
Attrill, A. (Ed.). (2015). Cyberpsychology.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Lord Kames (Home, 1823) plays into the
photo liked or favorite social media
Social Media + Society open access
attractiveness of social media. Web
websites encourage us to keep checking
journal: http://sms.sagepub.com
designers fret over not delivering enough
them. These icons are not constant
fresh content to users, because we prefer
features of social media websites (unless

Why do we like social

media?

references

resources

questions

724

Aiken, M. & Mc Mahon, C. (2014). A

primer on research in mediated
environments: Reflections on
cybermethodology. Available at
http://ssrn.com/abstract=2462700
Asch, S.E. (1951). Effects of group
pressure upon the modification and
distortion of judgments. In H.
Guetzkow (Ed.) Groups, leadership
and men (pp.177190). Oxford:
Carnegie Press.

Bakshy, E., Messing, S. & Adamic, L.

(2015). Exposure to ideologically
diverse news and opinion on
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Bauer, L., Cranor, L.F., Komanduri, S. et
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Bernstein, M.S., Harry, D., Andr, P. et al.

(2011). 4chan and /b/: An analysis of

anonymity and ephemerality in a
large online community. In ICWSM,
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Blanco, K., Briceno, A., Steele, A. et al.
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network sites. In D. Buckingham

(Ed.) MacArthur Foundation Series on
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Bucher, T. (2012). Want to be on the top?
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Cialdini, R.B. (2001). The science of
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september 2015

social media

we engage with other users incessantly,

in which case, job well done by the sites
engineers) they are unpredictable.
Because we can never be certain how
many notifications we will have before
we log back into these sites, they
reinforce our behaviour with all the
power of a Skinner box, randomly
delivering food pellets in response to
a rats lever presses.
Interestingly, biological research
has shown that Facebook usage may
be associated with a specific
psychophysiological pattern (Mauri et al.,
2011). This research suggests that there is
a core flow state present when browsing
Facebook that is significantly different
from stress and relaxation on a number
of indices of somatic activity. Being on
a social media site is a positive experience
it feels good and this is why we enjoy
using it. Strikingly, a controversial study
from last year found that there is some
evidence for emotional contagion
(Kramer et al., 2014: see box) when
we see expressions of either positive or
negative emotions on Facebook, we are
more likely to express emotions of that
valence in our updates too.
It is to be expected that new users of
social media will first connect with other
users they already know, who should be
most likely to accept their invitations.
Subsequently, there will inevitably be
diminishing returns on behaviour in the
users early days on a site, in that the
same amount of effort will produce
decreasing reward. Social media engineers
can rely on negative automaintenance
(Williams & Williams, 1969) for a time
we will continue to engage in the same
way even we are not being rewarded at
all. For example, after we have run out
of people we know, we will move on to
people we only slightly know, who are
less likely to reciprocate when we add
as friend or follow them.
Consequently, web developers can
expect a decline in user activity after their
first few weeks, which inevitably plays
into what might be the dominant
cognitive state of our era: media

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Deutsch, M. & Gerard, H.B. (1955). A
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(2007). The benefits of Facebook
Friends. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 12(4),
11431168.

Potentials and pitfalls

Last July controversy
erupted with what became
known as the Facebook
Emotion Study (Kramer
et al., 2014). The study
demonstrated a small
emotional contagion
effect: users who saw more
emotional content were
more likely to post similar
content themselves. Debate
centred on its methodology,
as the newsfeeds of 689,003
Facebook users were altered
without their being
informed: experimental
participation without
consent. While websites
often restructure, that
seldom is described as
research, nor is it for the
explicit purpose of trying to
make visitors feel better or
worse. Consequently, the
study began a conversation
about research ethics in
cyberspace (Aiken & Mc
Mahon, 2014).
On the one hand,
traditional methods are
common with social media.
An experiment with
Facebook users found that
when asked to edit their
profiles they experienced
a relative increase in self-

esteem (Gonzales &

Hancock, 2011). A crosssectional survey of Twitter
users found correlations
between levels of suicidal
ideation and whether or not
they had posted tweets as
such (Sueki, 2014). Content
analysis of Facebook profile
photographs found no
significant difference across
genders (Hum et al., 2011).
The attraction of social
media for teenagers has
been explored using
ethnographic methods
(boyd, 2007). A focus group
of London undergraduates
revealed many interesting
findings (Lewis & West,
2009), such as possibly the
first academic description of
Facebook stalking!
On the other hand,
newer methods are
increasingly common.
Network analysis has
revealed how information
flows through adolescents
groups of friends (Van
Cleemput, 2010) and datamining has illustrated the
dynamics of cyberbullying on
Twitter (Blanco et al., 2013).
These present a challenge
for research: fascinating

multitasking. Instead of spending

extended periods of time on them, we
dip into and out of these sites all day long,
checking for updates from friends and
family, as well as news and information.
Research has shown, unsurprisingly, that
Facebook is the most common activity
that university students switch to when
studying. Worryingly, it has also found

Ellison, N.B., Vitak, J., Gray, R. & Lampe,

C. (2014). Cultivating social resources
on social network sites. Journal of
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Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957).
Schedules of reinforcement. East
Norwalk, CT: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.
Foucault, M. (1993). About the beginning
of the hermeneutics of the self.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

insights, but ethical

conundrums. In Kramer
et al. (2014), the data had
already been gathered by
Facebook, passed to the
researchers after having
been anonymised, with
institutional review not
deemed necessary, because
there didnt seem to be any
human participation.
In smaller studies, it is
easy to remember that data
represent people this may
be more difficult in larger
studies. Yet another
controversial Facebook study
has been published which,
while without experimental
manipulation, utilised
anonymised data from 10.1
million users (Bakshy et al.,
2015). Cyberpsychology
speaks of online disinhibition
(Suler, 2004) but perhaps
researchers should also
think about N-line
disinhibition: becoming
overawed by huge amounts
of data. Dignity of
participants, long a hallmark
of psychological research,
may be an mounting issue in
cyberpsychological research:
are we our social media
data?

that those who most engage in this type

of internet browsing tend to have lower
levels of educational achievement (Rosen
et al., 2013). Interestingly, while
multitasking on the whole has cognitive
costs, it provides emotional gratifications
that its users do not actively seek (Wang
& Tchernev, 2012).
In addition, research has also shown

Political Theory, 21(2), 198227.

Fullwood, C., Quinn, S., Chen-Wilson, J.,
et al. (2015). Put on a smiley face:
Textspeak and personality
perceptions. Cyberpsychology,
Behavior and Social Networking, 18(3),
147151.
Gibbs, M., Meese, J., Arnold, M. et al.
(2014). #Funeral and Instagram:
Death, social media, and platform
vernacular. Information,

Communication & Society, 18(3),

255268.
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legacy. Forbes ASAP. Retrieved from
http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~gaj1/me
tgg.html
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oppressions and online communities.
Information, Communication & Society,
15(3), 411428.
Gonzales, A.L. & Hancock, J.T. (2011).

725

social media

that there are personality differences in

the social media sites preferred by users,
with those who preferred Twitter
displaying higher need for cognition, and
those who preferred Facebook displaying
higher sociability, extraversion and
neuroticism (Hughes et al., 2012).

Social
Paradoxically, given the extent of social
medias popularity, at least a certain
amount of the growth of these sites is
their exclusivity. Early in Facebooks
history, it was only available to students
at lite North American universities.
This was gradually extended to global
universities, then all adults, and
eventually high school pupils, but its
growth relied initially on a variation on
the scarcity heuristic (Cialdini, 2001).
While not many other sites have used this
particular gradation mechanism, nearly all
new services begin life with invite only
or waiting list messages. While their
marketing departments try to stir up
publicity, the fact that the public cant yet
access the new cool website only serves to
increase its attractiveness.
The flipside of this effect is known
as Metcalfes law, or the network effect
(Gilder, 1993). While technically defined
as the value of a telecommunications
network is proportional to the square
of the number of connected users of the
system, it basically means that there is
little point in joining a service unless
your friends are on it. Again this shows
why Facebook originally concentrated
on specific universities as these provided
readymade populations of interconnected
individuals. Several other services the
dating app Tinder, for example have
used the same strategy in concentrating
market targeting on college students.
Once a whole class join a service, it is
extremely useful to them but if only
one or two join, its relatively useless.
Beyond that point, social media
became popular from the very basic
principle of conformity (Asch, 1951).
If everyone we know is on a particular

Mirror, mirror on my Facebook wall:

Effects of exposure to Facebook on
self-esteem. Cyberpsychology,
Behavior and Social Networking,
14(12), 7983.
Hogan, B. (2010). The presentation of self
in the age of social media:
Distinguishing performances and
exhibitions online. Bulletin of Science,
Technology & Society, 30(6), 377386.
Home, H. (1823). Elements of criticism:

726

site, it is very hard to avoid such

normative social influence (Deutsch &
Gerard, 1955). Again, this has a corollary
in what has become known as fear of
missing out (FOMO) removing oneself
from such a website has psychological
side-effects. Interestingly, there has been
empirical research that shows that FOMO
has significant motivational, emotional
and behavioural correlates (Przybylski et
al., 2013).
However, why we stay members of
social media is to do with social capital:
the tangible benefits we receive from
being members of a group. One of the
earliest research teams to look seriously
at Facebook found that while using the
site didnt seem to have much effect on
bonding social capital advantages
gained from close friends and family, the
sort of people who would do anything for
you (Ellison et al., 2007) users did seem
to benefit from greater bridging social
capital low-level information, news and
advice. For example, you may be friends
on Facebook with someone you only met
once, which may seem a little pointless
but if they post a status update about a
job vacancy that you might be interested
in, you could be glad you hadnt
unfriended them!
Continuing with this line of research,
the same research team has explored how
certain Facebook Relationship

Volume 1 (4th Americ.). New York: S.

Campbell & Son, E. Duyckinck [etc.].
Hughes, D.J., Rowe, M., Batey, M. & Lee,
A. (2012). A tale of two sites: Twitter
vs. Facebook and the personality
predictors of social media usage.
Computers in Human Behavior, 28(2),
561569.
Hum, N.J., Chamberlin, P.E., Hambright,
B.L. et al. (2011). A picture is worth a
thousand words: A content analysis

Maintenance Behaviours, such as

responding to a friends good news,
requests for help or advice and so on,
underlie bridging social capital (Ellison et
al., 2014). The researchers conclude that
Facebook users take advantage of the
sites design features (e.g. birthday
reminders) to strengthen the weak ties
that underlie bridging social capital. In
other words, the sites affordances allow
you to tell someone you dont know very
well that you are still paying attention to
them.
Interestingly, on Israeli social media
site Shox, Schwarz (2010) describes how
teenagers use self-portraits (selfies,
though that term was not common at the
time) as a form of corporeal social capital.
As these young people are not yet part of
grown-up society, they do not have
access to the established methods of
social influence that adults do, so they
use self-portraits as a means of presenting
themselves, comparing themselves to
each other and thereby building social
relationships, both online and offline.
There is, Schwarz notes, a certain amount
of liberation in the social capital of selfimagery, but it does come at a price not
everyone can play this game, and not
everyone succeeds, much like the
celebrity culture that it mimics.
Furthermore, and what is critical for
psychological research to recognise in

of Facebook profile photographs.

Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5),
18281833.
Johnson, B.K. & Knobloch-Westerwick,
S. (2014). Glancing up or down: Mood
management and selective social
comparisons on social networking
sites. Computers in Human Behavior,
41, 3339.
Joinson, A.N. (2001). Self-disclosure in
computer-mediated communication.

European Journal of Psychological

Assessment, 31, 177192.
Kramer, A.D.I., Guillory, J.E. & Hancock,
J.T. (2014). Experimental evidence of
massive-scale emotional contagion
through social networks. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences,
111(24), 87888790.
Lewis, J. & West, A. (2009). Friending:
London-based undergraduates
experience of Facebook. New Media

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

social media

these contexts such as funeral research

on Instagram (Gibbs et al., 2014) is that
each particular social media site has its
own platform vernacular. In other words,
to appreciate any social media site fully,
researchers need to understand its
language practices, which are often
unique to it.
That said, it does seem like we
associate with other people on social
media at least in part because of the how
good they make us look, and social
comparison research remains intriguing.
There is long-standing research
demonstrating that if our Facebook
friends are good-looking, we too will be
perceived as better looking (Walther et
al., 2008). Additionally, it has also been
shown that users of social media sites
compare themselves to each other in an
effort to manage their mood (Johnson &
Knobloch-Westerwick, 2014) that when
we are in a negative mood we prefer to
make more downward social
comparisons, against those we view as
less successful or attractive as ourselves.
Interestingly, it has been shown that
even anonymous websites have complex
community structures. On 4chan, even
though it is impossible to distinguish the
author of one post from the next in such
an environment, and posts disappear if no
one interacts with them, Bernstein et al.
(2011) have shown that there is still a
distinct social hierarchy at work. By using
distinctive identity signs, such as difficultto-reproduce Unicode character displays
or time-stamped photographs, 4chan has
a distinctive community culture and
hierarchy of participation. This gives rise
to the most exquisite aspect of both
internet and teenage culture: the in-joke.
Fundamentally, social media allows its
users to socialise with similarly-minded
individuals.

Self and identity

Additionally, there is ample cultural work
that is useful in understanding the
psychology of social media sites
popularity. Foucault (1993) speaks of

& Society, 11(7), 12091229.

Locke, J. (1700). An essay concerning
humane understanding, in four books
(4th edn). London: Awnsham and
John Churchill.
Marcia, J.E. (1966). Development and
validation of ego-identity status.
Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 3(5), 551558.
Mauri, M., Cipresso, P., Balgera, A. et al.
(2011). Why is Facebook so

technologies of the self techniques by

which people manipulate their bodies,
minds and behaviour in order to reach
some ideal of psychological perfection.
While he wrote largely about ancient
practices like mediation and diarykeeping, it is clear that there are many
such technologies present today. These
websites are how many of us now choose
to refine and manage our identities.
A Foucauldian analysis of social media
would necessarily have to incorporate
notions of power and governance: social
media as an outlet for comparative selfdevelopment. LinkedIn, for example, as
a professional and business-oriented
social media site is extensively used for
marking personal progress and
improvement. Research has shown that
on Xing, a similar professional social
network, there is a high degree of
authenticity, rather than idealism, present
in users profiles (Sievers et al., 2015).
But the major use of social media
in this regard has been by teenagers and
young adults, and has been repeatedly
demonstrated by danah boyd (e.g. boyd,
2007). The ethnographic work of boyd
demonstrates that within such mediated
environments networked publics
young users of MySpace engage in a
considerable amount of time editing and
managing their profiles in a process of
impression management with regard to
their imagined audiences. Critically, boyd
was one of the first to underline how
teenagers turned to the (appropriately
named) MySpace as their physical spaces
were restricted by their parents. These
days, with geolocation services present on
the likes of Instagram and Foursquare, we
are now seeing research on the spatial self
(Schwartz & Halegoua, 2014). Users of
such services portray their social
identities according to the places they
have been: we like to show our friends
that we are getting out.
On the whole, self-presentation
affordances are a critical aspect of social
medias popularity. On Facebook, Strano
(2008) found that female adult users
were more likely to change their profile

successful? Cyberpsychology,
Behavior, and Social Networking,
14(12), 723731.
Postmes, T. & Spears, R. (2002). Behavior
online: Does anonymous computer
communication reduce gender
inequality? Personality & Social
Psychology Bulletin, 28(7), 10731083.
Przybylski, A.K., Murayama, K., Dehaan,
C.R. & Gladwell, V. (2013).
Motivational, emotional, and

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

photographs more often, and to

emphasise friendships in those
photographs. Continuing that vein of
investigation, more recent research has
also shown that the language we use on
social media has a critical effect on how
we are perceived by others. Fullwood et
al. (2015) found that people whose
profiles used textspeak (including
emoticons) were deemed to be less
conscientious and less open but more
emotionally stable. Interestingly, the
amount of textspeak used was not
important even small amounts were
enough to shift perceptions.
These processes hark back very much
to the work of Erving Goffman, namely
the idea of the presentation of self, which
Hogan (2010) has interpreted in the
social media context as involving both
performances (synchronous, real-time,
co-present) and exhibitions
(asynchronous, not necessarily copresent). The tricky thing about social
media in this regard, Hogan notes, is that
while users may choose to present or hide
certain aspects of their digital selves,
some of this process is taken over by the
code of the particular site, which decides
which content rises to the top of
newsfeeds. What Bucher (2012) calls the
threat of invisibility to these algorithms
is an under-appreciated factor in the
attraction of these social media sites:
once we engage with them, we are at
their mercy. The trouble is, as Bucher
notes, the algorithms that decide which
content is highlighted and which is
obscured, are proprietary and secret.
I have no way of knowing if Facebook
will push my post to the top of my
friends newsfeeds. Again, though in
a much subtler way, this harks back to
the variable schedule reinforcement
conditioning mentioned above.
The thing is, while these opaque
algorithms do have a certain amount of
control over our social media, we tend to
change our minds about our identities
quite a lot. As has been argued in
philosophy since the early modern period
(e.g. Locke, 1700), while there is a

behavioral correlates of fear of

missing out. Computers in Human
Behavior, 29(4), 18411848.
Rosen, L.D., Mark Carrier, L. & Cheever,
N.A. (2013). Facebook and texting
made me do it: Media-induced taskswitching while studying. Computers
in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948958.
Schwartz, R. & Halegoua, G.R. (2014).
The spatial self: Location-based
identity performance on social

media. New Media & Society.

doi:10.1177/1461444814531364 .
Schwarz, O. (2010). On friendship, boobs
and the logic of the catalogue: Online
self-portraits as a means for the
exchange of capital. Convergence:
The International Journal of Research
into New Media Technologies, 16(2),
163183.
Sievers, K., Wodzicki, K., Aberle, I. et al.
(2015). Self-presentation in

727

social media

continuity to our consciousness, who we

are as individuals evolves and changes
over time. Temporality, therefore, is an
important aspect of the appeal of social
media it allows us to edit our identities
in a coherent narrative fashion, of where
we come from, where we currently are
and where we hope to go.
The problem though is that we are
not very good at knowing our place in
that chronology. A very interesting study
by Bauer et al. (2013) asked participants
about the privacy settings on their
Facebook posts asking them both
longitudinally and retrospectively
about whether or not they would like
their content to remain public or
private. The studys participants
predictions about how their visibility
preferences would change did not
correlate well with their actual
changes in preferences over time.
This appears to be the appeal
of newer picture social messaging
applications like Snapchat, which offers
a sense of ephemerality to its content, by
claiming that pictures sent via its service
will automatically be deleted once viewed
by their recipients. Naturally, this appeals
greatly to younger users, especially those
within what Marcia (1966) would term
the identity crisis the developmental
stage when young people attempt to
decide who they are by trying out new
ways of presenting themselves (which
they may not want to keep permanently).
While there is very little academic
psychological research on Snapchat to
date, it seems clear that it appeals very
much to a generation who have grown up
with perils of permanent internet content
hanging over them.

Conclusions
The major factors driving the popularity
of social media usage are fundamentally
cyberpsychological. We can simply do
things and experience things on social
media that we cannot do anywhere else.
While sitting alone at home, we can make
our most private and personal thoughts

professional networks. Computers in

Human Behavior, 50, 2530.
Soukup, C. (2006). Computer-mediated
communication as a virtual third
place. New Media & Society, 8(3),
421440.
Strano, M.M. (2008). User descriptions
and interpretations of selfpresentation through Facebook
profile images. Journal of
Psychosocial Research on

728

instantly and globally public a

historically unprecedented psychological
experience. In this way we are
experiencing what has been described as
online disinhibition (Suler, 2004) the
phenomenon whereby we do and say
things on the internet that we probably
would not do in a face-to-face
environment. This is unnerving, as in
certain circumstances of anonymity and
perceived privacy we are more likely to
engage in self-disclosure of personal
information online that we would not do
otherwise (Joinson, 2001).

Another cyberpsychology concept

encourages our participation in social
media that of hyperpersonal
communication (Walther, 2007). Because
much of online communication online is
textual, time-stamped and can be edited,
its emotional impact is augmented: we
know how long our interlocutors were
composing their replies, we can spellcheck
our messages, and much more besides.
We have yet to get used to this, and this
is why social media will continue to be
highly fascinating for some time to come.
In a holistic sense, the popularity of
social media has been driven by how
user-friendly and interactive it has made
modern cyberspace. In the traditional
sociological distinction of home, work
and third space, we now have an online
environment a fourth space (Soukup,
2006). In effect, social media has created
a much more massive online space where
all kinds of interesting activities are very
easy to engage in. Many of these have
long-standing foundations in psychology
the behavioural, cognitive, social and
self/identity factors above. However, the
newer cyberpsychological factors are

Cyberspace, 2(2), 1. Retrieved from

tinyurl.com/nrwwu6r
Sueki, H. (2015). The association of
suicide-related Twitter use with
suicidal behaviour. Journal of
Affective Disorders, 170,155160.
Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition
effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior,
7(3), 321326.
Van Cleemput, K. (2010). Ill see you on
IM, text, or call you: A social

essential to understanding the appeal of

this environment, yet remain far less well
studied a new research frontier for
psychology.
It cannot be denied however, that the
discipline faces a number of challenges in
this space. We need to get over our
digital dualism: what happens in
cyberspace is real. It is not easy keeping
up with the pace of technological
developments, but psychologists must
not shirk our normative responsibilities.
In particular, we need greater
interrogation of the affordances of social
media sites and apps. Sociology,
communication studies and other
disciplines have joined the social
media party, and psychology must
ensure it is not excluded, particularly
with the advent of big data who
needs a psychologist if you have
petabytes of social media data being
analysed by the second?
Finally, it is sad to say, but online
environments provide refutation of the
equalisation hypothesis. The hope that
ICT would level out differences like
gender stereotypes has not been
supported (Postmes & Spears, 2002),
even more so in intersectional studies
(Gray, 2012). This is the toxic online
disinhibition Suler (2004) described over
a decade ago, yet society is a long way
from acknowledging it, or its
consequences. As the idea of the internet
as an aggressive playground dominates
public discourse, the insinuation that we
must be resilient to online abuse is
disturbingly common. In the past, at
times of cultural unease, ground-breaking
psychological research had profound and
vital societal impact. Is such a time upon
us again?

network approach of adolescents

use of communication media.
Bulletin of Science, Technology &
Society, 30(2), 7585.
Walther, J.B. (2007). Selective selfpresentation in computer-mediated
communication. Computers in
Human Behavior, 23(5), 25382557.
Walther, J.B., Van Der Heide, B., Kim,
S.-Y. et al. (2008). The role of
friends appearance and behavior

Ciarn Mc Mahon
is in the CyberPsychology
Research Centre, Royal
College of Surgeons in
Ireland
ciaranmcmahon@rcsi.ie

on evaluations of individuals on
Facebook. Human Communication
Research, 34(1), 2849.
Wang, Z. & Tchernev, J.M. (2012). The
myth of media multitasking.
Journal of Communication, 62,
493513.
Williams, D.R. & Williams, H. (1969).
Auto-maintenance in the pigeon.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis
of Behavior, 4(4), 511520.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

729

ARTICLE

relevant. Medicine and clinical

psychology are interesting because they
require selectors to consider candidates
personal qualities such as empathy,
warmth and a commitment to best
practice, as well as academic ability.

The best choice?

Katherine Woolf, Henry Potts, Josh Stott, Chris McManus, Amanda Williams and
Katrina Scior consider evidence on selection into the healthcare professions
The biggest hurdle to becoming
a clinical psychologist, doctor or
other healthcare professional is
getting onto a training course
once accepted nearly all trainees
qualify to practise. It is therefore
crucial that selection methods
weed out those who would perform
poorly in practice and keep those
who will perform well. Courses
also need to attract the best
candidates from diverse
backgrounds, and ensure selection
methods dont discriminate
unfairly.
In the selection process what
are the best predictors of course
performance? How useful is the
academic record of candidates?
How does this compare with
aptitude tests and traditional
interviews? And what is the
evidence linking selection methods
with future performance in practice?

questions
resources

Prideaux, D., Roberts, C., Eva, K. et al.

(2011). Assessment for selection for
the health care professions and
specialty training. Medical Teacher, 33,
215223.

references

Baron, H. (2011). Selection of clinical

psychologist trainees job analysis to
develop selection tools. Final Report
for the selection working group of the
Group of Trainers in Clinical
Psychology.
British Medical Association (2009).
Equality and diversity in UK medical
schools. London: Author.
Cabinet Office (2009). Unleashing
aspiration: The final report of the Panel

730

ow do we select people to
become healthcare professionals?
Psychologists, medical doctors
and other healthcare professionals have
demanding jobs that significantly impact
on the public. The professions, and
academic psychologists, have a duty to
produce evidence on who should fill
these roles. Many of us are personally
involved in choosing candidates and want
to know if our choices are sound. It is
now widely accepted that those choices
must be carefully balanced with the
mandate to increase demographic
diversity (e.g. Medical Schools Council,
2014).
In many professional courses, such
as clinical psychology and medicine, the
validity of selection methods is especially
important because nearly everyone
accepted qualifies to practise.
Training routes are heavily
oversubscribed, with the
applicant-to-place ratio for
clinical psychology as high as
30:1. This has led to concerns
that it seems next to
impossible to gain a place, and
that selection processes are
opaque.
This article provides an
overview of selection methods,
asking how well they predict
later performance and how fair
they are. We use examples
from medicine, where there is
considerable research evidence
A key way to test whether selection methods work is
(cf. McManus, 2005), and
from clinical psychology, where to see whether people with high scores at selection
subsequently do well, and those with low scores do badly
there is less, but which is more

How can we tell which selection

methods work best for healthcare
education?
How can we predict whether someone
will become a good healthcare
professional?

Assessing candidates
The UKs 30 clinical psychology and 33
undergraduate medical programmes use
various selection methods. Academic
ability is evaluated using GCSEs and
A-levels or equivalents in medicine
a minimum of three As (and increasingly
at least one A*) at A-level and a B at ASlevel being required. Degree performance
is more important in clinical psychology,
a good 2:1 or first class degree being
required and postgraduate qualifications
providing an advantage. Interviews,
personal statements and referee ratings
are used to assess person-based qualities.
Recently, situational judgement tests
multiple-choice tests that ask candidates
how they would behave in relevant
situations have been used to select
medical students for junior doctor jobs,
and there is pressure for them to be used
in clinical psychology selection (Health
Education England, 2014). Medical
schools also use aptitude tests such as

on Fair Access to the

Professions.London: Author.
Cape, J., Roth, A., Scior, K. et al. (2008).
Increasing diversity within clinical
psychology: The London initiative.
Clinical Psychology Forum, 190, 710.
Crawford, C. (2014). The link between
secondary school characteristics and
university participation and outcomes:
CAYT Research Report. Centre for
Analysis of Youth Transitions,

Department for Education.

Department for Education (2014). GCSE
and equivalent attainment by pupil
characteristics in England, 2012/13.
London: Author.
Donnon, T., Paolucci, E.O. & Violato, C.
(2007). The predictive validity of the
MCAT for medical school
performance and Medical Board
licensing examinations. Academic
Medicine, 82, 100106.

Dowell, J., Lynch, B., Till, H. et al. (2012).

The multiple mini-interview in the UK
context. Medical Teacher, 34, 297304.
Emery, J.L., Bell., J.F. & Vidal Rodeiro,
C.L., (2011). The BioMedical
Admissions Test for medical student
selection: Issues of fairness and bias.
Medical Teacher, 33(1), 6271.
Eva, K.W., Reiter, H.I., Rosenfeld, J. &
Norman, G.R. (2004) The ability of the
multiple mini-interview to predict

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

selection into healthcare

UKCAT (UK Clinical Aptitude Test) and

BMAT (Biomedical Admissions Test) to
measure academic and personal qualities
because so many applicants have top
A-level grades and because they are, it
is claimed, fairer.
A key way to test whether selection
methods work is to see whether people
with high scores at selection subsequently
do well, and those with low scores do
badly. This provides evidence of
predictive validity. For example, if
students with three A* grades at A-level
do better on course assessments than
those with three A grades, and the latter
do better than those with three B grades,
this helps justify rejecting candidates with
lower grades who could reasonably be
expected to fail the course.
Of course it is not that simple,
because as well as using diverse selection
methods, professional courses teach and
assess their students academic and
person-based knowledge and skills in
various ways. Clinical psychology is a
three-year postgraduate full-time course
providing academic teaching and study,
clinical placements and research training.
Assessments include reports on clinical
work, placement supervisor ratings,
a doctoral thesis viva, exams, essays and
clinical simulations. Medicine is usually
a five-year undergraduate course. Students
learn the scientific underpinning of
clinical medicine in a university setting,
and learn practical skills and professional
behaviour in NHS or community settings.
Assessments are typically multiple-choice
written examinations and practical faceto-face examinations. In choosing a
selection toolkit, we need to know which
selection methods predict academic
outcomes, which predict person-based
outcomes, and which selection methods
add value to others and should be used in
combination.
Selecting on academic ability
A-level grades are good predictors
of undergraduate performance across
undergraduate subjects (HEFCE, 2014)
and in medicine specifically (Ferguson et

preclerkship performance in medical

school. Academic Medicine, 79(10),
S40S42.
Eva, K.W., Reiter, H.I., Trinh, K. et al.
(2009). Predictive validity of the
multiple mini-interview for selecting
medical trainees. Medical Education,
43(8), 767775.
Ferguson, E., James, D., & Madeley, L.
(2002). Factors associated with
success in medical school:

al., 2002; James & Chilvers, 2001;

McManus, Woolf et al., 2013; Yates &
James, 2007). A-levels are (usually)
written knowledge tests and thus predict
performance on in-course written
knowledge tests well, although they also
predict performance on practical tests
of professional skills and behaviours.
A study of 700 medical students found
high A-level grades (along with high
conscientiousness and white ethnicity)
were better predictors of high scores in
written and clinical examinations than
study habits, parental socio-economic
status, speaking English as a first
language, or sex (Woolf et al., 2012).
Data from 12 medical schools showed
that up to 65 per cent of the variance in
first-year scores (mostly written
knowledge tests) was accounted for by
A-level performance (McManus,
Dewberry et al., 2013a); and a metaregression of six studies of medical school
entrants estimated the predictive validity
of A-levels to be very high, around 0.8
(McManus, Dewberry et al., 2013b). Data
from seven cohorts of the University
College London DClinPsy course showed
that better A-levels predicted higher
marks on all four in-course exams, and
were associated with fewer reported
concerns about clinical placement
performance (Scior et al. 2013). GCSEs
have less predictive validity (McManus,
Woolf et al., 2013), although when nearly
all applicants have top A-level grades they
add useful information (Woolf et al.,
2012).
Theoretically, A-levels and GCSEs are
good predictors of academic and personbased performance in medicine because
they provide the foundation of what has
been called the academic backbone: the
accumulation ofmedical capital; that
set of knowledge, theories, experience,
understanding and skills that comprise
successful medical practice (McManus,
Woolf et al., 2013). It is likely that
A-levels have a similar role in
underpinning the academic backbone in
psychology and other courses.
There is less evidence about degree

Systematic review of the literature.

BMJ, 324, 952.
Goho, J. & Blackman, A. (2006). The
effectiveness of academic admission
interviews. Medical Teacher, 28(4),
335340.
Griffin, B. & Hu, W. (2015) The interaction
of socio-economic status and gender
in widening participation in medicine.
Medical Education, 49(1), 103113.
Health Education England (2014). Values

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

performance in selection, although our

UCL DClinPsy study found it predicted
course exam performance independently
from A-levels on Year 1, but not Year 2,
exams (Scior, 2013).
Selecting on person-based factors
Interviews can take many forms and there
is conflicting evidence as to their utility
(Ferguson et al., 2002; Goho &
Blackman, 2006; Hogg et al., 2014; Scior
et al., 2013). Concerns have also been
expressed about the reliability and
fairness of traditional unstructured
interviews (Prideaux et al., 2011;
Salvatori, 2001).
The multiple mini-interview (MMI)
is a practical structured interview
increasingly used in medicine. Candidates
rotate around stations in order. At each
station they perform a task such as
talking to an actor about an ethical
issue for a set time. An examiner at
each station assesses performance using
a structured checklist, to give an overall
measure of non-cognitive ability (Dowell
et al., 2012; Eva et al., 2004). The MMI
is more reliable than unstructured
interviews and measures actual rather
than reported performance. In medicine,
the MMI is a good predictor of
performance in practical examinations
of knowledge application and
communication skills (Eva et al., 2009;
Husbands & Dowell, 2013; Kelly et al.,
2014). To our knowledge, there is no
evidence as to the effectiveness of an MMI
in clinical psychology.
Situational judgement tests (SJTs)
are written tests in which candidates are
presented with hypothetical scenarios
requiring them to choose or rank the
most appropriate responses. SJTs have
only recently been used in medicine
to select qualified doctors into specialty
training (see Patterson et al., 2012, for a
review). The SJT used to select candidates
into general practice training has a small
to medium correlation (r = .3) with job
supervisor ratings a year later and a
slightly higher correlation (r = .4) with
the GP exit examination two years later,

based recruitment framework.

Retrieved from tinyurl.com/pljyw2q
HEFCE (2014). Differences in degree
outcomes. London: Author.
Hogg, L., Panting, H., Gregory, J. &
Salkovskis, P. (2014). Can we predict
performance in clinical psychology
training from performance in selection.
Doctorate in Clinical Psychology,
University of Bath.
Hurwitz, B. & Vass, A. (2002) Whats a

good doctor, and how can you make

one? British Medical Journal, 325, 667.
Husbands, A. & Dowell, J. (2013).
Predictive validity of the Dundee
multiple mini-interview. Medical
Education, 47(7), 717725.
James, D. & Chilvers, C. (2001).
Academic and non-academic
predictors of success on the
Nottingham undergraduate medical
course 19701995. Medical Education,

731

selection into healthcare

and adds significantly to information

provided from written knowledge and
practical clinical tests (Patterson et al.,
2013).
SJTs are not used to select medical
undergraduates in the UK, although the
UKCAT test is piloting one. In Belgium
a study of 5000 medical school applicants
found that a video-based SJT measuring
interpersonal skills (candidates watched
30 videos and had decide what to do after
each one) was a reasonable predictor of
medical school assessments of
interpersonal behaviour, and of
performance as a doctor seven years
later correlations being small to
medium (.15 to .23). It was significantly
better than a cognitive test of science
knowledge and general mental ability,
although the cognitive test was a better
predictor of knowledge test scores
(Lievens, 2013). As far as we know, there
are no published reports of SJTs in clinical
psychology selection, although
anecdotally they are used or currently
being piloted by several UK courses.
Aptitude tests in selection
The best-established aptitude test
in medicine is the Medical College
Admissions Test (MCAT), used in one
form or another in the United States since
the 1920s (Moss, 1930). MCAT has a
small to medium correlation (r = .4) with
early medical school performance, and a
medium to large correlation (r = .6) with
the US Medical Licensing Examination
(similar to medical school finals in the
UK) (Donnon et al., 2007). In predictive
validity studies, a correlation of .6 is high.
By contrast, there is only a small
correlation (r = .2) between UKCAT
scores and medical school results, which
is weaker than the correlation between
school exam results and medical school
results (r = .3). UKCAT also adds little
information over the school achievement
mark (McManus, Dewberry et al., 2013a).
BMAT has similar predictive power to
UKCAT (McManus et al., 2011).
Differences in the relative predictive
power of aptitude tests reflect differences

35, 10561064.
Kelly, M., Dowell, J., Husbands, A. et al.
(2014). The fairness, predictive
validity and acceptability of multiple
mini interview in an internationally
diverse student population. BMC
Medical Education, 14, 267.
Lievens, F. (2013). Adjusting medical
school admission. Medical Education,
47(2), 182189.
Ludka, K., Woolf, K. & McManus, I.C.

732

in their content. Until 2012 the MCAT

subtests were Physical Science, Biological
Science, Verbal Reasoning, and a Writing
Sample. The best-performing subtest was
Biological Science, which predicted
medical school written knowledge test
performance and job performance. The
next best was Verbal Reasoning, which
predicted job performance only (Donnon
et al., 2007). UKCAT tests reasoning, not
science knowledge. BMATs knowledge
subscale performs significantly better than
its reasoning and writing subscales
(McManus et al., 2011).
Aptitude tests are not widely used in
clinical psychology selection, and there
is no consensus on what a psychological
aptitude test should entail, although
Baron (2011) suggests cognitive ability,
research comprehension, personality,
English language ability or SJTs might
be useful. There are some course-specific
tests, but there are insufficient data to
assess their predictive validity reliably.
From April 2015 all providers of NHSfunded training programmes in England
are expected to assess candidates values
and behaviours using reliable and valid
methods, such as face-to-face structured
interviews or multiple mini-interviews,
and to use tools such as SJTs and aptitude
tests to screen for interview selection
(Health Education England, 2014). It is
imperative to consider how these should
be used to select in clinical psychology,
where there is little research evidence.

Job performance
So far we have looked at whether
selection methods predict course
performance. While a student cannot
qualify without passing, job performance
is much more important. Selection
methods are crucial because nearly
everyone accepted on a medical or
clinical psychology course qualifies.
We could say this means selection
methods work, but that assumes
course assessments are proxies for job
performance; that is, that candidates who
perform well on the course go on to be

(2013). Poor performance on the

MRCP(UK) examination predicts
license limitations in subsequent
medical practice. Prague: Association
for Medical Education Europe
Conference.
McManus, I.C. (2005). Myers and
medicine. The Psychologist, 18(12),
748751.
McManus, I.C., Dewberry, C., Nicholson,
S. & Dowell, J.S. (2013a). The

good practitioners, candidates who

perform badly go on to be poor
practitioners, and candidates who fail
the course would have been terrible
practitioners.
Is this true? It is certainly
controversial. Doctors often say that
exams predict exams and they have
nothing to do with being a good doctor
(Hurwitz & Vass, 2002). To test this we
need to look at how well the methods
used to select on to courses predict job
performance. To our knowledge, no direct
evidence exists in medicine or clinical
psychology. However, if selection methods
predict course performance and course
performance predicts job performance,
that chain of evidence would help
validate selection methods.
One problem with establishing the
chain is that there is no agreed definition
of good performance, and in the UK
there are as yet few available data on any
potential measures of it. Being struck off
the medical register is, however, a
reasonable proxy for bad performance,
and there is evidence that medics who
do badly in exams but scrape through are
more likely to have licensing problems
(Ludka et al., 2013; Papadakis et al.,
2008) and more patient deaths (Norcini
et al., 2014). To our knowledge, there are
no studies of the link between course and
job performance in clinical psychology.

Diversity and selection methods

Despite concerted efforts to widen access,
the lack of diversity in the professions
remains a problem (Cabinet Office,
2009). Newly qualified clinical
psychologists are overwhelmingly
female and white (Cape et al., 2008).
In medicine, black and minority ethnic
(BME) groups are better represented, but
this is due to high proportions of some
groups (e.g. Indian), while others (e.g.
Bangladeshi and Black Caribbean) remain
underrepresented (BMA, 2009). Fifty per
cent of doctors are independently
schooled compared with 6.5 per cent of
British children (Cabinet Office, 2009).

UKCAT-12 study. BMC Medicine, 11,

244.
McManus, I.C., Dewberry, C., Nicholson,
S. et al. (2013b). Construct-level
predictive validity of educational
attainment and intellectual aptitude
tests in medical student selection.
BMC Medicine, 11, 243.
McManus, I.C., Elder, A.T., de Champlain,
A. et al. (2008). Graduates of different
UK medical schools show substantial

differences in performance on
MRCP(UK) Part 1, Part 2 and PACES
examinations. BMC Medicine, 6, 5.
McManus, I.C., Ferguson, E., Wakeford,
R. et al. (2011). Predictive validity of
the Biomedical Admissions Test.
Medical Teacher, 33, 5357.
McManus, I.C., Woolf, K., Dacre, J. et al.
(2013c). The academic backbone.
BMC Medicine, 11, 242.
Medical Schools Council (2014). Selecting

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

selection into healthcare

School attainment is linked to gender,

ethnicity, socio-economic status, and
school characteristics (Crawford, 2014;
Department for Education, 2014), which
is clearly a problem and can mean able
students do not apply for courses. For
selectors, a major issue is whether it is
possible to increase diversity without
reducing quality, and one test of that
is whether selection methods predict
equally well for students from different
groups .
Prior academic performance and
diversity
It may disadvantage applicants from state
schools to select on A-levels without any
adjustment for school characteristics.
Students from state schools perform
slightly better at university than students
with equivalent A-level grades from
independent schools (Crawford, 2014).
The effect disappears for those with the
highest grades (HEFCE, 2014), from
which the pool of medical students is
drawn; however, the UKCAT-12 study did
find that students from selective schools
did slightly worse at medical school than
those from state schools; and students
who did particularly well in A-levels
relative to their school peers did better
at medical school than students who
achieved the same A-level grades but
performed at the same level as their
school peers (McManus, Dewberry et al.,
2013a). The issues surrounding ethnicity
are somewhat different. BME groups

for excellence: Final report. London:

Author.
Moss, F.A. (1930). Scholastic aptitude
tests for medical students. Journal of
the Association of American Medical
Colleges, 5(2), 90110.
Norcini, J.J., Boulet, J.R., Opalek, A. &
Dauphinee, W.D. (2014). The
relationship between licensing
examination performance and the
outcomes of care by international

underperform at university
compared with white
students with equivalent
A-level grades (HEFCE, 2014;
Woolf et al., 2013), putting
an onus on universities to
investigate their teaching and
learning practices to ensure
equality.
These findings do not
mean that A-levels have no
place in selecting students
from state or poorly
performing schools, but that
university entry requirements
should perhaps be calibrated to the type
of school where A-levels were obtained,
with contextual data being carefully
considered. An example of what can
happen when A-level requirements are
reduced without careful calibration comes
from the Extended Medical Degree
Programme (EMDP) at Kings College
Medical School. The EMDP has the
laudable aim of widening access to
medicine. It admits students with
significantly lower A-level grades and
gives them an extra years tuition; most
go on to be doctors. The course also
provides a rare opportunity to analyse the
performance of students with relatively
poor A-level grades who would not
usually be admitted to medical school.
Students on the EMDP perform
significantly worse in finals and have
three times the failure rate of students on
the conventional programme (McManus,
Dewberry et al., 2013b). Students on the
EMDP are different in many ways from
those on the conventional programme,
but these findings should encourage
caution before lowering entry grades
without research into how much they
should be lowered, and for which groups.
On a related note, in the UCL
DClinPsy study, graduates from Oxford or
Cambridge performed best, and graduates
from post-1992 institutions and non-UK
universities performed worst on a
statistics exam, with no differences found
on all other assessments (Scior et al.,
2013). Oxford and Cambridge medical

medical school graduates. Academic

Medicine, 89(8), 11571162.
Papadakis, M.A, Arnold, G.K., Blank, L.L
et al. (2008). Performance during
internal medicine residency training
and subsequent disciplinary action by
State Licensing Boards. Annals of
Internal Medicine, 148(11), 869876.
Patterson, F., Ashworth, V., Zibarras, L.
et al. (2012). Evaluations of
situational judgment tests to assess

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

graduates outperform academically those

from other medical schools (McManus,
Elder et al., 2008; Woolf et al., 2012).
Bearing in mind that psychology
undergraduates from BME backgrounds
tend to be concentrated in post-1992
universities (Turpin & Fensom, 2004),
further research is needed to understand
the implications for selection into
postgraduate courses.
Aptitude tests and diversity
Aptitude tests used in medicine, law
and other subjects claim to more fairly
assess ability than school exams
(http://admissionstestingservice.org) yet
better UKCAT and BMAT performance is
predicted by grammar or independent
school attendance, white ethnicity, having
professional parents, being male and
speaking English as a first language
(Emery et al., 2011; Tiffin et al., 2014;
McManus, Dewberry et al., 2013a).
This suggests that, while not necessarily
biased, aptitude tests are unlikely to
increase diversity.
Interviews, situational judgement tests
and diversity
The potential for bias in traditional
interviews is well known. There is
surprisingly little evidence about how
the use of the MMI and SJTs impacts on
diversity in selection in medicine or
clinical psychology. Two recent studies
from Australia and England found that
MMI scores were unrelated to socioeconomic factors, although applicants had
already been screened for prior academic
performance (Griffin & Hu, 2015; Taylor
et al., 2015).
Course performance and diversity
There are concerns about the fairness of
course assessments. In medicine, as in
higher education generally, BME students
and doctors, and those from lower socioeconomic groups tend to perform less
well (Woolf et al., 2011; Woolf et al.,
2012). The UCL DClinPsy study found
BME students were more likely to fail
course assignments (Scior et al., 2013).

non-academic attributes in selection.

Medical Education, 46(9), 850868.
Patterson, F., Lievens, F., Kerrin, M. et al.
(2013). The predictive validity of
selection for entry into postgraduate
training in general practice. British
Journal of General Practice. [Advance
online publication].
doi: 10.3399/bjgp13X674413
Prideaux, D., Roberts, C., Eva, K. et al.
(2011). Assessment for selection for

the health care professions and

specialty training. Medical Teacher,
33, 215223.
Salvatori, P. (2001). Reliability and validity
of admissions tools used to select
students for the health professions
Advances in Health Sciences Education:
Theory and Practice, 6(2), 159175.
Scior, K., Bradley, C.E., Potts, H.W. et al.
(2013). What predicts performance
during clinical psychology training?

733

selection into healthcare

In medicine, numerous explanations put

forward to explain the ethnic difference
fail to do so (Woolf et al., 2012), but it
is unlikely to result from direct
discrimination by examiners or in the
assessments themselves (McManus, 1996;
Woolf et al., 2011). New avenues of
investigation include negative
stereotyping and stereotype threat, as well
as how the relationship between ethnicity,
friendship and belonging may influence
the acquisition of medical capital (Woolf
et al., 2012).

When considering whether selection

methods work, job performance postqualification is crucial; however, there is
little evidence. The assertion that high
qualification rates are evidence of the
quality of selection methods in choosing
competent future practitioners is only
justified if course performance predicts
job performance. A handful of medical
studies have found that poor course
performance predicts being struck off
the medical register and increase patient
mortality rates. There is a considerable
need for more longitudinal studies with
job performance outcomes.
Looking to the longer term
The professions of medicine and
Being a psychologist, medic or another
clinical psychology must do more to
healthcare professional is a complex job
increase diversity, but the issues are
requiring high-level knowledge and skills
complex. The relatively poor performance
and appropriate attitudes and behaviours,
of some groups on A-levels, aptitude tests
with potentially life-changing effects for
and SJTs may reflect real differences
the population. The
rather than bias per se,
evidence for and against
which would be better
the variety of methods
tackled by intervening
Future research should
used to select suitable
much earlier in the
focus on the relationship
candidates is patchy,
educational pathway.
between selection and
although some methods
A major issue for
job performance
are clearly better than
selectors is whether it
others.
is possible to adjust entry
There is good evidence
criteria without lowering
that the wide use of A-levels to select
standards. A-level entry criteria may be
onto undergraduate courses is justified
adjusted to ensure candidates from state
by their ability to predict performance
and poorly performing schools are not
on academic and person-based outcomes.
disadvantaged, although this needs to be
For postgraduate courses, limited
done by individual courses in a careful
evidence suggests that degree class is of
evidence-based way to avoid lowering
some use in addition to A-levels. Aptitude
standards. Adjusting for ethnicity is
tests that measure general factors such as
more difficult. There is no evidence
reasoning add little or nothing to A-levels
that aptitude tests improve diversity.
and GCSEs; tests measuring subjectInterestingly, limited evidence suggests
specific knowledge are better. In selecting
the MMI is perhaps fairer than other ways
for personal qualities, traditional-style
of assessing person-based factors.
unstructured interviews should not be
In conclusion, we appear to be doing
used. Highly structured practical tests
reasonably well at selecting candidates
such as the MMI are useful, although
who will do well on courses on tests of
expensive and labour-intensive. SJTs seem
knowledge, skills and attitudes. We have
promising, predicting both academic and
little idea, though, what this means in the
job performance ratings in postgraduate
longer term. Future research should focus
medicine. More research is needed to
on the relationship between selection and
establish what SJTs should look like in
job performance, and a key issue is that
clinical psychology and for selection onto
there are not agreed, clear definitions as
undergraduate courses.
to what it is to be a good practitioner.

British Journal of Clinical Psychology,

53, 194212.
Scior, K., Gray, J., Halsey, R. & Roth, A.D.
(2007). Selection for clinical training.
Clinical Psychology Forum, 175, 712.
Taylor, C.A., Green, K.E. & Spruce, A.
(2015). Evaluation of the effect of
socio-economic status on
performance in a multiple mini
interview for admission to medical
school. Medical Teacher, 37(1), 5963.

734

Tiffin, P.A., McLachlan, J.C., Webster, L.

& Nicholson, S. (2014). Comparison
of the sensitivity of the UKCAT and A
levels to sociodemographic
characteristics: A national study.
BMC Medical Education, 14, 7.
Turpin, G. & Fensom, P. (2004). Widening
access within undergraduate
psychology education and its
implications for professional
psychology: Gender, disability and

The identification of suitable selection

methods should be more coupled with
research into what it means to be a safe
and effective practitioner, rather than
merely measures of whether one does
well during training. Understanding
how to remedy this situation very likely
requires studies that go beyond specific
courses and look at factors beyond exam
performance both in terms of selection
metrics and outcomes.
Note
The authors wish to note that the views expressed in
this article are theirs alone and in no way represent the
position of the UCL Clinical Psychology course or UCL
Medical School.

I Katherine Woolf

is at UCL Medical School, UCL

k.woolf@ucl.ac.uk
I Henry Potts

is at Institute of Health Informatics, UCL

h.potts@ucl.ac.uk
I Josh Stott

is at Clinical Educational and Health

Psychology, UCL. j.stott@ucl.ac.uk
I Chris McManus

is at Clinical Educational and Health

Psychology and UCL Medical School
i.mcmanus@ucl.ac.uk
I Amanda Williams

is at Clinical Educational and Health

Psychology, UCL
amanda.williams@ucl.ac.uk
I Katrina Scior

is at Clinical Educational and Health

Psychology, UCL
k.scior@ucl.ac.uk

ethnic diversity. Leicester: British

Psychological Society.
Woolf, K., McManus, I.C., Potts, H.W. &
Dacre, J. (2013). The mediators of
minority ethnic underperformance in
final medical school examinations: A
longitudinal study. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 83, 135159.
Woolf, K., Potts, H.W. & McManus, I.C.
(2011). Ethnicity and academic
performance in UK-trained doctors

and medical students. BMJ, 342,

d901.
Woolf, K., Potts, H., Patel, S. & McManus,
C. (2012). The hidden medical school.
Medical Teacher, 34, 577586.
Yates, J. & James, D. (2007). Risk factors
for poor performance on the
undergraduate medical course:
Cohort study at Nottingham
University. Medical Education, 41,
6573.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

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the free for-all of the playground is a challenging
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social world of the playground.
A new collaboration between childrens
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(www.ltl.org.uk), and researchers at University of
Cambridge and University College London has been
formed to investigate some interesting open questions.
Dr Jenny Gibson (Centre for Research on Play in
Education, Development and Learning (PEDaL),
University of Cambridge) says: Are children less likely
to be aggressive if they are in a more natural
playground compared to a concrete school yard? Do
different groups of children play and interact differently
on the playground (e.g. are girls really more sociable
than boys?). Can we reliably detect early signs of
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the interaction of individual differences with the
characteristics of the playground environment and how
this might influence group behaviour.
The team are developing a novel methodology
combining GPS, computer modelling and more
traditional forms of observation in order to gain deeper
insights into the world of the playground.

Image by LTL/Malcolm Cochrane with comment from

Dr Jenny Gibson (University of Cambridge)

Learning through
landscapes

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735

INTERVIEW

Excursions into broader

theorising
Lance Workman questions Richard Stevens on the Open University,
consciousness, happiness and more

ouve had a varied career from

Y
directing TV programmes, to
helping to set up the Consciousness
and Experiential Section of the British
Psychological Society, to helping to
make Slough happy. What originally
got you into psychology?
At school I specialised in literature and
languages. I loved their focus on human
experience but found them too subjective
to be satisfying. So I chose a psychology
honours degree at Edinburgh in the hope
of getting a more systematic
understanding of people. I also studied
philosophy and music. Much of my time
though was spent acting, and particularly
directing plays for the Dramatic Society
(of which I became President). I loved
my time at Edinburgh, surrounded by
talented and creative fellow students.
I directed Tennessee Williams Orpheus
Descending in only its second production
in the UK. I was also one of the first to
direct Pinters The Birthday Party and
handled a cast of 80 in Buchners
wonderful play about the French
revolution Dantons Death. My three sons
were all born during my four years at
Edinburgh. Although I graduated with
a first and received awards as the most
distinguished student in both psychology
and also in philosophy, I chose to pursue
neither when I graduated.
So what career did you pursue?
Well, my first career was as a theatre and
TV director. I was taken on by the BBC
and became the youngest TV drama
director in the UK. I directed episodes for
series such as Dr Finlays Casebook, Maigret
and Z Cars (which went out live!)
But you moved back into psychology.
Working on episodes in series in fact
offered limited scope for creative
direction. I was sorely missing ideas,
intellectual excitement and university
life. So I applied for and was offered posts
at three universities (it was much easier
in those days!). I chose Trinity College
Dublin, as I couldnt resist old-style

736

college life I very much enjoyed being

there, with great colleagues, some of
whom remain my closest friends.
You moved on to the OU do you think
the work in TV helped you here?
Yes, when the Open University started
it seemed an ideal opportunity for me.
I could pursue psychology but utilise
some of my experience of broadcasting.
I also wanted to move back to the UK for
the sake of the education of my children
and my wifes career. The OU was very
different, but offered wonderful creative
possibilities.
The OU was quite unique what kind
of opportunities and challenges did you
face?
Course production was an exciting if
sometimes fraught affair. At that time all
our writing for a course went through at
least three drafts. At each stage your work
was commented on, often in detail, both
by other members of the course team and
by external assessors. These included
some of the best-known names in
psychology, such as Jerome Bruner (who
used to type his long missives to us in the
middle of the night). We had a substantial
budget (in excess of 1 million for a full
credit course including television
productions and publishing) and we
recruited some great people as consultants
either to write course material or to
work on broadcast programmes.
It was an exciting and stimulating
community. OU students tend to be
highly motivated and are quite often a joy
to teach. We had about 11,000 students
a year studying psychology, with 2000
taking the social psychology course.
Several hundred tutors look after the
students as you know, Lance, having
been one yourself and many of these
are academic staff from other universities.
At least three of our tutors I worked with
subsequently became Presidents of the
BPS. Although we worked hard, we also
had a lot of fun, especially at those unique
events called summer schools. Looking

back I realise how many interesting and

creative people I have worked with in one
way or another.
The OU has strong reputation for
research as well as in teaching.
Yes, creating courses at the OU is more
than teaching. We typically had over two
years to create a full-credit course. The
resources and the timescale gave us the
wonderful luxury, which so few lecturers
have when they teach a course on their
own, to really think about and
reconceptualise the subject matter we
are teaching. What, for example is social
psychology and what might it be? The
standard social psychology course at that
time was something of a pot-pourri of
loosely or unrelated topics such as
attitudes, social perception, groups,
prejudice, with a focus largely on
experimental or at least quantitative
research. We took a rather different
approach. The course was focused around
a key question how can we understand
human social behaviour and experience?
While we didnt neglect the classic
studies, they were framed by this
question. This inevitably led to a focus on
epistemological issues. There are radically
different ways of viewing human
behaviour and experience from
evolutionary, cognitive-experimental
approaches to existential and
psychoanalytic perspectives. We tried
to highlight and contrast such different
approaches, their relative strengths and
weaknesses. It made for an exciting
course which, according to Bruner, was
really revolutionary; wonderfully
thoughtful.
Has this multiple perspective
influenced your own approach?
Absolutely. Because my goal,
unfashionable in psychology as it often
is, has always been to try to understand
myself and other people. To do this
effectively you have to explore a range of
approaches and look at their implications.
I chose to write a book on psychoanalysis
not because I am a devotee of the
approach but because I found it
fascinating that a theory that had been
so influential in intellectual and everyday
understanding was so derided in standard
UK psychology. This paradox highlights
the critical issue of epistemology what
kind of understanding is possible and
appropriate for an effective psychology?
Also, in spite of the undoubted
weaknesses of the specifics of Freuds
theory, he did attempt to get to grips
with what for me is a central issue for
psychology the bridge between biology
and meanings and the problem of

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

interview

interrelating the two. Curiously

evolutionary psychology also focuses,
though in a totally different way, on
the same issue. So you can see I am
fascinated by the communalities and
differences between different
psychological approaches, and what each
might contribute to our understanding.
What about your interest in
consciousness?
For several years I was Chair of the
Association for Humanistic Psychology
in Britain, emphasising the openness of
being human which makes possible
personal growth. Exploring these issues
experientially made the conferences really
exciting affairs. I was interested in the
topic of consciousness then, long before
it became fashionable. Subsequently, with
my colleague Jane Nolan, we
systematically explored our own
experience of what it is to be conscious,
developing a perceptual-lingual theory.
Our theory came to view
consciousness as essentially multimodal
perception, although, in humans this will
include awareness of symbols like words
and concepts which carry with them
implicit meanings. However,
consciousness is now a less interesting
issue for me. Human cognition operates
largely at an unconscious level.
Consciousness is not what is
quintessentially human. The key
difference between us and other species
is language. Language has extraordinary
qualities. At one and the same time it
depends on key biological structures,
it is a product of socialisation, and, most
extraordinary of all, it has the quality of
openness that permits the generation of
the new. Any one of us can say something
we have never heard before.
Understanding each of these three aspects
requires different epistemologies natural
science for the biological substratum,
hermeneutics for meanings and
transformational to accommodate
openness. This kind of analysis is at
the heart of my trimodal theory.
Your recent work has been the area
of wellbeing and happiness.
Well, I guess this naturally follows on
from the focus on personal growth in
humanistic psychology. I am glad that
Seligman has put positive psychology
on the map. But he is wrong to actively
ignore the legacy of humanistic
psychology. What Carl Rogers, for
example, realised, and Seligman does not,
is that, although natural science is clearly
the method of choice for investigating
physical matter, it has critical limits when
it comes to understanding the very

different subject matter of human

experience.
You were very much involved in a TV
series Making Slough Happy. How did
this come about?
The BBC wanted to do a series of TV
programmes on the new science of
happiness. But being the BBC they
wanted it in the form of reality TV. So
a group of us were recruited to go into
Slough to try to make at least some of its
residents happier. I was the psychologist
on the team and my task was to work
with 50 volunteers to help increase their
sense of wellbeing. We had 12 weeks to
do this in! I love putting psychology on
the line like that. For me an acid test of

our discipline is how useful can our ideas

and strategies be in practice.
I was fortunate in being able to recruit
a team of creative colleagues Jane
Henry, Linda Corlett and Nevia Mullan
to help with the project. We thought
intensively about the methods we might
try. At the base of our thinking was the
trimodal approach. So we worked with
the body using exercise and dance for
example. We also worked at the level of
meanings modifying ways of thinking
about oneself and life, and also
existentially by, for example, opening up
awareness of nature and oneself, and
exploring ways of connecting with others.
We were deliberately eclectic in the
sources which we mined for ideas. We
used some of the methods developed by
positive psychology. For example, we set
up a gratitude party, which proved to be
deeply moving. But we also drew ideas
from CBT, neurolinguistic programming,
and Buddhism. We used meditation,
awareness training, and biodanza. And we
invented our own graveyard therapy, for
example, aimed at helping volunteers
become more aware of their own

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

mortality and thus stimulate a greater

sense of the significance and excitement
of being alive. We also specifically
explored relationships, work and
community involvement.
As you might expect, there were
differences between volunteers as to
which method each found most useful.
We measured their happiness levels all
through the project, using a battery of
tests. On average, these measures showed
improvement in wellbeing by about 30
per cent. I should stress though that this
was not intended to be a research project.
Clearly the presence of the cameras and
taking part in a TV project had its own
effects. The aim really was to inspire the
six million or so viewers of the
programmes and open them up to the
idea that they could be instrumental in
improving their own wellbeing.
Did the programmes lead to anything?
There were a few informal follow-ups
which indicated that, for several
volunteers at least, the effect was
sustained. One volunteer had become
Mayor of Slough and danced for us in his
back garden with his gold chain on! But
as with physical exercise, this depended
on how far they carried on practising
wellbeing activities. The programmes
certainly impacted on the public. Our
strategies were taken up by several
schools, by the Netmums organisation
among others. I also went to Thailand
in response to an invitation from their
health minister to help develop a project
in their northern provinces, where they
were concerned about higher rates of
depression and suicide.
I am glad that the topic of wellbeing
is now becoming political as well as
personal. The Open University
Psychological Society set up a fascinating
conference on wellbeing and society, on
how governments should and could focus
on wellbeing rather than GDP.
Is there anything you dislike about
psychology?
Narrowness of perspective, particularly
when it is ideologically or
methodologically driven. Remember,
behaviourism dominated psychology
when I was a student, and I had several
social constructionist colleagues who
believe that biology is an irrelevance to
understanding behaviour. Human beings
are complex. The essence of science is to
be humble if the face of our subject
matter. Neither the ideological nor the
methodological tail should wag the dog.
What about current projects?
I am now retired from the OU but I still

737

interview

work with the marvellous Open

University Psychological Society of which
I remain a Vice President. I also continue
as series editor of Mindshapers an
ongoing set of books published by
Palgrave Macmillan. Each is focused on
a thinker, usually a psychologist, who has
changed our way of thinking about what
it is to be human. Authors are asked to
be both sympathetic and critical and to
relate the ideas to the personal and social
contexts from which they emerge. So
far, we have books on Freud, Erikson,
Fromm, Skinner and George Kelly, among
others; and of course, Lance, your own
book on Darwin, one of the few to look
in depth at how Darwinism impacts on
psychology. In progress and due later this
year is Philip Corr on Eysenck and this
promises to be another cracker! What
I always appreciated about Eysenck was
his open-mindedness and preparedness
to do grand theorising.
Other current projects include
a personal book on my wonderful
relationship with my partner Ruth who
tragically died of breast cancer two
years ago. I have also been working on a
cancer project with the theatre company
Complicite, which may result in a
production at the National Theatre next

year. But my favourite activity nowadays,

I have to say, is meditating, writing and
enjoying the sun and sea on Siquijor, my
island retreat in the Philippines.
Still pretty busy then! Is there anything
else you would like to achieve in
psychology?
I have published a few papers on trimodal
theory, but I need to write it up as a book.
And one idea which would like to follow
up in some way is a course called Human
Existence. This was designed for the OU
but never took off, and it explores the
topic using a variety of epistemologies,
including reason (philosophy), reason
and empiricism (natural science) and
existential analysis.
You seem to think in rather how can
I put it grand terms?
I am not ashamed of that. I tend to think
psychology in the past has focused too
much on specifics. Psychology education
on the whole has not encouraged more
general creative thinking about the
human condition. We desperately need
some excursions into broader theorising
and applications. Physics didnt develop
the understanding it has from
experimentation alone. Theorising,

model-building and thought experiments

all played a crucial role.
So where would you like to see
psychology go in the future?
Critical problems face humankind. Not
just personal and social wellbeing but
climate change and population expansion.
In each of these psychology has the
potential to play a central and positive
role. With a few notable exceptions, there
is not much evidence of interest from
psychologists in these issues at the
moment. Although the tasks are certainly
formidable, I think we need to change
that!
Finally, and with apologies, any takehome messages to boost happiness of
our readers?
Nothing that I am sure they dont know
already. Increase social communication
(especially intimacy), exercise, get into
nature, be grateful for all the good things
you have and express your gratitude to
others, help and care for others when you
can, and engage with your community.
The important thing is to find the
strategies which work best for you and
to practise them! Oh, and spend some
time contemplating in a graveyard.

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739

SOCIETY

Presidents column
Jamie Hacker Hughes

President
Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes

Contact Jamie Hacker Hughes

PresidentsOffice@bps.org.uk Twitter: @profjamiehh

President Elect
Professor Peter Kinderman
Vice President
Professor Dorothy Miell
Honorary General Secretary
Dr Carole Allan
Honorary Treasurer
Professor Ray Miller
Chair,
Membership Standards Board
Dr Mark Forshaw
Chair,
Education and Public
Engagement Board
Professor Catriona Morrison
Chair,
Research Board
Professor Daryl OConnor
Chair,
Professional Practice Board
Dr Ian Gargan
The Society has offices in Belfast,
Cardiff, Glasgow and London, as
well as the main office in
Leicester. All enquiries should
be addressed to the Leicester
office (see inside front cover for
address).
The British Psychological
Society
was founded in 1901, and
incorporated by Royal Charter in
1965. Its object is to promote the
advancement and diffusion of
a knowledge of psychology pure
and applied and especially to
promote the efficiency and
usefulness of Members of the
Society by setting up a high
standard of professional
education and knowledge.
Extract from The Charter

740

hope that you have all returned revived and

refreshed from your summer holidays, if you
managed to get away, that is, and I really
hope that you did. Holidays and downtime are
so good for decluttering the mind and taking
time to try and get our priorities right for once.
For those of you that have returned to
mountains of e-mail, I have to tell you that
I adopted the practice several
years ago of leaving an out of
office message with the details
of a colleague to be contacted if
the message was urgent, with
my date back at work (well, a
day or two later if Im entirely
honest). If people specifically
wanted me to read their
particular e-mail and respond
to it personally they were
asked to send it again on my
return; the message warned
that all other messages would
not be read. Then I set the
auto-delete. I cant tell you
what a difference it makes, and
everyone who has adopted this
system on my advice has told
me that they have never looked
back!
But now we are back, theres a heck of
a lot to do. As far the Society is concerned,
the reordering of our Leicester offices is well
under way and our review of our own structures
is similarly in full swing. Ill keep you informed
via my blog (www.bps.org.uk/blog/presidential),
but we had a very healthy response to both
individual and network consultations and the
Societys member network review steering
group, which I chair, assisted most ably by
Helen Clark and her team, is busily working up
a document to go to this months meeting of the
Board of Trustees with some initial thoughts
and suggestions, following the review, on our
future direction.
In September all the schools, colleges and
universities restart, so that is our theme for
this month. Please let me have details of any
education and psychology related events that
youd like to promote or would like to report on.
Over my time as President I have already spent
a lot of time visiting universities, schools and
colleges encouraging them in all they are doing
that relates to psychology. Our membership
services team have also helped me considerably

by developing material that we can use when

talking to schools tailored to GCSE, IB and
A-level students respectively together with
additional material that we can use when talking
to college and university psychology societies.
Im going to a number of secondary schools this
month and next, have already been to speak to
some university psychology department
PsychSocs and
am also busily
encouraging new
ones as they set
themselves up.
Ive also attended
conferences run
by members of
psychology
departments both
at home and
abroad, and must
single out this
years 30th
anniversary
PsyPAG in
Glasgow for its
excellence and
professionalism.
Psychology teaching
in schools and universities is so important, and
I want us to do all that we can to encourage and
support those who teach psychology, especially
at pre-tertiary level. In that vein, we already
have excellent relationships with the ATP
(Association of Teachers of Psychology) and, as
well as attending their events, I really want us
to develop links with them and, for that matter,
any other organisations that psychologists
belong to such as the AEP (Association of
Educational Psychologists), and other, noneducation-related organisations such as the
EPS (Experimental Psychology Society), ABIP
(Association of Business and Industrial
Psychologists) and others. There is so much that
we can do along the lines of dual membership,
reciprocal membership, and so on. In a nutshell,
I would like every psychologist in the UK to be
a member of the BPS.
To that end, I am launching a new campaign
this month Recruit a new member in
September. Its simple. Find a psychologist who
you think or know doesnt belong to the BPS.
Explain all the benefits of membership the
networking, the CPD, the conferences and
events, the camaraderie, the reduced journals

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

society

Presidents Award for Distinguished Contributions to

Professional Knowledge
Professor Matthew Lambon Ralph
Professor Matthew Lambon Ralph from the Neuroscience and
Aphasia Research Unit, School of Psychological Sciences, at the
University of Manchester is to receive the
Societys 2015 Presidents Award for
Distinguished Contributions to Psychological
Knowledge.
Professor Lambon Ralph has been
recognised for his body of research that
brings together a range of disciplines and
methodologies. He has:
I pioneered the use of comparative caseseries neuropsychology in the field of
dementia and language problems after
stroke;
I conducted ground-breaking work using
transcranial magnetic stimulation to
probe semantic memory; and
I developed new brain-imaging studies
Professor Matthew
that have informed understanding of the
Lambon Ralph
relation between lesions and symptoms.
Society President Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes, said: The Awards

Committee was united in its decision to give this years Presidents

Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychological Research to
Professor Lambon Ralph. We felt that his work has been
most influential in advancing psychological knowledge and
practice, and innovative in the way that it brings together
approaches from different disciplines. I offer him my most
sincere congratulations.
Professor Lambon Ralph said: It is a great honour to
receive this award from the Society. I hope that it highlights
the positive symbiotic relationship that can be forged
between psychological sciences and neuroscience one
which advances our understanding of cognitive processes
and their neural bases and provides important insights
about acquired language and memory problems following
brain damage.
The mid-career Presidents Award is made annually
to recognise the achievements of someone currently engaged
in research of outstanding quality. The winner receives a
commemorative certificate and is invited to give a lecture at the
Societys Annual Conference in this case in April 2016.
Professor Lambon Ralph was appointed to his current chair
in cognitive neuroscience in 2001.

subscriptions and online literature

newsletter. They are our link between
researching resources and persuade them universities and our students. For any
to join! If we all recruited just one new
student members interested in becoming
person, we could have a 100,000 strong
a rep, wed love to have you. Please e-mail
Society within weeks.
studentreps@bps.org.uk
Members also, of course, get access to
For those of you working with
our BPS psychology library in Senate
or teaching psychology students in
House in London, which I visited recently.
psychology or other departments in
Its very impressive and the staff there are
universities, you may have heard of
really keen to develop and build on the
our multi-membership scheme, where
special relationship that we have with
universities have signed up to buy student
them (see also p.742).
BPS memberships for whole cohorts of
Were particularly pleased that so
students. Eleven universities have already
many undergraduates have joined our
done just that and wed like to see many
Society as student members over the past
more doing so. Has your university signed
few months but we know that there are
up yet? If so, fantastic, spread the word,
a lot of students out there who are
but if not yet, then please have a think
possibly yet to see the light. So, our team
about it and talk to our membership team.
are planning a recruitment drive to
Outside schools, colleges and
coincide with the
universities you will
start of the new
know that its been
academic year later
a busy old time. Our
I would like every
this month, and we
counselling psychologists
psychologist in the UK to be
will be in touch with
held their conference in
a member of the BPS
our student reps very
Harrogate, our
soon to work with
Psychology of Women
them on this.
Section held their conference
Our student reps get sent information
in Windsor, our forensic psychologists
about promoting Society membership to
held their DFP conference in Manchester
their fellow students, receive information
and EFPA held their ECP at the University
on Society events taking place nearby, and
of Milan, Bicocca.
are kept up to date with a regular
Psychology and social justice became

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

a major issue over the summer too, not

just through the ethics conference held at
UEL, nd the DCPs Beyond the Therapy
Room conference but through the Walk to
Talk social justice walk carried out by the
large group of psychologists who walked
from Leicester to London in August, and
in coverage and debate in the national
broadcast and print media. The ethics of
psychological practice has also, of course,
come under a harsh global spotlight with
the publication of the Hoffman Report on
the APA, and I, through the Board of
Trustees, am taking steps to ensure, as
far as possible, that our Society has all
the procedures and policies in place to
make sure that the BPS never finds itself
in a similar position.
This month sees more conferences,
the Developmental Psychology Section and
Quantitative Methods Section, the Welsh
Branch and the Division of Health
Psychology and, to bring things round full
circle, the Division of Educational and
Child Psychology too, and quite possibly
many more.
Its good to be back, its good to have
you back, and whether or not we study
or work in education, that back-to-school
feeling probably applies wherever we
work. Have a very good September. Theres
lots to do.

741

society

Consent and looked-after

children
Ella Rhodes reports from a discussion at the Societys Ethics Committee
The Societys Ethics
Committee have hosted a
discussion meeting on the
tricky ethics of carrying out
research involving looked-after
children. Law Professor Jean
McHale (Birmingham Law
School) began the discussion
with a talk on some of the
legal difficulties around
consent in this type of
research.
Professor McHale said
that consent from a legal
perspective was a complex
issue. For example, parental
responsibility for some lookedafter children can be vested in
a local authority as well as
a childs parents or guardians.
In addition, the legal issues
surrounding children and

consent draw on many

different areas of English law.
Researchers may be liable in
criminal or civil law if consent
is not given. Failure to obtain
consent may also lead to
infringements of the Human
Rights Act 1998. The question
of capacity to consent is
derived from family law. In
relation to persons over 16,
the test for capacity today is
to be found in the Mental
Capacity Act 2005 .
The situation is even
more problematic as there is
no single statute regulating
research in this country. The
Health Research Authority has
been placed under a statutory
basis by the Care Act 2014 and
there are various degrees of

regulation in relation to
specific areas such as clinical
trials concerning medicinal
products, yet considerable
regulatory uncertainties
remain.
Medical sociologist
Professor Helen Roberts
(University College London)
shared her experience of ethics
in relation to research with
looked-after children drawing
both on her current work and
her work as former Head of
R&D at Barnardos one of the
few non-medical charities to
have had a substantial R&D
function. She described her
practice colleagues as being
better than the best in terms
of their commitment to
ensuring the right services.

However, she said, at the time,

there was little research into
the long-term outcomes.
The notion of setting up trials
(for instance) to assess novel
services was largely seen
in a negative light both in
academic social work and
in the services themselves.
The notion that we often
simply dont know what is
the right thing to do is one

Society President Professor Jamie Hacker Hughes visited Senate House Library, University of London in June to meet senior library
managers. The collaboration between the Society and the Library dates back to 1947, since when a joint psychology collection has been
developed that is one of the most important collections in Europe. Among the benefits of this enduring association are that Society
members can join the Library free as reference readers or at a discount for a borrowing card (see tinyurl.com/shl-bps).

742

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

DAVID MANSELL/REPORTDIGITAL.CO,UK

that we all find difficult.

What had more traction with
colleagues was when we spoke
of a more robust evaluative
approach within a childrens
rights framework that its
part of a childs and parents
right to know whether whats
being offered is more likely to
do harm than good.
Roberts and her colleagues
are currently doing a small
study in one authority looking
into care leavers transitions in
health, education and social
care. She outlined some of the
ethical concerns raised by
colleagues. One was whether
the study was intrusive,
involving as it does speaking
to what were seen as
vulnerable young people at
a stressful time. Roberts said
that this raised the tension
between a childs or a young
persons right to participation
and their right to protection.
She added that since all social
research has the potential to be

society

intrusive, seeing a particular

group as too vulnerable to
participate carried its own
ethical dilemmas.
Other issues Roberts and
her colleagues encountered
were concerns around
confidentiality. Roberts said
that as part of the consent
process, the young people
were told that if they gave us
cause for concern about their
safety or someone elses, we
would need to share it. One
young person challenged this,
feeling that since s/he was no
longer looked after, this felt
heavy-handed.
Roberts concluded: How
can we arrive at a position that
provides a level of protection
but also allows an ethical and
rigorous research to take
place?
Professor Pasco Fearon
(UCL), who has been working
with children receiving social
care and third-sector services
in a range of settings, said he
had encountered multiple
problems with gaining
consent. One of the difficulties
was that although children
themselves found the idea of
being involved with research
very exciting, many
professionals working with
these children felt anxious and
protective of them and would
through the best of
intentions block
opportunities for children to
get involved. Fearon suggested
that professionals can
sometimes lose sight of the
fact that it might be interesting
and empowering for service
users to take part in research

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SOCIETY NOTICES
Wessex Branch 4th Annual Military Conference Resilience Through
Change, Basingstoke, 3 November 2015 See p.697
Psychology Heaven and Hell Research Digest blog 10th anniversary
event, London, 9 December 2015 See p.712
BPS Annual Conference, Nottingham, April 2016 See p.i
British Academy/BPS Lecture, London, 17 September See p.735
BPS conferences and events See p.744
Division of Sport & Exercise Psychology conference, Leeds,
December 2015
See p.744
CPD workshops 2015 See p.745
History of Mental Health conference, Leeds, 2223 March 2016 Se
p.748
Award for Outstanding Doctoral Research Contributions to
Psychology 2015 call for nominations See p.749
Childhood sexual abuse Impact and interventions event,
Edinburgh, October 2015 See p.750
Psychology in the Pub (South West of England Branch) See p.750
Spearman Medal 2016 call for nominations See p.751
DCP Leadership and Management Faculty Beyond Health to Life
free event, Bristol, 30 September
See p.754
Award for Equality of Opportunity 2015 call for nominations See
p.755
5th European Coaching Psychology Conference, London, December
See p.756
Division of Educational & Child Psychology Annual Conference and
TEP Day, London, January 2016 See p.756
History of Psychology Centre Stories of Psychology symposium,
London, 14 October 2015 See p.779

and to have a voice in that way.

His recent work involves
gathering evidence for a new
family intervention for foster
families; however, Professor
Fearon and his colleagues have
encountered issues with
gaining consent for these
children. He said that parental
responsibility for many
children in care is often shared
between the local authority
and the childs parents, even
when there is limited contact,
as it is often legally simpler to
keep parental responsibility as
shared. This often means that
consent is required from three
or even four parties (foster
carers, the local authority, and
one or both parents) in
addition, of course, to the
assent of the child.
Professor Fearon said that
biological parents can have
complicated feelings about
these issues and sometimes
have a difficult and complex
relationship with the local
authority. Also making contact

with these parents can often be

very difficult for researchers,
or that contact may be
potentially de-stabilising of the
childs care, when there has
been no contact for some time.
He asked whether this was a
line that should never be
crossed: When we have done
our due diligence trying to
contact biological parents, is
there any scenario where not
obtaining consent from
parents would be permissible?
Or do we have to accept that a
child in this position would
not be able to participate in
the research? He raised the
possibility that this could be
viewed as allowing children
who are already vulnerable to
become disenfranchised, at a
double-disadvantage. He
added that these sorts of
difficulties are part of the
reason why there are very few
well-executed trials involving
fostered or local authority
children. This is a major
problem for the field.

743

Organised by BPS Conferences

2016

2015

BPS conferences are committed to ensuring value for money,

careful budgeting and sustainability

Qualitative Methods in Psychology Section

24 September

Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge

www.bps.org.uk/qmip2015

Developmental Section & Social Section

911 September

The Palace Hotel, Manchester

www.bps.org.uk/devsoc2015

Division of Health Psychology

1618 September

Radisson Blu Portman, London

www.bps.org.uk/dhp2015

Children and Young People

67 October

Crowne Plaza Birmingham NEC

www.bps.org.uk/cyp2015

Psychology4Students

19 November

Mercure, Sheffield

www.bps.org.uk/p4s2015

Psychology4Students

1 December

Friends Meeting House, Euston, London

www.bps.org.uk/p4s2015

Psychology4Graduates

2 December

Friends Meeting House, Euston, London

www.bps.org.uk/p4g2015

Division of Clinical Psychology

24 December

Radisson Blu Portman, London

www.bps.org.uk/dcp2015

Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology

1415 December

The Queens Hotel, Leeds

www.bps.org.uk/dsep2015

Division of Occupational Psychology

68 January

East Midlands Conference Centre, Notts

www.bps.org.uk/dop2016

Annual Conference

2628 April

East Midlands Conference Centre, Notts

www.bps.org.uk/ac2016

Division of Sport &

Exercise Psychology
Conference
1415 December 2015, The Queens Hotel, Leeds
Early bird rates
Available up to 21 October 2015

Programme
Now available to download on the conference website

Conrmed Keynote Speakers

Keith Davids Shefeld Hallam University
James Bell Cleveland Browns
Jim McKenna Leeds Beckett University

Conference Themes
Exercise Psychology and Physical Activity
Sport and Performance Psychology
Motor Control and Skill Acquisition
Professional Practice and Training

www.bps.org.uk/dsep2015

744

@BPS_DSEP #dsepconf

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

2015 CPD Workshops

Professional development opportunities from your learned Society
Expert witness: Responsibilities and business (Workshop 1)

3 September

Expert witness: Report writing (Workshop 2)

4 September

Working successfully in private practice

10 September

Understanding and working with: Hearing voices, delusions and paranoia (DCP) HERTFORD

21 September

Engaging effectively with the supervision and reflective practice process (Cross network)

23 September

Working with refugees and asylum seekers (Cross network)

28 September

Pluralism in qualitative research (Cross network)

6 October

Person-centred planning: A practical introduction for psychologists (Cross network)

6 October

Working successfully in private practice

8 October

A somatic approach to Integral Life Theory Practice (ILP) Taking theory into practice (Cross network)

19 October

Introduction to ethics and professional practice: Ethical decision-making (DFP)

20 October

Psychological interventions for a variety of contexts: Issues of design and implementation (SGCP)

22 October

Cognitive assessment of children and young people (Day 2) (Cross network) GLASGOW

29 October

An introduction to mindfulness-based interventions for health psychologists (DHP)

30 October

CYP-IAPT and clinical psychology (DCP) MANCHESTER

30 October

Counselling skills for sport and physical exercise (DSEP)

5 November

Expert witness: Court room evidence (Workshop 3)

5 November

Expert witness: Using psychometrics (Workshop 4)

6 November

Dont get caught out: Ethical and professional dilemmas for psychologists and psychotherapists in 2015 (Cross network)

9 November

Devising an effective performance appraisal system (DOP)

13 November

Sexualised behaviour: An integrated approach to supporting families and schools (DECP)

16 November

Working successfully in private practice

19 November

Mixed methods research for the quantitative researcher (Cross network)

27 November

Psychology: Heaven and hell

9 December

For more information on these CPD events and many more visit www.bps.org.uk/ndcpd.

Follow us on Twitter:
@BPSLearning #BPScpd

www.bps.org.uk/learningcentre

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

745

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746

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

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747

DBT National Intensive Training

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DBT National Intensive Training

Chester Queens Hotel

The training is intensive; Part I and Part II are both five full days of training. ( Part II June 2016)
DBT Intensive Training is a course designed for those who may have attended two-day DBT training workshops
and/or undertaken self-guided study of the treatment manuals and who are interested in taking their learning of
DBT to high standards in order to better implement the treatment in their usual settings. As DBT requires an
ongoing consultation team, the intensive training is not suitable for individual practitioners. A DBT team (minimum
of 4, maximum of 10) is a group of mental health professionals who meet regularly to assist each other in applying
DBT in the practice setting. Teams should discuss their level of commitment prior to completing their application .
Prerequisites
The Team must contain at least one person with an advanced degree in Psychology (Forensic, Clinical or Counselling), and ideally
one person with advanced psychotherapy training, (either as part of a university degree or equivalent accreditation)
All applicants require a core professional qualification in mental health (e.g. nursing, psychiatry, psychology, social work).
All team members must read the following texts prior to the training:
Linehan, MM (1993a) Cognitive Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder
Linehan, MM (1993b) Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder

Price: 1,825 pp
10 day Training Course
(excl VAT)
Plus 50 licence fee Per Person

DBT TOOLKIT OFFERS

up to 30% discount per person.
For more information about purchasing the DBT Toolkit call
0800 056 8328

Register online at:

www.regonline.co.uk/Intensive-Autumn2015
Registration Deadline 25 September 2015

British Isles DBT Training the sole licensed provider of training in Dialectical Behaviour Therapy in Great Britain and Republic of Ireland

0800 056 8328

barbara.nicholls@dbt-training.co.uk

www.dbt-training.co.uk

History of Mental Health

Joint Annual Conference of the History
and Philosophy of Psychology Section
and the UK Critical Psychiatry Network
2223 March 2016
Leeds Trinity University
Keynote addresses
Professor Gail Hornstein (Mount Holyoke College,
Massachusetts)
Dr Joanna Moncrieff (University College London)
Submissions are now open
Oral submission deadline - 16:00 Friday 18 December 2015
Poster submission deadline - 23:59 Sunday 17 January 2016
This event is administered by
KC Jones conference&events Ltd, 01332 224507
Please visit www.kc-jones.co.uk/history2016
for further information

748

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

MASTER PRACTITIONER
EATING DISORDERS & OBESITY
A comprehensive, experiential 3 course programme whose
modules may be taken individually. We offer a substantial
discount when all 3 courses are booked together.
The modules of this programme are:
Excellence in Practitioner Skills for Eating Disorders
An 8 day diploma course teaching integrative theory & effective
practical skills for the treatment of binge eating, bulimia &
anorexia.

Autumn 2015: 22-25 October & 5-8 November, London

Essential Obesity: Psychological Approaches

3 days drawing from counselling, clinical and health psychology
approaches to change the lives of overweight adults.

Summer 2016: 2-4 June 2016, London

Nutritional Interventions for Eating Disorders

3 days teaching practical and effective
treatment of nutrition-related aspects
of eating disorders.

26-28 November 2015 London

View a prospectus for each course online at:

www.eating-disorders.org.uk

(select Training)

Or call 0845 838 2040 for further info.

EMDR Training Schedule

Fully accredited EMDR trainings for Psychologists
EMDR International Association (EMDRIA) and EMDR-Europe
Association (EMDR-E) accredited trainings conducted by
Alexandra (Sandi) Richman, Chartered Psychologist. Learn how
to integrate this evidence-based therapy into your existing
clinical skills.
RICHMAN EMDR TRAINING offers the complete
7-day Training in 3 parts, Part 1 (3 days), Part 2 (one day) and
Part 3 (3 days). Attendee numbers are limited for each training.
EMDR Part 1 Trainings:
London
2015: 16-18 September; 2-4 December
2016: 27-29 January; 9-11 March
Glasgow
2016: 17-19 February
Leicester
2015: 21-23 October
Other training levels throughout the year
For more information contact:
Mary Cullinane, Training Co-ordinator
or Michelle Dyer
(t) 020 7372 3572
email: mary@alexandrarichman.com

www.emdr-training.com

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

AWARD FOR OUTSTANDING

DOCTORAL RESEARCH
CONTRIBUTIONS TO
PSYCHOLOGY 2015
The Research Board invites
nominations
This annual award recognises outstanding contributions to
psychological knowledge by postgraduate research students
whilst carrying out research for their doctoral degrees in
psychology.*

Criteria: The Award Committee will base its decision on

published psychology articles, reporting the research carried
out for a doctoral degree.* A maximum of two articles can
be submitted, and the following requirements must be met:
 The articles must have been published in refereed
journals, or be in press.
 The candidate must be either the sole or senior (first)
author of the article(s) concerned.
 The candidates doctoral degree supervisor or head of
department must sign a statement confirming that the
research reported in the article(s), was carried out by the
candidate as research for a doctoral degree in psychology
that was passed by a university in the UK normally not
more than two years before the date of acceptance of
the article(s) for publication.
Nominations:
Proposers must send a 500-word nomination statement
outlining why the candidates work is outstanding and
why they should be considered for the award.
 Proposers must send 10 copies of what they judge to be
the candidates two most outstanding and significant
publications reporting the research carried out for the
candidates doctoral degree.
 Proposers must also send 10 copies of the candidates
current full CV.
 Nominations should be sent to Liz Beech at the Leicester
office by 1 November 2015.
Award: A 500 prize and a commemorative certificate. The
recipient is also invited to deliver a lecture based on the
research at the Societys Annual Conference.
The Award Committee may decide not to make an award in
any given year.


For more information and the full nomination criteria,

please contact Liz Beech on 0116 252 9928 or
e-mail liz.beech@bps.org.uk.
*A candidate may only be nominated for the award if the doctoral
degree was awarded no longer than three years ago (i.e. in 2012).

749

Dialectical Behaviour Therapy

2 Day Workshops: 375pp (Exc VAT)
British Isles DBT Training are affiliated with the Linehan Institute and Behavioral Tech LLC

DBT Substance Misuse 22-23 October 2015 EDINBURGH VILLAGE HOTEL

Register at www.regonline.co.uk/Substance-2015
This two-day workshop covers the modifications made when applying Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) to
clients with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and substance use disorders. Participants specifically learn how
DBT, when applied to populations with co-morbid disorders, differs from standard DBT for BPD clients in the way
that DBT is targeted, how behavioural skills are taught in skills training group, how to engage clients in therapy at
the beginning of treatment, strategies for not losing clients during treatment, and how therapists are supported
when clients are in danger of dropping out of therapy.
.

Adapting your DBT Programme: Helping Emotionally Dysregulated & Suicidal Teens

3-4 December 2015 OXFORD HOLIDAY INN

Register online at www.regonline.co.uk/Adolescents-2015
Learn how to apply comprehensive DBT to an adolescent population to engage and retain clients. This training
covers how to convey the biosocial theory of DBT to adolescents and families, describe dialectical dilemmas
relevant to adolescents and families, and structure and run multi-family skills training groups.

For more information regarding Early Bird and Group Discounts please visit our website or call +44(0) 800 056 8328

British Isles DBT Training, Croesnewydd Hall, Wrexham Technology Park, WREXHAM LL13 7YP
+44(0) 800 056 8328
www.dbt-training.co.uk
barbara.nicholls@dbt-training.co.uk

Psychology
in the Pub
Childhood sexual abuse
Impact and interventions
Friday 30 October 2015
Edinburgh Napier University

Plymouth
The new science of out of
body experiences
Thursday 17 September 2015
Prof Susan Blackmore

Exeter
Weird science: an
introduction to anomalistic
psychology
Tuesday 30 September 2015
Prof Chris French

For further information

or to book go to:
www.kc-jones.co.uk/cdtoct2015

750

For more information or to notify us that you will be

attending visit www.bps.org.uk/southwest-events

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Oxford Institute of Clinical Psychology Training

The Clinical Neuropsychology of

Acquired Brain Injury
17th-18th December 2015
This two-day workshop at St Annes College, Oxford University, provides updates
from experienced Clinical Neuropsychologists and leading researchers within
the eld of Acquired Brain Injury. It includes sessions on the acute management
and assessment of acquired brain injury and post-acute, out-patient and
community neuropsychological rehabilitation. Seminars will focus on an update
of the medical and surgical management of traumatic brain injury and stroke,
neuropsychological assessment in inpatient and outpatient settings, effort
testing, social cognition and family interventions.
There will be opportunity for small group discussions throughout the workshop.
The fee is 260 including lunch & refreshments. Accommodation available on
request
For an application form and a programme please visit www.oxicpt.co.uk or
contact Maxine Pribyl, maxine.pribyl@hmc.oc.ac.uk, +44 (0)1865 226431

SPEARMAN
MEDAL 2016
The Research Board invites
nominations
Criteria:


The award is made for outstanding published work in

psychology.

The work must have been carried out by the candidate

within 8 years following the completion of a PhD (although
research undertaken during the PhD can be taken into
account) and should represent a significant body of
research output.

The Selection Committee will look for evidence of the

theoretical contributions made, the originality of research
(including innovation in the experimental methods or
techniques used) and the impact of the research findings.

Candidates need not be members of the Society, but they

must be resident in the UK.

Nomination:


Proposers must send a detailed nomination statement

outlining the candidates contribution to psychology,
together with a copy of the candidates current full CV.

Proposers must also send 10 copies of what they judge to

be the candidates two most outstanding and significant
publications to date.

Nominations should be sent to Liz Beech at the Leicester

office by 1 November 2015.

The Home of Existential Therapy

Applications throughout the year

Foundation certicate in Psychotherapy, Counselling and Coaching

MA in Existential Coaching*
MSc in Psychotherapy Studies (online)*
MSc in Typical and Atypical Development through the Lifespan**
DProf in Existential Psychotherapy and Counselling***
DCPsych in Counselling Psychology and Psychotherapy***
Professional Certicate Existential Supervision
and Group Leadership

Recipients are invited to deliver the Spearman Medal Lecture

at the Societys Annual Conference, at which they will be
presented with the Medal and a commemorative certificate.

* Validated by Middlesex University

** Subject to validation by Middlesex University
*** Joint courses with Middlesex University

Previous Spearman Medal winners:

In partnership with

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

Existential Academy 61 63 Fortune Green Road London NW6 1DR

T 0845 557 7752

0207 435 8067 E admissions@nspc.org.uk

www.nspc.org.uk

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

Award:

2015 Dr Iroise Dumontheil

2014 Associate Professor Roi Cohen Kadosh

For more information and the full nomination criteria,

please contact Liz Beech on 0116 252 9928 or
e-mail liz.beech@bps.org.uk.

751

Geared up for the year ahead?

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Technology is helping to shape the future of psychology and health care, during this
conference we will look at the implications of digital technology on tomorrows
psychologists; its role in todays clinical practice; how can digital technology support
current or future research; when is technology helpful to us and when does it constrain
us; and look at current technologies that are helpful to todays psychologists.



 Dr Tom Manly, Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (CBU), University of Cambridge
 Sarah Kate Smith, CATCH (Centre for Assistive Technology and Connected

 




 
 Astrid Coxon, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia
 Sara Simblett, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience,
Kings College London
 










 

752

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Q-interactive

Explore the future of assessment

delivery with Q-interactive from
Pearson Assessment.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Your psychologist
Your choice

Are you a Society member looking to read The Psychologist

on tablet, smartphone or e-reader?
Log in via tinyurl.com/yourpsych to access your options
or scan

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

753

Leadership & Management Faculty

DCP Leadership & Management Faculty invites you to join us for a free event in Bristol

Beyond Health to Life: Clinical Psychology now and in the future a potential
force for good across systems
Wednesday 30 September 2015, 9.30am till 4.30pm
The Grand by Thistle, Broad Street, Bristol BS1 2EL
An opportunity to hear from: Alison Longwill (Woodcote Consulting), Richard Pemberton (DCP Chair) and
Joanne Hemmingfield (EBE Lead for England) about the DCP workforce mapping project data, and to work
together to develop a vision and an action plan for the development of the future clinical psychology workforce.
Registration Details
This is a free event for members of the Division of Clinical Psychology only
TO BOOK your place on this event please visit: www.bps.org.uk/beyond_health_sept
If you have any queries regarding attending the event please e-mail MemberNetworkServices@bps.org.uk quoting,
DCP L&M_beyond health Sept2015 in the subject header

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and

Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) 2015/2016 Workshops
CFT Workshops

ACT Workshops


Developing Clinical Practice using Compassion Focused Therapy*
2425 September 2015 Professor Paul Gilbert


An Experiential Introduction to ACT Introductory Level
1213 October 2015 Dr. Richard Bennett & Mr Jim Lucas


Using Compassion Focused Therapy in Groups*
1213 November 2015 Professor Paul Gilbert


Putting ACT into Practice Intermediate Level
14 October 2015 Dr. Richard Bennett & Mr Jim Lucas


Compassion Focused Therapy for Psychosis
2627 November 2015 Dr. Charlie Heriot-Maitland


Skills Development Workshop in ACT Intermediate Level
1516 October 2015 Dr. Joe Oliver & Dr. John Boorman


Compassion Focused Therapy for Shame-Based Trauma
1011 December 2015 Dr. Deborah Lee


Im Not Who I Was A Skills Development Workshop in ACT
for Long-term Physical Health Conditions Intermediate Level
22 October 2015 Dr. Ray Owen


The Compassionate Mind Approach to Perinatal Mental Health
7 January 2016 Dr. Michelle Cree

A Compassion Focused Approach to Education
8 January 2016 Dr. Mary Welford

ACT Workshops 95 per person per day (student rate 50)

CFT Workshops 115 per person per day (5 student places available at 75)
*workshops excluded from student rate


Compassion Focused Therapy for Depression and Anxiety
2122 January 2016 Dr. Chris Irons

A Compassion Focused Approach to Working with Carers
4 March 2016 Dr. Magdalene Sampson & Dr. Ken Goss

A Compassion Focused Approach to Organisations
18 March 2016 Dr. Chris Irons

754

Learn more
To book workshops and for more information please visit:
www.birmingham.ac.uk/cbt
Email: cbtprogramme@contacts.bham.ac.uk

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Wide-ranging cover including 24/7 legal and

commercial assistance helpline. Therapeutic/
Professional Wills cover and full Directors and
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The Faraday Institute

for Science and Religion
AWARD FOR EQUALITY OF
OPPORTUNITY 2015
The Ethics Committee is delighted to invite members of the Society to
submit nominations for the Societys Award for Equality of
Opportunity. This award recognises a person whose work as a
psychologist - teacher, researcher or practitioner - has made a
significant contribution to challenging social inequalities in the UK in
relation to gender, race, ethnic origin, nationality, religion, sexual
orientation, disability or age. The recipient is invited to deliver the
Award lecture at the Annual Conference and to accept a
commemorative certificate, which is presented at the Award
Ceremony during the Societys Annual Conference.
Nominations should include a completed nomination form
providing evidence of some or all of the following:

personal commitment to equality issues;

impact of the candidates contributions to psychological
teaching, research or practice (inclusive of published works
and influence on professional practice);

impact of the candidates work on other professionals/service
providers;

impact of the candidates work directly for people from
marginalised and oppressed social groups.
A copy of the candidates up to date curriculum vitae should also be
included. Guidance for assessors and the nomination form can be
obtained from emma.smith@bps.org.uk.
The deadline for nominations is 21 September 2015. No award
will be made in the absence of a candidate of sufficient merit.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

The Believing Brain:

Neuroscience,, Psychology
y
gy and Faith

Mller Centre, Cambridge, 27 - 29 November 2015

This weekend course is for neuroscientists, cognitive
scientists and psychologists, and will also appeal to
philosophers and theologians. It aims to:
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([SORUHIXQGDPHQWDOTXHVWLRQVRIKXPDQH[LVWHQFHWKDW
arise at the intersection of neuroscience, psychology and
religious belief,
([DPLQHWKHSKLORVRSKLFDOWKHRORJLFDODQGHWKLFDO
LPSOLFDWLRQVRIVFLHQWLFLGHDV
Speakers include Prof Alasdair Coles, Dr Joanna Collicutt,
Prof Chris Cook, Dr Daniel De Haan, Prof Julian Hughes,
Prof Raymond Tallis and Prof Irene Tracey.

www.faraday-institute.org

755

SGCP 5th European Coaching Psychology Conference 2015

Breaking New Ground
Thursday 10 and Friday 11 December 2015 at the Holiday Inn London Bloomsbury
This Conference will inspire collaborations in research evidence, professional accreditation and training routes.
It will provide a platform for setting the aspirations and agenda for both coaching and coaching psychology
for the coming years.
Keynote speakers
Dr Tatiana Bachkirova; Dr Dasha Grajfoner; Dr Suzy Green; Prof Roger Steare; Donna Willis; Dr Helen Turnbull
There will be two days of Impressive Speakers, exciting and new Topics and a broad range of Master classes,
Skills Workshops and Scientific Papers covering the following themes:
 Leadership, Executive and Business Coaching  Positive Psychology Coaching (including resilience)
 Tools & Techniques in Coaching Psychology including CPD & Peer Practice
 Coaching Psychology Research Network, including international collaborations, international developments,
new research, new researchers and new developments
This event is organised by the BPS Special Group in Coaching Psychology and administered by KC Jones conference&events Ltd,
01332 224501

Please visit www.sgcp.eu for further information

Annual Conference
6-8 January 2016
TEP Day 5 January 2016
Holiday Inn London Bloomsbury
Towards an inclusive psychology do labels and diagnosis help or hinder?
The issue of labelling behaviour in the profession of Educational Psychology is controversial and contentious.
During the development of the practice of Educational Psychology, the provision of education for children
with additional needs was based on a medical model of deficit, focusing on differences, and within child
explanations. One hundred years on the conference aims to explore how 21st century Educational
Psychology has shifted the agenda from an emphasis on illness to well-being, from problems to solutions,
from deficit to potential and from within child explanations to careful consideration of the influence of context.

Submissions deadline Monday 14 September 2015

This event is organised by the BPS Division of Educational and Child Psychology
and administered by KC Jones conference&events Ltd, 01332 227774
For further information, please visit the website: www.bps.org.uk/decp2016

756

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Part-time, Evening Psychology courses

starting in late September 2015
Birkbecks Department of Psychological Sciences combines world-leading research with
outstanding teaching. We offer a range of part-time courses taught in the evenings, ranging from
Certicate of Higher Education level through to Masters, all starting in late September 2015.

Open Evening

Cert HE Applied Psychology

Study the application of psychology in a variety of settings including health and work
organisations. You can also explore aspects of psychoanalytic theory and practice.

Come along to nd out more

about our courses and meet
our staff.

Cert HE Psychology
We offer a range of modules, which will help you prepare for degree level study, support
your work, and deepen a professional interest.

Wednesday 9 September 2015

4-7.30pm

Foundation Degree in Psychology for Education Professionals

Relevant to those working (or intending to work) with children and young people in
educational contexts.

www.bbk.ac.uk/openeve

BSc Psychology (part-time or full-time)

This course is BPS accredited and is the rst step towards a career in Psychology.
MSc/PGDip Psychology
Also BPS accredited for GBC, this course is for applicants with a previous degree in
another subject.
For further details of our full range of undergraduate and postgraduate courses in
Psychology visit: www.bbk.ac.uk/psychology

psychologyug@bbk.ac.uk

020 7631 6207/020 7079 0878

Londons evening university

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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

757

CAREERS

We all have prejudices and

biases we can all learn
Ian Florance talks to Camilla Sanger

careers online

met Camilla Sanger at the Spitalfields

offices of ChildLine, which is part of
the National Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Childrens (NSPCCs)
portfolio of services. I could see why she
was so excited about how NSPCCs work
will affect the lives of millions of parents
and children in a fundamental way. And
I was equally interested in her own
fascinating life story. Before talking about
the NSPCC projects I asked Camilla the
path shed taken to get involved in them.
Neither of my parents had an
education, and as a result they expected
a lot of me. I grew up in Sussex, went to
a good school and worked hard, but was
fairly socially rebellious and often got
into trouble. I wanted to study medicine
and had a place at Imperial College, but

758

I wasnt well enough to sit my exams and

therefore didnt get the very high A-level
grades needed. I experienced a serious
short-term neurological disorder resulting
in very low cognitive function and
memory loss. I still cant remember certain
things. It seemed likely that, given the
after-effects, there was little chance of
succeeding at any sort of study, but slowly
things got better. Because Id previously
done quite a bit of voluntary work and
performed well in my psychology
modules at college I ended up reapplying
to do psychology and neuroscience at the
University of Sussex.
Camilla believes her route into
psychology matches her personality:
unconventional. Everyone thought I was
going to fail badly, and I was unsure what
I wanted to do, but I became really driven
at university, not least in the amount of
work experience I gained outside the
course. I worked in a therapeutic
childrens home run by a clinical
psychologist, managed a team in a sexual
health clinic and did work in the
treatment of drug- and alcohol-related
conditions as well as setting up a charity
in West Africa. A summer placement in
Ghana at the end of my first year to
promote mental health services really
drew me to the continent. Post-degree
I worked in a mother and baby unit to
earn money, then went to Africa, coming
back when the charity was taken over by
someone else. My job history is a bit
hotchpotch from there a number of
local authority roles supporting at-risk
parents. Then I started doing

Have you taken a look at our website,

www.thepsychologist.bps.org.uk?

For other Society careers resources, see

www.bps.org.uk/careers.

If you click on the meets tab across the

top, you will find an archive of all our more
personal pieces, including our Careers
pages. Alternatively, just search careers
with our new and improved site search. The
archive is now complete back to 1988.

For the latest jobs, visit

www.psychapp.co.uk. Society members can
sign up for suitable e-mail and RSS alerts.
Recruiters can post online from just 750,
and at no extra cost when placing an ad in
print. For more information, see p.762.

psychosexual therapy and got really

interested in the dynamics of couples.
My supervisor at the time was a really
inspiring clinical psychologist, whose
similar unconventional story convinced
me to apply for clinical psychology
training.
During her doctorate at Oxford
University Camilla became more
interested in womens health issues and,
after qualifying, moved to the NSPCC in
November 2015. I asked Camilla what
her role in the NSPCC is. I lead
nationally on a portfolio of research,
policy and service development projects
that targets pregnancy and babies with
the ultimate aim of ensuring that infants
are safe and nurtured. Moving into a
management job at the NSPCC is not a
traditional move for a newly qualified
psychologist, but to me it makes perfect
sense. It has been quite a shift up to a
relatively senior position, but I have not
lost my drive and determination and a
strong desire to succeed in the role. We
need more women at the top of clinical
psychology. Tanya Byron inspires me she
has used media to enhance the profile of
our profession. I hope that I can do
something similar in the future.
You work in an emotionally
challenging area. It is, but in a very
different way from direct client work.
Im removed from that, and what I now
do is challenging because I know how
important the issues are and that the buck
stops with me in so far as I can mould
our services. I do miss clinical work
which Im surprised about as I was sure it
wasnt for me. When Im more settled in
this job I may start a small clinic. Direct
client work gives you credibility when
youre arguing a business case or
conducting training, and it is a set of
skills that I would not like to lose.
During this part of our conversation,
Camilla talks a lot about systems. I think
people need to think more creatively
about how to apply clinical psychology
skills in worlds beyond one-to-one
therapy. I like using the ideas of clinical
psychology to affect how systems work.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

careers

Had you become more politically

includes six group sessions each week
quality, and there have been fewer
motivated during your clinical
before the baby is born. After babies are
caesarian sections so there have been
psychology degree? Id prefer to say that
born the family is visited again at home,
better birth outcomes.
if you work in these areas it is absolutely
and then there are three more group
Another example Camilla gives is
essential that you are politically and
sessions, including films, group
Coping with Crying. Forty-five per
socially aware.
discussions and creative activities.
cent of all serious case reviews are with
Camilla tells me the NSPCC is
Camilla tells me theyre interactive
children under one. At that age children
innovating in perinatal care. Id like to
and designed to build confidence and
arent reacting to cues and, in turn,
get the message about this across to as
communication skills. Theres a strong
parents can find crying difficult to cope
many people as possible, including our
focus on building relationships between
with. There are 200 shaken baby
own front line staff. Can you define
parents and with their babies.
syndrome cases a year, of whom 25 per
perinatal for me? From conception for
We have over 40 service centres
cent die, and between 50 and 80 per cent
the first one to two years of
who survive will suffer from
life. Its about the transition
severe and life-changing
to parenthood starting with
disabilities. Weve developed
the parents influence on the
a very simple programme
fetus. Traditionally the area
based around a 10-minute
focused on postnatal
DVD to give parents some
depression, but now we take
of the risks of shaking their
a much more holistic view of
baby, but also some simple
the issues involved in
skills to help them cope with
parents unique influence on
their babys crying.
child development. We know
The NSPCC is also
that what happens during
managing and redesigning
this period can affect
perinatal services in
children up until their
Blackpool, one of the five
adolescence and beyond.
deprived UK areas that have
This is evidenced by the
been given Big Lottery
1001 Critical Days crossfunding as part of the Better
party manifesto supported by
Start initiative.
politicians, organisations and
One of our brand-new
individuals across the board
initiatives is to address
(www.1001days.co.uk). This
mental health in pregnancy.
manifesto highlights the
Parents often dont seek help
importance of acting early
because of fears their
to enhance the outcomes for
children will be taken away.
children. The title refers to
So were creating open rolling
this critical period between
groups around four key
conception and Year 2.
theories: mind-mindedness,
Forty-five per cent of all serious case reviews are with children
I asked Camilla to give me
mindfulness, psycho-education
under one. At that age children arent reacting to cues and, in
a flavour of the programmes
and active relaxation. Again its
turn, parents can find crying difficult to cope with.
and reports the NSPCC is
aimed at couples, and theres a
launching. There are maybe
strong peer support element to
too many for one article but
it to reduce the social isolation
Baby Steps is an example it is our
round the UK and Channel Islands.
that is so common in depression which
relationship-focused perinatal education
We piloted, evaluated and refined this
is a very exciting and new development
programme for disadvantaged parents.
programme in those centres and have
for us.
Recent research threw a huge question
now started planning for scale-up
This initiative has resulted from
mark over the effectiveness of traditional
testing out the programme in a number of
consultation with academics, rigorous
antenatal education, and we wanted to
external local authority areas. This latter
training of non-psychologists who deliver
develop a service that focused more
point is important. A programme might
the programme and evaluation of what
on the psychological adjustments
work in the very specific environment of
works and what doesnt. It also sums up
of transitioning to parenthood opposed
one of our centres but fail completely in
one of Camillas key priorities: I want
to just preparing for birth. Baby Steps was
the different context of a hospital, a
what we do to be based on sound theory
co-developed by Dr Angela Underdown at
childrens centre, a GP surgery or
but to then translate this so that it can
Warwick University. It starts in the third
wherever. Our evaluation of Baby Steps
become accessible to practitioners and
trimester and is run by two people
so far is very encouraging weve found
parents. Were about making a real
someone who works in childrens services
huge improvement in both parentfetus
difference.
(like a family support worker or social
and parentnewborn attachment as well
Time was nearly up, but Camilla had
worker) and a health visitor or midwife.
as improvements in parental anxiety. This
one final point, drawn from her own
We know from research that during this
is vital, given that parental anxiety has
experiences and her new, very productive
period couples experience very low levels
such a huge influence on childrens later
job at NSPCC. I think reflective
of relationship satisfaction so the service
development. And weve also seen
supervision is critical. We all have
is aimed at couples.
improvements in parental self-esteem.
prejudices and biases we can all learn.
Baby Steps starts with a home visit in
The programme protected against the
How can we change and improve if we
the seventh month of pregnancy and then
usual decline in parental relationship
dont get time to reflect on our practice?

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

759

careers

Channelling strengths in young people

Tina Rae on her work as an educational and child psychologist

have worked as an educational and

child psychologist since 2001
initially within local authority services.
But, after eight years, I felt strongly that
I wanted to again engage in more direct
work with children, young people and
their families.
I had previously worked for 16 years
in special and mainstream educational
contexts and developed a specialism in
the areas of wellbeing and positive
psychology approaches and curricula.
Working with the most complex young
people was a humbling and truly creative
experience. I was definitely challenged to
develop my thinking and skillset and to
move very much from the child deficit
model to one in which we actually
identify, develop and channel strengths.
I have always felt that we, as
psychologists, have a moral imperative
to foster the wellbeing, happiness and
overall development of all our young
people but particularly those for whom
life has presented some very real,
complicated and often traumatic
challenges. I think that part of our role,
or possibly most of it, should focus on
how we help them to survive and then
flourish, even in the face of such
challenges and difficulties.
This has led me to adopt an approach

that supports the development of

practice-based evidence and encourages
the development of programmes of
support that are truly engaging and that
also make a real difference to the lives of
young people. Providing them with skills
to enable them to be autonomous within
an increasingly complex context is a
priority for me in my work.
The recent intervention for girls and
young women developed within a
residential school for pupils with social,
emotional and behavioural difficulties is
probably a good example of this approach
to intervention. A group of girls and
young women who were presenting with
a range of behaviours that were felt to be
putting them at risk both emotionally
and physically in a wide range of
contexts was identified. The general
discourse around these young women
appeared to be one of negativity, in that
they were regarded as putting themselves
at risk due to their daily behaviour and
self-harming behaviours.
It was therefore felt appropriate to
conduct a series of focus groups in order
to elicit the girls views: What was it that
they felt concerned about and what kind
of intervention or support at a schoolbased level might they consider most
helpful? The idea was to conduct a piece

of research to then inform the subsequent

intervention.
This resulting Girls Curriculum
consequently aims to promote wellbeing
by building positive relationships within
a nurturing and child-centred approach.
This builds upon resilience and protective
factors within the school context. The
main tenets of the model adopted include
taking into account the individual needs
of each member, looking at the reasons
behind different behaviours rather than
reacting to the behaviours themselves,
and promoting the right of the young
person to choose and communicate,
whilst accepting these choices and not
basing judgements upon them. The key
aim of the 16-session programme is to
build a therapeutic environment that
allows and promotes autonomy,
emotional resilience and open
communication.
So how does such a
programme/approach also inform my
work with Compass Fostering in terms
of supporting foster carers and social
workers? Where is the overlap or
consistency in terms of the philosophical
and theoretical approach?
Foster carers and social workers at
Compass are provided with a training
package that incorporates core elements

Welcome to your psychology degree

Mike Aitken Deakin addresses the thousands of new undergraduates getting this issue free, urging them to enjoy the experience
and get what they want out of it
n a few short weeks A-level
results, clearing, summer
holidays and welcome week
will be a fading memory.
A bright, shiny new cohort of
students will be following in
the footsteps of previous years,
and they will all ask the same
question as last year of their
lecturers Do we need to know
this for the exam?
This is a perfectly good
question to ask when you want
to know how to get a good mark
in your module. But is it the
most important question? Dont
you want something more than

760

a piece of paper saying you

got good marks in return for
investing a lot of money, and
around 5 per cent of your total
expected adult life?
Participation in learning and
teaching is about more than
helping you get good marks. No
matter how well your university
has designed and developed its
assessments, there are things
a degree provides that will not
show up in the markbook. So
go ahead ask your lecturer
whether the content will be on
the exam. After all, it should
always be clear to you how your

work will be assessed. But also

ask Do I need to know this for
my future happiness?
To answer that, we need to
consider what your future holds
as psychology graduates. Many
psychology undergraduates have
a long-held ambition for what to
do after graduation, with career
plans for mental health or
education detailed on their
university application. But, in
fact, psychology graduates are
just as likely to end up doing
something else entirely.
Responses from almost
3000 psychology graduates

to an ongoing BPS project

suggest that out of 50 typical
respondents, a dozen would be
working in education four years
after graduation, and a similar
number working in the field of
human health. The current
competition for training places
means that at most one of these
dozen might eventually become
a clinical psychologist.
What about the other 25
typical graduates? Three or four
might be doing social work,
three scientific researchers,
a couple would be office
administrators, and others

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

careers

Dr Tina Rae (second from the right) is Academic and Professional Tutor University of
East London Doctorate in Educational and Child Psychology, and is a Consultant
Psychologist for Compass Fostering. T.m.rae@uel.ac.uk

including the ways in which attachment

theory can and should inform practice.
Recent developments in neuropsychology
are highlighted in terms of the ways in
which they can support the development
of positive, secure relationships and
behaviours. The need to adopt a
strengths-based approach emanating from
positive psychology is central here.
This is an innovative and exciting
approach and unique to the organisation.
What is also unique about the support
and training offered to foster carers and

working in the finance sector,

residential care work, in the
retail sector, or in software
development, etc. These are
generally not careers that have
a specific requirement for a
psychology degree.
Even so, two thirds of
graduates feel that their
psychology degree was relevant
to them securing their current
job slightly more than had felt
their work experience was a
factor, and (perhaps
reassuringly), most did not feel
that the final grade they got in
their degree was a factor.
As well as helping them get
jobs around three quarters felt
that the psychology degree had
developed their employability
skills well (e.g. problem solving,
communication, statistical and

social workers is the focus on developing

peer support systems and the resilience of
both the child and the carer through
access to Compass consultation. This is
delivered by psychologists (myself and,
under my supervision, our wonderful
Year 3 students at the University of East
London) whose practice is grounded in
positive psychology and attachment
theory and who use a strengths-based
and solution-focused problem-solving
framework. Sessions are offered on both
an individual level and in group contexts.

IT literacy) and the majority

felt these skills were used most
of the time in their current
work.
Your degree should develop
you as a psychologist and a
person, building your psychology
knowledge and enabling you to
flourish as a graduate. But it
should also be fun, and
developing your core skills early
on will help with that. More
effective study is more
rewarding, and releases more
time for other fun things.
Aim to develop more than
knowledge of the curriculum
in the first year. Take any
transferable skills teaching
seriously, and apply what you
learn to your study. Planning
and preparation, time
management and a clear focus

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

An interesting link here with the

work on the Girls Curriculum is the
recent request from foster carers for a
group session focusing specifically upon
self-harm and problematic sexual
behaviour, issues around anxiety and the
need to build and foster a more strengthsbased and problem-solving approach.
The exciting element for me here was
the opportunity to empower carers and
enable them to move from negative cycles
of thinking to accentuating what they
can and were actually doing that made
a positive difference. Again the links
here with our work on the doctoral
course are also clear: it is this solutionfocused skillset and ability to effectively
use appreciative inquiry whilst asking
the right questions the notion of the
psychologist as coach that we feel we
can and do promote with our students.
If the work that I engage in can
produce positive outcomes for the
students, carers and social workers
I support, then this must be a result.
And a good one that sits well with the
objective of a positive psychologist who
wants to truly make a difference to the
wellbeing of individuals and groups in
the social and learning contexts. This is
a privileged position to be in, and I do
not take for granted the fact that working
with human beings in this way is a
special, unique and often humbling
experience. People never fail to impress
and surprise me with their humanity and
kindness and ability to inspire and
enthuse.

on key criteria are important

transferable skills and they
can also reduce the worst parts
of student life: confusing
lectures, working all night for
a piece of coursework and then
getting surprisingly poor marks.
Many modules will not
include formal skills training,
but you can always develop your
core employability skills in
academic work (group working,
presentations, effective writing,
time management). Whenever
you are working on a project or
piece of work, consider the skills
you are using, and how you can
improve them.
Whatever you plan to do
after your degree, you will
almost certainly need to produce
a compelling CV or interview.
Provided you have been thinking

this way all along, you will be

ready to describe your skills
and how you developed and
demonstrated them as part of
a psychology degree.
A final metaphor: Your
degree is rather like a piggy
bank how much you get out of
it depends on how much you put
in. But remember that the same
applies to a sewer. Its definitely
worth thinking in advance about
what you will want to get out of
your psychology degree.
I Mike Aitken Deakin is Reader
in Psychology and Director of
BSc programme, IoPPN, Kings
College London. Kings College
London is part of the newly
formed Russell Group
Psychology Employability
Network.

761

Advertising with

The British
Psychological Society
Reach 48,000 readers as part of the publication for psychologists
- a large, prime, well-qualified audience. Advertising is also now
available on the Societys award-winning Research Digest blog
at www.researchdigest.org.uk/blog. There are also other online
options, including the featured job at www.psychapp.co.uk.
All recruiters in the print edition of The Psychologist get their vacancy
posted online at www.psychapp.co.uk at no extra cost. Members can
then search by job type and geographical area, and then view full
details online or via RSS feeds and e-mail alerts.
Job advertising is also available online-only at any time,
from just 750
Advertising contact:
Giorgio Romano
Senior Sales Executive
+44 20 7880 7556
giorgio.romano@redactive.co.uk
Please contact us for ad sizes, and then send your
ad by email to aysha.miah@redactive.co.uk

DISPLAY ADVERT
DEADLINE

APPOINTMENT
SECTION DEADLINE

PUBLISHING DATE

Oct

2 Sept

9 Sept

24 Sept

Nov

7 Oct

14 Oct

29 Oct

Dec

4 Nov

11 Nov
DISPLAY RATE

26 Nov
APPOINTMENT SECTION
(WITH FREE ONLINE AD)

Full page

1645

3000

Half (horizontal/vertical)

875

1800

Quarter (h/v)

545

1200

Eighth (h/v)

325

650

Outside back cover 40% extra: Inside back cover 25% extra.

Clinical Psychologist
Job type:
Permanent, 0.6 part time
Wednesday, Thursday,
Friday term-time only
Location:
Lewisham Borough, London
Pay scale / Salary:
Band 7
Closing Date:
14th September 2015
Interview Date:
week commencing
28th September 2015

762

Drumbeat is a state-funded ASD specialist school and outreach

educational service for children with ASD in the borough of
Lewisham. The school works with pupils aged 4-19 years with
ASD and additional learning difculties, and is situated across two
sites in the borough. It is a large school, committed to delivering
transdisciplinary therapy and teaching, with therapy delivered
through an onsite team including clinical psychology, counselling,
and occupational, speech and language and music therapy.
Furthermore, the Drumbeat Outreach Service delivers training and
support to schools and families across the borough for their children
with ASD.

transdisciplinary model - working together seamlessly with other

professionals to meet the needs of the children and young people,
putting the child and family at the centre.

We have an exciting opportunity for a Clinical Psychologist to join

our therapy team. You will be working alongside our Senior Clinical
Psychologist to respond to the complex needs of our children and
families. This role entails a wide range of opportunities, including
staff training and consultation, assessment of learning needs,
therapeutic group work, and individual and family based therapy
(incorporating CBT, PBS, systemic and psychodynamic models).
We are looking for a creative and innovative individual, able to
translate best evidence based practice into effective interventions,
with the capacity to understand our students as individuals, and
how ASD uniquely affects them. There is a need also for excellent
communication and team-working skills, in order to work in a

Drumbeat is committed to safeguarding and promoting the welfare

of children and young people and expects all staff and volunteers to
share this commitment. The successful candidate will be subject to
an enhanced DBS disclosure. Drumbeat is an equal opportunities
employer.

Drumbeat has a strong commitment to providing CPD opportunities

specic to staff needs and roles, with both a wide ranging portfolio
of in-house expert training and support, as well as opportunities to
attend external events and conferences. There is also an expectation
that the psychology team will provide training and undertake
relevant research projects within the school. In-house supervision
is provided.

If you would like to discuss this post further or would like to arrange
an informal visit please contact:
Dr Kathryn Stevenson (Senior Clinical Psychologist) or
Sarah Mays on 0208 698 9738.
Please go to school website for further details and application
process - www.drumbeat.lewisham.sch.uk.

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Registered Psychologist 33,538 - 44,087 maximum to include

London allowances where applicable
Kent & Sussex or Greater London Forensic Psychology Services
This is an exciting opportunity to work with an experienced team of
Forensic Psychologists based within Kent & Sussex or Greater London
Forensic Psychology Services.
Within Kent & Sussex the vacant posts are based at HMP Swaleside.
Within Greater London the vacant posts are based at Holloway,
Pentonville, Coldingley, Brixton, Send and High Down. In both regions,
psychology staff work across all prisons as the need arises.
As a Registered Psychologist you will draw on your expertise to reduce
the risk of harm and of re-offending for male and female prisoners in
open and closed establishments. You will have the opportunity to be
involved in risk assessment and interventions (both high intensity
accredited group based programmes and individual interventions)
with prisoners, conducting research, provision of consultancy to other
senior managers and the delivery training to staff to support their work.
You will also be involved in providing designated supervision and support
to trainee psychologists to ensure they develop towards chartered and/or
registered status.
Within Kent & Sussex there is additionally the opportunity to
work at HMP Swaleside within a Psychologically Informed Planned
Environment (PIPE) and within Greater London the opportunity to work
within an Enhanced Support Service at HMP Pentonville. Both roles are
part of the Offender Personality Disorder pathway, jointly led and
commissioned by the National Offender Management Service (NOMS)
and NHS England, providing assessment and treatment for offenders
with complex needs.

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

You will be a Registered Practitioner Psychologist with the Health and Care
Professions Council and eligible to use a protected title such as Forensic,
ideally also a Chartered Psychologist and Full member of the appropriate
division of the British Psychological Society (BPS). It is essential you are
trained in a range of structured Risk Assessments, Personality Assessments
and IQ assessments.
You will bring to the role excellent people skills, strong decision
making skills, a collaborative approach, excellent communication
and leadership skills.
In return, you will enjoy excellent exible benets plus extensive
opportunities for further training and development.

Closing date: 25 September 2015.

To find out more and apply, visit and search for
job reference numbers SL0021-RRRR4 or GR0015-3,
or call 0845 010 3508 quoting the reference number.
Additional posts are available nationally. Details can
be accessed via www.justice.gov.uk/jobs.
We are committed to promoting the benefits
of a diverse workforce.

763

Principal Outcomes
Research Scientist
Various locations
Competitive salary

3 x Lecturer/Senior
Lecturer in Psychology
London
37,633 to 49,354 pa

In a recent survey of
job advertisers, 80%
said they had received
a good response and
70% said they had lled
a vacancy as a result
of their ad.
to advertise please contact:
Giorgio Romano,
020 7880 7556,
giorgio.romano@redactive.co.uk

Registrant Council
Member (Part-time)
London
An attendance allowance of
320 per day

Lecturer in Mental
Health
North West
33,242 - 45,954 pa

To check the latest jobs please go to

www.psychapp.co.uk

764

Lead Educational Psychologist

(450-500/day depending on experience)
Our reputable client based in Kent is currently
looking for an experienced and qualied
Lead/Principal Educational Psychologist with
management experience for a new 6 months
contract position (chance of extension).
Main Purpose

To act as the lead professional for

a team of up to 10 Educational
Psychologists

To contribute to the management and

development of the service along with
other senior post-holders.

Ensure high quality of service is

delivered.

Requirements

Post-graduate, qualied in Educational

Psychology

Registered with HCPC as an Educational Psychologist

Managerial experience - demonstrate

effective leadership skills

Excellent communicator with strong

interpersonal skills

Good knowledge of current issues in

Educational Psychology and SEN.
For more information contact
Adam on 07946 101010 or email
adam@omnisearchandselection.com

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Cygnet Hospital Godden Green

www.cygnetjobs.co.uk

Chartered Psychologist CAMHS

Part time-18 hours per week Up to 40,000 WTE per annum, pro rata
Cygnet Hospital Godden Green in Kent offers a range of
specialist mental health services for adults and young people
from both the private sector and NHS trusts. We require a highly
motivated Chartered Psychologist to join our busy inpatient
adolescent service.

The post offers opportunities to contribute to service development, clinical

governance and scope to develop your own research interests. We offer
in-house teaching and a CPD programme, appraisal and supervision.
We are also in the process of forming strong academic links with the local
training courses.

You would be joining a psychological therapy team lead by Dr

Claire Salmond (special interests include autism and third wave
cognitive approaches) and Dr Mayuri Senapati (special interests
includes the diagnoses of personality disorder, psychosis and
practice of Critical Psychology e.g. therapy as Deconstruction).
We aim to support service users in building a sense of hope in the
future, as well as supporting families.

Experience of working within a CAMHS setting is essential. Applicants

must have HCPC registration as a practitioner psychologist. You will need
to be able to work effectively within a team, manage your own case
load and condently engage adolescents with complex
(and often risky) presentations.

Our inpatient adolescent psychology service works with young

people between the ages of 12 and 18 through an integrative
approach (including cognitive, psychodynamic and systemic
approaches) and the service is integrated and embedded in
a wider MDT. Our clinical services include individual and group
therapy as well as indirect work involving teaching, training and
facilitating MDT reective practice.

Cygnet also offers an attractive benets package which includes

contributory pension scheme, free life assurance, a comprehensive
employee assistance programme and discount centre, childcare vouchers
and paid birthday and anniversary of joining company leave. In addition
we offer subsidised meals and free car parking.

For further information please contact Dr Claire Salmond,

Principal Specialist Clinical Psychologist, on 01732 763491
or alternatively to apply go to www.cygnetjobs.co.uk.

2 x Project Research Assistant

(8 month and 24 month xed-term contract)
Educating 100 million people worldwide and with ofces in over 30
countries, Pearson is the global leader in educational publishing.
Pearson Clinical Assessment is the worlds oldest and largest clinical
test publisher. We develop and distribute tests and related products for
professionals in psychology, allied health, business, general and special
education, and other areas, serving people of all ages and cultures.
We are seeking enthusiastic individuals to support our current product
development projects and activities, in line with the development of
Pearsons business in assessment products.
These roles will focus on the standardisation of major psychometric
assessment products. Activities will include working with the Research
Manager and Content Development Team on the recruitment of
normative samples, managing psychology professionals during the
standardisation phase, data management and may also include
conducting psychological assessments.

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

Educated to degree standard in Psychology, you will ideally have

demonstrable experience in the use and development of psychometric
instruments and assessment tools, especially Pearson Assessment tools.
You will be a capable, hard-working, motivated person, able to take
responsibility and work on your own initiative as well as part of a team.
Both positions are located in our central London ofce.
If you are interested, please apply with your covering letter and CV.
The deadline for applications is Friday 25th September 2015. Previous
applicants need not apply.
Learn more and visit our Job Vacancies site at:
http://uk.pearson.com/home/about-us/jobs.html

765

CHALLENGE YOURSELF.
UNDERSTAND OTHERS.
PROTECT US ALL.
Behavioural Scientists (London and Cheltenham)
Salary depending on skills and experience.

Occupational Psychologist (London)

Salary depending on skills and experience.
The diverse nature of MI5 and GCHQs work means we need people with a unique and
distinctive set of skills to do unique and distinctive work. Join us and youll have the
opportunity to use your expertise to play a crucial role in keeping the UK safe.
Were looking for people from a wide range of backgrounds from across the psychological,
behavioural and social science disciplines.
As a Behavioural Scientist you will have the chance to contribute to important and complex
work, including playing a vital role in fast moving operations and running complex
quantitative and qualitative research.
As an Occupational Psychologist you will have the chance to use your expert knowledge to
help us achieve our mission, through supporting us to nd and keep the very best people.
You may be surprised by the diversity and variety of career development opportunities we
can offer. Prove that you have the knowledge, understanding and expertise were looking
for and well give you extensive opportunities for personal and professional development,
including collaborative working across the agencies.
To nd out more and apply, visit www.mi5.gov.uk/careers or www.gchq-careers.co.uk
To apply, you must be born or naturalised British citizen and over 18 years old. You should not discuss
your application, other than with your partner or a close family member, providing that they are British.
They should also be made aware of the importance of discretion.

766

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

Our consultants at Sugarman Mind are leading

recruiters within both the NHS and private sector
and will be there with you every step of the journey.
WE CURRENTLY HAVE VACANCIES FOR:

Psychologists

IAPT
Therapists

Mental
Health
Practitioners

CONTACT US TODAY TO FIND OUT

ABOUT OUR REWARDING &
EXCITING OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN
YOUR PROFESSION:
0207 614 4250

@ info@sugarmanmind.co.uk
www.sugarman.co.uk
sugarman mind
Talking Therapies

Community Mental Health

Psychology

Mental Health Nurses

Clinical or Counseling
Psychologist
Contract | Part-Time to Full Time Available | Mildenhall, Suffolk
Contract Qualifications: Registered HCPC & BPS Chartered
Psychologist Registration or BACP Registration
Contract Responsibilities:

Conduct psychological assessments and evaluations.

Provide individual therapy

Provide couples therapy/marriage and family therapy

Maintain up to date and current documentation

Run and assist with the planning and provision of individual and
group treatment and provide guidance in the development of
psychological services within the therapy team.

Attend multi-disciplinary team meetings and present psychological

findings

To check the latest

jobs please go to
www.psychapp.co.uk

to advertise please contact:

Giorgio Romano,
020 7880 7556,
giorgio.romano@redactive.co.uk

Only candidates with HCPC and BPS Chartered Psychologist or BACP

registration will be considered.
The ideal candidate will be highly motivated and dedicated Clinical
Psychologist who is creative, flexible and enjoys working in a team
environment as well as independently.
We offer:

Salary approximately 20 - 30/hour based on qualifications

Performance raises

Promotion

Ability to create own work schedule

To apply please contact Dr. Miranda Vincins at:drmirandavincins@tcfiaa.co.uk

seek and advertise at www.psychapp.co.uk

767

768

in
tm
en
ts

vol 28 no 9

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2015
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read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

769

REVIEWS

Memory and music at the

proms
In August last year at the BBC Proms, the Aurora Orchestra performed Mozarts Symphony no. 40
in G minor entirely from memory. Free from music stands and with almost all standing, they played
with enormous enthusiasm and energy. Nicholas Collon, the conductor, explained: For many
members of the Aurora Orchestra, performing Mozarts Symphony no. 40 from memory ranked as
one of our most intense and rewarding musical experiences. In every way it deepened and enriched
our relationship with this extraordinary piece of music, forcing us to internalise nuances that can
be easily glossed over when reading from the page. Following on from this remarkable
performance, on 2 August 2015 they performed Beethovens Pastoral Symphony in the same
manner.
This feat raises the question of how musicians go about learning long pieces of music from
memory. It was this question that Professor Daniel Levitin addressed as part of his BBC Proms
Lecture Unlocking the mysteries of music in your brain. Levitin, now
Professor of Psychology, Behavioural Neuroscience and Music at McGill
University, developed his interest in music and the brain from his
experiences as a rock musician and producer (he still plays in a rock
group with colleagues from McGill University called The Diminished
Faculties). His book This Is Your Brain on Music was an international
bestseller.
In the BBC lecture Levitin focused on aural memory: in particular,
how humans as a species remember music. He outlined how different
parts of the brain process pitch, rhythm, volume and timbre separately
and independently of each other. Through audience participation,
Levitin demonstrated how music tends to be remembered at the pitch
at which it has been heard, because the same neurons are activated.
He explained how musical memory relies on the highly structured
nature of music and its use of patterns, and how by the age of five most
children have internalised the rules of the music of their culture. Most
people can recognise 100s if not 1000s of songs, and do this through
automatic template matching even when they are played on different
instruments and in different arrangements. We can even recognise
some music from just one note, a process typically based on timbral
Music and Our
memory.
Brains
Levitin outlined the role of Broadman 47 (part of the frontal cortex)
BBC Radio 3
in music processing. The area is involved in predicting what comes
next in a piece of music, and neurons are active when expectations of
the rules and conventions of music are violated. He argued that expectation is the key to music;
if a piece of music is too predictable the listener becomes bored, if too unpredictable there is no
reference point to engage the listener. The importance of emotion in enhancing musical memory
was also stressed and how the nucleus encombas, with its strong links to the hippocampus,
releases dopamine when we enjoy music which leads to strong pleasureable reactions.
In the final section of the lecture Levitin turned his attention to how the orchestra would
go about memorising the Pastoral Symphony. He indicated that in addition to aural memory,
supported by knowledge of structure and patterns, the orchestra would rely on motor memory
and ensemble cues. He explained how, in this context, motor action sequences are hierarchically
organised in relation to musical phrases giving them a natural beginning and end that reflects
aural memory. Levitin also argued that performing from memory in an ensemble would provide
cues from other ensemble members.
Overall, it was an entertaining lecture, punctuated with many participation activities, which the
audience clearly enjoyed. Its focus on memory for music in the general population meant that the
explanation of how the musicians were going to tackle the memorisation task facing them was not
fully explored with a notable omission in terms of visual memory, an issue that was raised later in
a question from an audience member. However, there is no doubt that the audience left with a much
greater understanding of how they remember music.
I www.bbc.co.uk/events/e648gw#b062mlyr
Reviewed by Susan Hallam MBE who is Professor of Education and Music Psychology at the Institute of
Education, University College London

770

Thorough and in-depth

Maternal
Sensitivity: Mary
Ainsworths
Enduring Influence
on Attachment
Theory, Research and Clinical
Applications
Klaus E. Grossmann, Inge
Bretherton, Everett Waters, &
Karin Grossmann (Eds.)
This book is a reprint of the
articles in a special double
issue of Attachment & Human
Development, which aimed to
celebrate the 100th anniversary
of the birth of Mary Ainsworth.
The chapters are written by a
number of prominent
researchers in the field. The
initial section examines Mary
Ainsworths work, in the form
of an autobiographic sketch.
It then moves on to consider
issues such as sensitivity,
motherinfant communication
and cross-cultural research,
as well as the role of individual
dispositions on differences in
attachment quality.
The main thrust of the book
looks at how Ainsworths ideas
have been built upon and
continue to be of relevance in
the years since she developed
them. It provides a thorough
and in-depth picture both in
terms of Western and nonWestern research findings.
The ideas contained within
the book provide considerable
background information and
ideas that will be of relevance
to psychology practitioners.
However, as the book is
squarely aimed at research,
the links to clinical practice are
not always direct.
Overall this is very good,
comprehensive, and thoughtprovoking text, which will be
of significant relevance to
researchers into attachment
ideas. However, it is one for the
committed attachment reader
or clinician who wants to
develop their theoretical
understanding of child
development and attachment.
I Routledge; 2015; Hb 90.00
Reviewed by Mark Wylie who
is a clinical psychologist at Hill
House School

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

reviews

A good starting point

Psychotherapy:
A Very Short
Introduction
Tom Burns &
Eva BurnsLundgren
Psychotherapy has a rich
and varied history, filled with
multiple theories,
techniques, controversies
and applications. To sum up this history and its topics in
so few pages is no easy feat, yet this short introduction
manages to do so in an engaging and informative manner.
Tom Burns and Eva Burns-Lundgren demonstrate their
wide knowledge about psychotherapy and tell an interesting
historical narrative about the subject and how it has become
the practice it is today.
The authors use of context helps inform the reader
about why certain developments came to be, as well as
providing a critical look at some (particularly early)
approaches to therapy. Although still an example of many
introductions to psychotherapy of mainly focusing on some
of the big approaches (i.e. psychoanalysis and CBT), other
approaches and settings are discussed in such a manner
that readers can enjoy a small sample of this broad subject.
The limits of the A Very Short Introduction series
means that this book was never going to provide readers
with a great understanding of certain theories and critiques,
but it still serves as a good starting point for those
interested in learning about psychotherapy as a whole as
well as the similarities and differences between the various
ways it is practised. Overall, a light and entertaining
summary.

contribute

I Oxford University Press; 2015; Pb 7.99

Reviewed by Richard Potter who is an MSc student,
University of Exeter

Sample book titles just in:

The Students Guide to Studying Psychology (4th
edn) Thomas M. Heffernan
Boarding School Syndrome: The Psychological
Trauma of the Privileged Child Joy Schaverien
The Child at School Peter Blatchford, Anthony D.
Pellegrini & Ed Baines
The Size of Others Burdens: Barack Obama,
Jane Addams and the Politics of Helping Others
Erik Schneiderhan
For a full list of books available for review and
information on reviewing for The Psychologist,
see www.bps.org.uk/books. Send books for
potential review to The Psychologist, 48 Princess
Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR
Reviews now covers so much more than books: if
you have seen or heard a psychological film, play,
exhibition, podcast, website, album or anything
else, do get in touch on jon.sutton@bps.org.uk or
follow us on Twitter @psychmag for suggestions.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

A new perspective
Girls with Autism
ITV
For six months Limpsfield Grange
School for girls in Surrey opened its
doors allowing the cameras to film
their teachers and students, the
majority of whom have autism.
The school, which offers
boarding, takes a unique approach
to preparing the girls for life after
the school, using tough love and
vast amounts of patience. Head
teacher Sarah Wild explains how
their staff are willing to go to try
anything to engage their girls.
Animals are brought into the
classroom, and going for dog walks
mid-lesson is not uncommon.
The girls themselves are an
eclectic mix of personalities,
demonstrating the diversity found
amongst individuals on the autism
spectrum; as Ms Wild explains
once you have met one girl on the
spectrum, you have met one girl on
the spectrum. Sixteen-year-old
Katie has both Aspergers
syndrome, a form of autism, and
ADHD. She is also obsessed with
boys; her parents recently
discovered 1160 versions of the
same image of an unknown boy on
her iPad and she is filmed bursting
with excitement over the end-ofterm disco with a nearby boys
school. Beth, who is 14, has both
Aspergers syndrome and
pathological demand avoidance.
Reluctant to fit into the school
where she reports feeling more
alien than she did in her
mainstream school, Beth often
self-harms and has previously

attempted to commit suicide.

Polar opposite to these two
students is Abigail, who since
discovering her mothers cancer
diagnosis has become selectively
mute at the school and difficult to
engage with. Whilst at home she
is filmed being very loud, Abigail
mocks the hair loss her mother
has experienced from her
chemotherapy and seems to find
her illness funny; however, her
struggle to deal with her concern
and empathy for her mother is
evident.
What is most apparent from all
these girls is their intense anxiety,
and also their strong desire to form
friendships, many compensating
with imaginary friends. It is
fascinating to watch the special
relationships these girls form with
their fellow students, teachers, and
the care staff. With female autism
viewed by many as a rarity, this
documentary demonstrates many
of the common misconceptions
about autism we have; these girls
showed both genuine empathy and
creativity, two abilities believed to
be impaired in autism. This
documentary is an eye opener for
not only teachers and carers
working with individuals on the
spectrum, but also the general
public in raising awareness of
difference in our society.
I Reviewed by Hannah Belcher who
is a PhD student studying females
with autism

771

reviews

Genuinely holistic
Genocide and Mass Violence:
Memory, Symptom, and Recovery
Devon E. Hinton & Alexander L.
Hinton (Eds.)
This wide-ranging collection of anthropological
essays explores the consequences of mass
trauma on multiple levels. Edited by eminent
scholars in the fields of medical anthropology
and transcultural psychiatry, the 17 papers
brought together here examine a variety of
cases ranging from the Holocaust to more
recent atrocities such as the Cambodian and
Rwandan genocides.
The volume is organised into three sections
examining memory, symptom and
recovery respectively. These themes
are explored from a cross-cultural
perspective, drawing predominantly
on the contributors ethnographic
fieldwork. The books layout, with each
paper focusing on a different society,
allows the reader to select those that
are most relevant to their interests.
The first section, considers memory in a
broad perspective. It embraces personal and
public forms of remembering in the aftermath
of mass trauma, such as commemorative
rituals and collective images of ghosts in
survivors dreams. Reading about cultural
syndromes, idioms of distress and local healing
practices in the following sections, made me
reflect on my own assumptions about trauma
and resilience. Whereas the growing field of
traumatic stress studies has focused on the
PTSD diagnostic construct, the text guards
against one-dimensional approaches. The
anthropological research presented here,
highlights how different symptoms may have
a very different meaning in a particular group,
as well as how trauma is understood and coped
with in different societies. From high rates of
sleep paralysis in Cambodian refugees, to
beliefs about terrifying attacks by evil spirits
in Sierra Leone, an impressive range of
explanatory models is introduced.
What is remarkable about this volume is
its ability to communicate complex ideas by
synthesising the insights of a variety of
disciplines including ethnopsychology,
psychiatry and history. This results in a
genuinely holistic approach and each chapter
is comprehensively referenced.
Far from being an introductory text, this
is a demanding read; both intellectually and
emotionally. Without a doubt, it will be
invaluable for anyone wishing to get a deeper
appreciation of the cultural variation in the
experiencing of and response to mass violence
and genocide.
I Cambridge University Press; 2015; Pb 24.99
Reviewed by Roupen Baronian who is a
graduate member of the BPS

772

Parenting know-how, but no how

Parenting Difficult Children: Strategies for
Parents of Preschoolers to Preteens
Michael Hammond
As all parents will attest,
raising kids is both
fulfilling and frustrating.
And when a child is
difficult, the mayhem
and meltdowns may so
outnumber the magical
moments that parents are
at the end of their tether,
ready to snap, which then
fuels another outburst
from the child. Thus,
parent and child are
caught in an endless
spiral. Unfortunately,
Parenting Difficult Children
does not address the core
issue of trying to
understand your childs
troubles from the childs
perspective. Instead of
forging empathy between
parent and child, the book
offers an instrumentalist

approach to behaviour
management.
While the carrot-andstick approach may work
for most kids, it is likely to
backfire with difficult
children if their
fundamental need for
being understood by their
parents is not met. The
author assumes that
difficult kids behave badly
due to poor parenting; yet
the parents of these kids
are not necessarily
incompetent or
inconsistent, rather the
commonsense approach of
managing kids behaviour
using rewards and
punishments does not
suffice. Nor can we blame
the kids for their behaviour
when they lack the basic

skills to regulate their

emotions or curb their
impulses. The book tells
parents what kids should
or shouldnt do without
spelling out the crucial
how. If parents are at
their wits end, this book is
unlikely to be the panacea
they are looking for.
I Rowman & Littlefield;
2015; Hb 21.95
Reviewed by Aruna
Sankaranarayanan who
is Director, PRAYATNA,
a centre for children with
learning difficulties in
India

A fascinating field
Primitive Expression and Dance Therapy: When Dancing Heals
France Schott-Billmann
France Schott-Billmanns frequent use
of the word primitive is a little
disconcerting and her messages may be
misunderstood; she asserts that this title
relates to her overall interest in
understanding archetypal, or universal,
patterns in human nature. Readers will be
able to follow her reasoning and her way
of framing these terms. Schott-Billmanns
central argument is that incorporating
dance therapy into a patients treatment
plan can motivate them to take a more
active role in their healing process. Her
views on dance therapy can remind
patients and health professionals that the
power of gestures sometimes outweighs
the power of words.
As a psychoanalyst and dance
researcher, Schott-Billmann includes
examples of patients and their use of
dance therapy, which attests to the
strength of her ideas. She observes that
rhythm dance therapy could address a
patients need for a positive body image.
For survivors of emotional and physical
trauma, this may help them gently
recover and become healthier members
of their community. This book focuses on

how dance therapy serves as a breathing

exercise, compelling readers to
reconsider their relationship with their
bodies. Schott-Billmanns strongest point
is that this symbolic reorganization can
help patients work through the separation
anxiety they experienced during childhood.
She further argues that art can reach
patients unconsciously in ways that
psychoanalysis cannot. Schott-Billmann
writes, under the veil, art works to heal
us. I second that motion, however, this
book is lacking a more nuanced critical
analysis of the benefits and conditions
of dance therapy. One way to reckon with
this discrepancy is to acknowledge that
not enough material has been written,
or reviewed, to address a collective need
in learning more about art therapy. The
authors writing style is effusive and
superficial at times, but this book can
be used as a beginners guide to a
fascinating field.
I Routledge; 2015; Hb 90.00
Reviewed by Nirmala Jayaraman who
has a BA in cultural anthropology from
Union College in New York

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

reviews

A powerful message
Fake It Til You Make It
Purcell Room at Queen Elizabeth Hall
Tim and Bryony met and fell in
love. This piece, a true story by
a real-life couple, simply and
beautifully tells of the intruder
in the living room in Bryony
Kimmings and Tim Grayburns
new relationship the crippling
clinical depression that had
partnered Tim for eight years
before he was able to speak to
anyone about it.
The story is told through
a variety of parallel channels,
songs, movement, narratives
and intercut with excerpts from
recorded interviews with Tim,
speaking frankly about his
experiences. Thoroughly
researched and very
informative, whilst still being
utterly gripping throughout, this
show is a genuine attempt to
unblock the taboos on talking
about depression. Whether it is
a condition that you know about
personally, professionally, or not
at all yet, Fake It is a striking,

perfectly balanced, and lifeaffirming piece of theatre,

profound and funny, with
a strong message that is
interwoven through the
dramaturgy so as never to
overwhelm it.
The Clinical Depression
Mambo gave us a checklist of
the more unusual symptoms
expressed through the medium
of dance, and such lighter
moments dealing with heavy
material perfectly balanced out
the more distressing elements
of the story . Tims own face was
never revealed until the end of
the performance, being masked
by an inspired variety of
symbolic headgear from
binoculars, clouds, and a
minotaurs head perfectly
representing the beastliness of
suicidality.
The most powerful element
for me, at the centre of the
piece, was a mime to the jaunty

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

background music of the

Carpenters Why do birds
suddenly appear... in which
Bryonys puppyish and
optimistic attempts to get a
reaction from an unresponsive
Tim, paper bag over his head,
failed repeatedly, and painfully
illustrated the desperate
unreachableness of someone
with depression.
A powerful message was
delivered, about how the stigma
of mental illness prevents
sufferers from letting anyone in
on the dark dirty secret of being
depressed and suicidal, and how
the myth of needing to be a
real man further complicates
the possibility of disclosure or
help-seeking. But what seemed
to be missing here is a link
between these phenomena and
the actual provenance of mental
health problems in the first
place. Whilst SSRI
antidepressant medication is

rightly critiqued for its ghastly

catalogue of potential sideeffects, there is no exploration
of talking therapies as a
possible way of formulating and
understanding Tims depression.
And the implied notion that
sharing the diagnosis, and the
love of an amazing girlfriend,
might be enough to help
manage Tims condition, left
me wanting another chapter.
The final song, The Duvet
Song, delivered touchingly by
Tim, tentatively accompanying
himself on guitar, ended the
show, leaving many in the
audience weeping, but in a good
way.
I For tour dates in September
and October see
www.bryonyandtim.com
Reviewed by Jenny Doe who is
a clinical psychologist with the
NHS in Luton
www.bryonyandtim.com

773

reviews

Clear, Supportive and Practical

Mindfulness for Therapists:
Understanding Mindfulness for
Professional Effectiveness and
Personal Well-being
Gerhard Zarbock, Siobhan Lynch,
Axel Ammann & Silka Ringer
With mindfulness being considered a buzzword
at the moment with the media, it means that
whilst it is reaching a wider audience, it is now
coming with both positive and negative
connotations and expectations; in some cases
heralded as a panacea, which can be difficult
to challenge when introducing it to clients.
Consequently, I looked forward to reading
Mindfulness for Therapists as although I had
been practising informal mindfulness, my
favourite being the morning cup of coffee, it
gave me an excuse to integrate more formal
practices and explore it away
from work.
Mindfulness for Therapists
starts by introducing
mindfulness and the key
types, the authors then
briefly gives a rationale for
the benefits for therapists
who practise mindfulness.
The chapters that follow
outline an eight-week course
to follow and a short manual
for running a group.
The instructions were
very clear but, although
aided by the companion
website, I could not find the online recordings,
which made the practices a little more tricky.
Interestingly, I did notice my own cynicism of
some of the more imagery-based mindfulness
exercises, such as tree meditation, and this
observation was one of the most helpful aspects
to come out of it. This cynicism and the
difficulties I had with practices echoed what
clients say during mindfulness enquiry in
groups in the service I work in: impatience,
frustration, sleepiness, and finding time to fit
practice into a day. Even though after
completing the eight weeks I have fallen away
from the formal mindfulness practices I have
noticed that I am now more present with clients
and empathetic with their difficulties.
This is a clear, supportive and practical
guide for clinicians with all levels of
mindfulness experience and want to bring
a more present awareness into both personal
life and practice.
I Wiley-Blackwell; 2015; Pb 31.99
Reviewed by Elizabeth Dewey who is an
Assistant Psychologist, Glasgow Pain
Management Programme, NHS Greater Glasgow
and Clyde. See also
http://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/mindfulmoment

774

Heroes and villains

Amy
Asif Kapadia (Director)
This documentary film comprising
extensive archive footage and early
family video, interviews with some key
players and films of her performances
charts the rise and fall of the singer and
songwriter Amy Winehouse. In every
sense this is a real tragedy. Although you
know it will end in her untimely death at
the age of 27, like all tragedies it is the
inevitability that totally absorbs the
viewer.
The film makes you realise just how
talented Amy Winehouse was as both
a singer and writer, as she progresses
from school to college to recording
success. It also shows the extent to
which she was exploited by those around
her and let down by others close to her,
including her parents. It was her parents
split when she was nine years old that
appears to be a key moment. Her mother
Janis lacked the assertiveness needed to
keep her on-track and her father Mitch,
who she adored, seemed at times to
have his own agenda when all she
needed was a hug.
Like all films it has its heroes and
villains. The villains include the boyfriend
and husband Blake Fielder, and Amys
management in her later years; the
heroes her teenage friends who stuck
with her through hell and high water, and
one of her bodyguards who comments:
The trouble with Amy is that nobody has

ever said no to her. It is this absence of

tough love that lies at the heart of this
film and Amys decline.
Another hero, surprisingly, is the
singer Tony Bennet. We learn that she is
in awe him from an early clip when he
presents her with a Grammy. Later he
asks her to sing a duet with him on what
was to become her last recording. He
treats her with a charm, sensitivity,
dignity and love and was able to bring out
the very best in her. It is a pity others in
her life seemed so incapable of similar
behaviour.
Psychology, while not being a hero,
does come out of the film well. The
reasoned refusal of colleagues not to
admit Amy and her boyfriend into rehab
as a joint deal speaks highly of those
who refused to collude with Fielder and
his apparent agenda. Yet it is clear that
the delay in her receiving appropriate
treatment early enough was a missed
opportunity that changed the course of
her life. As she sang in the song; They
tried to make me go to rehab: I said No
No No.
This film is compelling, absorbing
and at times shocking. Whether you liked
her music or not this is a film not to be
missed.
I Reviewed by Dr Jeremy Swinson who
is an educational psychologist

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

775

LOOKING BACK

The Geel question

For centuries, a little Belgian town has treated the mentally ill. Why are its
medieval methods so successful? Mike Jay investigates.

alf an hour on the slow train

from Antwerp, surrounded by flat,
sparsely populated farmlands, Geel
(pronounced, roughly, Hyale) strikes the
visitor as a quiet, tidy but otherwise
unremarkable Belgian market town. Yet its
story is unique. For more than 700 years
its inhabitants have taken the mentally ill
and disabled into their homes as guests
or boarders. At times, these guests have
numbered in the thousands, and arrived
from all over Europe. There are several
hundred in residence today, sharing their
lives with their host families for years,
decades or even a lifetime. One boarder
recently celebrated 50 years in the
Flemish town, arranging a surprise
party at the family home. Friends and
neighbours were joined by the mayor
and a full brass band.
Among the people of Geel, the term
mentally ill is never heard: even words
such as psychiatric and patient are
carefully hedged with finger-waggling and
scare quotes. The family care system, as
its known, is resolutely non-medical.

When boarders meet their new families,

they do so, as they always have, without
a backstory or clinical diagnosis. If a word
is needed to describe them, its often a
positive one such as special, or at worst,
different. This might in fact be more
accurate than mentally ill, since the
boarders have always included some who
would today be diagnosed with learning
difficulties or special needs. But the most
common collective term is simply
boarders, which defines them at the
most pragmatic level by their social, not
mental, condition. These are people who,
whatever their diagnosis, have come here
because theyre unable to cope on their
own, and because they have no family or
friends who can look after them.
The origins of the Geel story lie in the
13th century, in the martyrdom of Saint
Dymphna, a legendary seventh-century
Irish princess whose pagan father went
mad with grief after the death of his
Christian wife and demanded that
Dymphna marry him. To escape the kings
incestuous passion, Dymphna fled to
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Host families open their homes to people who would otherwise be patients in the local psychiatric
hospital. Luc (right) moved in with Smit and her husband seven years ago.

776

Europe and holed up in the marshy

flatlands of Flanders. Her father finally
tracked her down in Geel, and when she
refused him once more, he beheaded her.
Over time, she became revered as a saint
with powers of intercession for the
mentally afflicted, and her shrine attracted
pilgrims and tales of miraculous cures.
In 1349 a church was built on the
outskirts of the town around Saint
Dymphnas memorial, and in 1480
a dormitory annexe was added to
accommodate the growing number of
pilgrims. When the stream of visitors
overflowed the allotted space,
townspeople started to house them in
their homes, farms and stables. During
the Renaissance, Geel became famous as
a place of sanctuary for the mad, who
arrived and stayed for reasons both
spiritual and opportunistic. Some pilgrims
came in hope of a cure. In other cases, it
seems that families from local villages
took the chance to abandon troublesome
relatives whom they couldnt afford to
keep. The people of Geel absorbed them
all as an act of charity and Christian piety,
but also put them to work as free labour
on their farms.
Today, the system continues along
much the same lines. A boarder is treated
as a member of the family: involved in
everything, and particularly encouraged
to form a strong bond with the children,
a relationship that is seen as beneficial to
both parties. The boarders conduct is
expected to meet the same basic
standards as everybody elses, though its
also understood that he or she might not
have the same coping resources as others.
Odd behaviour is ignored where possible,
and when necessary dealt with discreetly.
Those who meet these standards are
good; others can be described as
difficult, but never bad, dumb or
crazy. Boarders who are unable to cope
on this basis will be readmitted to the
hospital: this is inevitably seen as a
punishment, and everyone hopes the
stay inside will be as brief as possible.
The people of Geel dont regard any
of this as therapy: its simply family care.
But throughout the towns long history,
many both inside and outside the
psychiatric profession have wondered
whether this is not only a form of therapy
in itself, but perhaps the best form there
is. However we might categorise or
diagnose their conditions, and whatever
we believe their cause to be whether
genetics or childhood trauma or brain
chemistry or modern society the
mentally ill are in practice those who
have fallen through the net, who have
broken the ties that bind the rest of us
in our social contract, who are no longer

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

looking back

able to connect. If these ties can be

remade so that the individual is
reintegrated with the collective, doesnt
family care amount to therapy? Even,
perhaps, the closest we can approach to
an actual cure?
Modern psychiatry was born in the
19th century, and for the first generation
of psychiatrists, the Geel question was
central to the revolution they were
attempting to bring about. For many, the
system was a dismal relic of the Middle
Ages, where the mad were condemned to
a life of drudgery and neglect under the
lax oversight of the Church. Shut away
from the modern world in quasi-feudal
isolation, they were denied the benefits
of new medical expertise, and with it, any
chance of proper treatment.
For others, however, Geel was a
beacon of the progressive ideas that came
to be known as moral management.
Freeing the insane from their chains and
madhouses, providing them with fresh air,
occupational therapies and the chance to
patch themselves back into normal life
this was treatment in itself. Philippe
Pinel, the founding father of French
psychiatry who was legendary for
striking the chains off the mad at the
Salpetrire asylum in Paris, declared that
the farmers of Geel are arguably the most
competent doctors; they are an example
of what may turn out to be the only
reasonable treatment of insanity and what
doctors from the outset should regard as
ideal. His student Jean-tienne Esquirol,
who became the next generations leading
reformer of mental hospitals, visited Geel
in 1821 and was astonished by the sight
of hundreds of lunatics wandering freely
and calmly around the town and
countryside. He praised the tolerance of
a system where the mad are elevated to
the dignity of the sick.
The Geel question has remained at
the heart of psychiatry, and the pendulum
continues to swing between these
polarised views. In 1850 Belgium
integrated Geel into a new state
dispensation that combined elements of
both perspectives. Oversight of the family
care system was transferred from church
to government. Families got a modest
state payment, in return for which they
had to submit to inspection and
regulation by the medical authorities.
Under the church system, any crimes
committed by a boarder had been the
responsibility of families, who sometimes
resorted to chaining and beating boarders
who were violent or difficult to control.
Under the new rules, however, restraint
and corporal punishment were banned.
And in 1861 a hospital appeared on the
outskirts of town: a two-storey building

with an elegant portico and large arched

was often the butt of coarse humour
windows, designed in every detail to
(Half of Geel is crazy, and the rest is half
resemble a country mansion rather than
crazy!), but in the town itself, normal life
a prison. Boarders, arriving now as wards
was little affected. Local jokes tended to
of state, came here to be assessed before
revolve around how frequently locals and
taking up their lodgings in town.
boarders were confused, and how hard it
Medical supervision brought great
was to tell the difference. Boarders were
improvements, but the directors of the
well aware that disruptive public
new hospital insisted that it should
behaviour might result in being sent back
supplement rather than replace the
inside; the problem was more commonly
unique regime of family care. In the
the opposite, that they became overly
terminology still used by boarders and
timid for fear of drawing attention to
townspeople today, inside the world
themselves.
of the hospital was a resource to use
In recent decades, the two-layered
sparingly, and outside the wider
system family care supported by a
community was preferred wherever
medical safety net has been constantly
possible. For routine supervision,
recalibrated to reflect developments in
boarders were required to attend one of
psychiatry, but its most abrupt shift came
three bathhouses at least once a week:
in the 1970s. As the asylums emptied,
ostensibly for hygiene but also for more
mental healthcare was reconceived to
general health checks, as well as a chance
become more flexible and extend further
for a conversation with someone outside
into the community. Antipsychotic and
the family sphere. The fact that these
antidepressant medications, central to the
checks could be performed
new treatment model,
outside rather than
were initially resisted
inside meant that, for
by many families who
Why is this deeply rooted
most boarders, the smell of
felt they would turn
and universally praised
the hospital and the sight
boarders into medical
system suddenly on the
of asylum wards vanished
outpatients, but they
point of disappearing?
from their lives.
rapidly proved
The reformed system
indispensable in helping
became a source of great
to manage the worst of the
professional and local pride. Doctors
depressions, crises and public incidents.
and psychiatrists from across Europe and
These all appear to have been changes
America came on fact-finding missions.
for the better. Yet they coincided with a
Dozens of towns in Belgium, France and
precipitous and perhaps terminal decline
Germany established their own versions
in the centuries-old system. Today, there
of the Geel system, some of which still
are around 300 boarders in Geel: less than
survive. In 1902 the International
a tenth of its pre-war peak and falling
Congress of Psychiatry officially settled
fast. While many locals believe family
the Geel question, declaring it an
care will endure, it has become a
example of best practice to be emulated
markedly smaller part of town life, and
wherever possible.
others suspect that this generation will be
Throughout the 20th century
the last to maintain it. Why is this deeply
the family care system prospered and
rooted and universally praised system
expanded, and the towns fame spread.
suddenly on the point of disappearing?
With the growth of state asylums, families
The limiting factor is not demand but
across Belgium faced the choice of having
supply. Few families are now able or
their relatives put away for life in grim
willing to take on a boarder. Few now
institutions or sending them to Geel,
work the land or need help with manual
where handsome promotional
labour; these days most are employed in
photographs and brochures showed them
the thriving business parks outside town,
working the fields, attending harvest
working for multinationals such as Este
festivals and church services, and sleeping
Lauder and BP. Dual-income households
in regularly inspected private bedrooms
and apartment-living mean that most
with cots and linen sheets. As a result,
families can no longer offer care in the
so many boarders arrived from the
old-fashioned way. People remain proud
Netherlands that their hosts built a
of the tradition, and credit it with giving
Protestant church in town for them. One
Geel a broad-minded and tolerant ethos,
wealthy family even took in a Polish
one that has made it attractive to
prince, who came with his own butler
international businesses and visitors
and carriage.
(these days it is probably best known for
By the late 1930s there were almost
its annual reggae festival). But the town is
4000 boarders among a native population
no exception to the march of modernity
of 16,000. Across Belgium the town
and the irreversibly loosening social ties
became famous for its eccentricity and
that come in its wake.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

777

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

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778

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REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION

Modern aspirations the

increasing desire for mobility and
privacy, timeshifted work schedules,
and the freedom to travel disrupt the
patterns on which daily care depends.
Increasing wealth is also a
disincentive: most of the burden of
care always fell on the poorer families,
who counted on the supply of free
labour and state payments to lift them
above subsistence. The state now pays
around 40 ($55) per day for
boarders, of which only half is passed
on to the families: hardly a financial
incentive for most, these days.
More optimistically, the decline of
the system can be seen as a reflection
of modern improvements. Psychiatry
has met the town halfway: the choice
is no longer limited to the stark
Dis plays with a family dog. The family hope Dis will be able to stay with them until he dies.
alternative of Geel or the horrors of
the asylum. Care in the community, of
which the town was once the leading
come under pressure to be trained in
its proponents like the 19th-century
example, has become the norm. For most
therapy or psychiatric nursing as part of
moral and religious reformers before
mental health service users, the
their duty of care to their boarders, but
them used the story of Geel to argue
combination of medication and
many insist that they arent clinicians and
that psychiatry and its institutions should
community mental health teams has
dont want responsibility for medical
have no place in the treatment of the
made the line between inside and
issues such as their boarders drug
mentally unwell, and indeed that
outside more porous, with outside the
regimes. In accordance with their patient
psychiatry created many of the problems
preferred option for doctors and patients
rights, boarders are now given their own
it purported to solve. But there are many
alike, on grounds both of cost and quality
diagnoses and they are free to share them
clear examples in its long history of
of life.
with families or not, as they choose;
medicines benefits: in eliminating the use
The boundaries have blurred in
either way, the inevitable effect is to
of restraints and physical punishment, in
Geel too, and the old system is hard to
medicalise their situation. Within the
stepping into chaotic situations where
maintain within the institutional logic
family home they might still be boarders,
families are no longer able to cope, in
of modern mental health care. More than
but outside it they are now patients or
medication regimes that have the power
half of the boarders now receive some
clients.
to transform lives of suffering. At the
form of service, such as day care, therapy
When the anti-psychiatry movement
same time, Geels story does suggest that
or supervised work programmes. Families
emerged in the 1960s and 70s, many of
psychiatrys role could be limited, perhaps
dramatically so: not at the centre of
mental healthcare but on its periphery, as
a backstop to the community. In an ideal
world, might not the modern psychiatric
clinic shrink back towards the size of the
19th-century hospital: a discreet inside,
as remote from the majority of patients
lives as possible?
Yet this would demand a reform not
simply of medicine but of society itself.
Its ironic but probably not coincidental
that the need for a community response
to mental illness is becoming obvious just
as the structures that might provide it are
failing. The boarder who celebrated 50
years in residence is by no means
exceptional: another, recently deceased at
the age of 100, had spent 80 years with
the same family, in the care of successive
generations to whom she had been first
like a daughter, then a sister and finally
an aunt. Who would not wish to live in
a community where such extraordinary
resources of time, attention and love were
available to those who needed them but
who these days can imagine being in a
Dis and Luc have grown close and become part of the family
position to offer them?

REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION

looking back

looking back

This is, in yet another form, the

tragedy of the commons: our liberation
as individuals to create lives of our own
choosing places unsustainable pressures
on the type of society that most of us
would choose to live in. We might define
mental ill-health in medical terms, but
this is not enough to confine its treatment
within the medical frame. If it is in
practice a condition that has exhausted
the capacity of the individual and the
social support available, its bound to
manifest more intensely in an atomised
society where insoluble problems devolve
onto the sufferer alone. To take up these
problems on behalf of others demands,
all too often, more than their own loved
ones can give or the state can provide.
As mental illness proliferates and
outpaces the psychiatric resources
available to manage it, Geels story offers
a vision, in equal parts sobering and
inspiring, of what the alternative might
look like.
I Mike Jay is a UK author and cultural
historian
mail@mikejay.net
http://mikejay.net
This piece originally appeared in the online
magazine Aeon. See www.aeon.co

19th-century views of Geel

Numerous articles have been published, be it independently or in several proceedings in
France and abroad with two things in mind, first, to present a detailed analysis of this truly
exceptional village, and, second, to determine both its value and its downsides. Some have
praised it to the skies, others have completely slated it. (Dr Loiseau, 1862)
we cannot believe that the very foundation of our science would be ill-conceived and that
one would have to claim like the ones who advocate Geel that fresh air and freedom
basically suffice to treat the alienated. (Dr Falret, 1861)
I for one believe that it is impossible to do something that is equally despicable. For the
alienated treatment and freedom cannot go hand in hand. In Geel there is no treatment,
and the alienated have nothing but freedom which is harmful to them. (Dr Ferrus, 1867)
It afforded the last glimpse of a mediaeval condition, incrusted with the stains and corruption
of a worn-out organization, where the faith in the supernatural had faded away, and the sun of
science had not yet arisen. (Dr W. Browne, 1863)
At the present time, and with the prejudices existing in all classes against the insane, and
with the apprehension, to a certain extent legitimate, which the insane inspire in all those
around them, one cannot hope to realise in another country the extraordinary phenomenon
presented at Geel of 400 insane persons moving freely about in the midst of a population
which tolerates them without fear and without emotion. (Dr Loiseau, 1862)
All quotes are sourced from the excellent Geel Revisited After Centuries of
Rehabilitation, by Eugeen Roosens and Lieve Van De Walle, published by Garant
Uitgevers nv see tinyurl.com/nlc4gps

Stories of Psychology
Clinically Applied: Origins of a Profession
Wednesday 14 October 2015, 10.30am4pm
Chancellors Hall, Senate House, University of London
The fifth annual Stories of Psychology symposium looks forward to the 50th anniversary of the
Division of Clinical Psychology in 2016 by looking back at the development of clinical psychology
as a profession, a history that reaches back beyond the foundation of the DCP in 1966.
Cost: 16 (BPS members); 18 (non-members) including buffet lunch
Registration is essential

For more information and to register, go to www.bps.org.uk/stories

History of Psychology Centre (t) 0116 252 9528
(e) hopc@bps.org.uk

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk

779

ONE ON ONE

getting positive media

coverage. Then the presenter
referred to it as a Dark Art
which sort of ruined it!

with Peter Olusoga

I love hearing
peoples stories
One thing you love about
psychology
I love hearing peoples stories.
Its really as simple as that. Ive
always been interested in what
motivates people to behave
the way they do, why people
might think certain ways
about certain things. If I can
work with athletes to help
them make sense of and
perhaps take a greater degree
of control over their own
stories, then that, to me, is
fantastic.
One sporting event that has
captured your imagination
I was fortunate enough to get
tickets to see some of the
basketball at the London 2012
Olympics, so my brother and
I went to watch the GB vs.
Spain game. To be honest,
I was a bit sceptical about the
Olympics coming to London,
but the atmosphere across the
capital was genuinely
wonderful, the Olympic park
was spectacular, and as GB
came close to upsetting Spain,
the noise inside the arena that

coming soon

Peter Olusoga
is Senior Lecturer in
Sport Psychology at
Sheffield Hallam
University
p.olusoga@shu.ac.uk

780

night was nothing like Ive

ever heard at a basketball
game before. As a basketball
fan and a sports fan, it
genuinely made the hairs on
the back of my neck stand up.
One alternative career
I thought about becoming
a speech therapist for a while
after graduating.
One challenge faced by
sport psychology
The stigma attached to using
psychological services within
sport is still a huge challenge.
Within a lot of sports, physical
prowess and mental
toughness is still the ideal,
and sometimes that doesnt fit
well with the idea of using a
psychologist. The perception
tends to be that we work with
athletes who have problems
or are mentally weak. Its
definitely getting better, and
Id say the majority of athletes
and coaches are certainly
starting to understand the
benefits that using a sport
psychologist can bring, but
theres still a level of
uncertainty, distrust, perhaps
even fear in certain quarters,
about what we actually do.
I remember watching a
segment on sport psychology
during the BBCs coverage of
the London 2012 Olympics
and I was so pleased to see it

An out of this world issue!

I Contribute: reach 50,000 colleagues, with something to suit all. See
www.thepsychologist.org.uk/contribute or talk to the editor, Dr Jon
Sutton, on jon.sutton@bps.org.uk, +44 116 252 9573
I Comment: email the editor, the Leicester office, or tweet @psychmag.
I To advertise: Reach a large and professional audience at bargain
rates: see details on inside front cover.

One defining moment in

your career
Quitting my office job on
a whim. It was one of those
just graduated jobs that was
supposed to last a few months
but two years later, I found
myself still there. I handed in
my notice, ended up working
as a part-time basketball
coach, taking out a career
development loan, and going
back to
university to
study for my
MSc. More of
a moment that
started my
career than
a defining
moment within
it, but an
important
moment
nonetheless.
I realised
I wasnt happy
with what
I was doing,
so I stopped
doing it.

a salvaged 17th-century ship)

is, somewhat bizarrely,
genuinely impressive.
One book
Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the
End of the World, by Haruki
Murakami. Go and read it
immediately!
One thing you couldn't do
without
Well it would be obvious
but entirely true to say that
I couldnt do without my wife,
Alice. And it would be even
more obvious, but entirely

One film
Hugo. Its a
Martin Scorsese
film I watched
by accident last
Christmas and
its beautiful.
One place to
visit
I love the coast, but I find
sand really annoying, so
I much prefer wandering
around cities. Cadiz is pretty
nice, and I love Paris, but
I was fortunate enough to be
able to spend a couple of
months working in Stockholm
and I completely fell in love
with it. Its expensive, and
I went in January so it was
freezing cold, and dark pretty
much the whole time (Im not
really selling it, am I?), but its
a wonderful, vibrant city, full
of lovely people, and even
lovelier cakes and pastries.
Oh, and the Vasamuseet
(a museum built around

untrue to say something like

my phone, or the internet.
I think I could cope quite
happily without being
constantly connected. Its one
of the things I love about
going on holiday; I can turn
my phone off and the rest of
the word ceases to exist for
a week or two. I suppose one
thing I couldnt really do
without is exercise. I get
grumpy if I cant train, lift
weights, go for a run or do
some sort of physical activity.
I know its only anecdotal
evidence, but I can absolutely
testify to the positive impact
of physical activity on
psychological wellbeing!

vol 28 no 9

september 2015

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