Steel Bridges
—Rationalized Design Methods in Japan—
by Dr. Masatsugu Nagai
Professor, Nagaoka University of Technology
Development of
Performance-based Limit State
Design Method for Continuous
Composite Girders
Currently, the design of highway bridges
in Japan is based on the allowable stress
design method prescribed in Specifications
for Highway Bridges1). The format is as
follows.
Σf ≤ h(fy/γ)
Where, Σf indicates the sum of stresses,
taking into account various loading com-
binations; fy, yield point of the materials;
γ (=1.7), basic safety factor; and h (≥1.0),
reduction rate of the safety factor, which
takes into account the probability of the
simultaneous occurrence of various loading
combinations, or the overdesign factor to
the allowable stress (fa = fy/1.7).
On the other hand, in AASHTO LRFD2)
Fig. 1 Stress Distribution at the Plastic
Moment (Compact Section)
0.85f’cd
– αbw
tw bw
+
fy
and EC3) which are based on the limit state
design method, the partial factor format is
adopted for checking required limit state
performances.
In the allowable stress design method, or
in the elastic design method, it is not pos-
sible to use bending strength in the elasto-
plastic region after yielding in part of the
materials. For example, in cases when a
composite girder is subjected to a positive
bending moment, the bending strength
reaches the plastic moment in most cases.
While the plastic moment of composite
girders is larger than the yielding moment,
1.4~1.6 times the yielding moment, the
strength of the plastic moment cannot
be applied in the allowable stress design
method. In such situations, it is considered
indispensable that, in order to improve the
competitiveness of steel bridges, a continu-
Fig. 2 Superposition of Flexure Stresses
Mpl
tw bw
Masatsugu Nagai: After graduating
from the School of Engineering, Osaka
University in 1971, he finished the doctor’s
course in civil engineering, the Graduate
School of Osaka University and entered
Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. in
1973. He became professor of Nagaoka
University of Technology in 1988.
ous composite girder design method must
be developed that is based on the limit state
design method. Consequently, compilation
has begun on Design Guidelines for Con-
tinuous Composite Girders, which is based
on the limit state design method.
Design Guidelines includes a wide
range of issues, and because of the dif-
ficulty of fully covering all of them in the
space allotted here, only the guidelines per-
taining to the classification of composite
girder sections are introduced.
First to be introduced is a newly estab-
lished method to classify the sections of
composite girders upon which the positive
bending moment works (Figs. 1 and 2).
The main feature of this method is that it
takes into account the moment that works
on steel girders during construction when
defining the non-compact section. Fig. 3
σ1
α’bw
+ =
ψσ1
M1 + M2 = M
(a) (b) (c)
4
shows the relation between the moment (M) Fig. 3 Relations between Moment Fig. 4 Compact Section (in Negative
and the curvature (φ) of a compact section, (M) and Curvature ( ) of Moment)
a non-compact section, and a slender sec- Three Section Classes

Compressed web width/thickness

SM490Y
tion. Moment 50
● Compact section Compact 40
Mpl
bw 2.0 E My 30
≤ (α<0.4) Non-compact
tw α fy 20
Slender
Where, bw and tw indicate the height and 10

plate thickness respectively of steel girder 0

webs; α, parameter to define the location 0 5 10
Compressed flange width/thickness
of the plastic neutral axis of composite sec-
Curvature φ
tion (refer to Fig. 1); E, Young’s modulus of AASHTO Eurocode ISO Proposed

steel; and fy , yield stress of steel products.

● Non-compact section Fig. 5 Structural Innovations of I-girders
bw 1.7 Λ E
≤ (ψ > −1.0)
t w 0.67 + 0.33ψ f y
bw E
≤ 2.5Λ(1 − ψ ) − ψ (ψ ≤ −1.0)
tw fy
Where, Λ is the coefficient to express
the effect of the moment and is identified
using the following equation.
2
⎛M ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞ M1
Λ =1 − 0.1⎜ 1 ⎟ + 2.31⎜ 1 ⎟ ≤ 0. 4
⎜M ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ys⎠ ⎝ M ys⎠ M ys
Where, ψ indicates the parameter to
express the stress gradient in the web (refer
to Fig. 2); M1, the initial moment that pro-
duced in the steel girder; and Mys, the yield
bending moment of steel girders.
● Slender section
Sections other than listed above
Next, in cases when the negative bend- Fig. 6 Structural Innovations of Box Girders
ing moment works on a composite girder,
the conditions of the compact section
(SM490Y: fy =355 MPa), shown in Fig. 4,
are proposed. The width-thickness ratio of
compressed webs has an intermediate con-
dition between AASHTO and ISO10721,
and EC. On the other hand, the width-
thickness ratio of compressed f langes
allows the largest value.

Double-composite I-girder Bridges

Thus far in Japan, it has been customary
to construct multiple main girder bridges
that support roadways made of RC slabs.
The main girders are made of thin plates in
order to minimize weight and are strength-
ened with many horizontal and vertical
stiffening members to prevent buckling

5
of the steel web. In addition to stiffening girder bridges that have been built so far. Table 1 shows economical steel-bridge
members, sway bracing at about 6-m inter- It can be seen from the figure that the con- and concrete-bridge alternatives, according
vals as well as lower lateral bracing have struction of two-I-girder bridges, among to span length. Of these alternatives, con-
been installed between the main girders. others, is increasing. crete bridges are judged most economical
These structural systems conform to the
provisions of the currently prevailing Spec-
Fig. 7 Number of Bridges Constructed (by Structural Type)
ifications for Highway Bridges1).
However, in order to meet the need to 600
reduce construction costs, bridge structural
systems in Japan are shifting to the very 500 (Two I-girder)
simple structures shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
The basic concept for these simple struc- 400
tures is to reduce the number of main gird-
ers to a minimum and to minimize the use 300
of stiffening members that require multi- (Top-opened
step fabrication. Further, only small-sized 200 box girder)
cross beams are arranged between the main
girders and the use of lower lateral bracing 100
is eliminated. Currently, these bridge types
are recognized as being the most economi- 0 (Narrow-width
cal for spans ranging from 30 to 60 m. Fig. box girder)
7 shows the number of these rationalized ’90 ’95 ’00 ’05

Table 1 Economic Evaluation by Bridge Type

Span L < 30m 30m < L < 60m 60m < L

Truss girder
bridge
Slab bridge Box girder
Steel
alternative bridge
with steel deck

Composite 2-I-girder
Rolled beam bridge bridge

PC box girder bridge

PC box girder bridge
Concrete with steel corrugated web
alternative Extradosed box girder
bridge

PC, RC girder bridge PC box girder bridge

Inside of a yellow frame: Competitive ( economical )

6
for spans shorter than about 30 m and lon- ences in the main girder cross-sections of adopting hybrid structures in which high-
ger than 60 m or 70 m. For spans of 70~120 a model (80+100+80 m)-span bridge in the strength steel members are adopted for the
m in particular, PC box girder bridges case of designing by use of both the limit flanges and relatively low-strength steel
using corrugated steel webs are growing in state design method (designed as compact members for the webs. When wider width
application. sections) and the allowable stress design is required, twin box girder bridges com-
For the engineers involved in steel method. posed of unstiffening steel plates (Fig. 10)
bridge construction, it is important to pro- When using the limit state design can be proposed as a competitive alterna-
pose a steel bridge type that is competitive method, even for a 100 m-span, the girder tive.
in the 70~120-m span range. A steel bridge height at the intermediate supporting point
alternative that is expected to be highly can be held to about 3,000 mm and, further, References:
competitive in this span range is the dou- the cross-sectional areas can be decreased 1) Japan Road Association: Specifications
ble-composite I-girder bridge. This bridge by more than 20%. These results clearly for Highway Bridges, 2003 (in Japanese)
has concrete floor slabs between two main show the superiority of double-composite 2) AASHTO: AASHTO LRFD Bridge
girders that are subjected to compression I-girder bridges designed using the limit Design Specifications, 3rd Edition, 2004
at the intermediate supporting points of state design method. 3) CEN: EC3: Design of steel structures,
continuous girders. This structural system In addition, enhanced competitiveness Part1-1: General rules and rules for
is expected to prevent the buckling of thin can be expected for I-girder bridges by building, 2003
steel plates subjected
to compression and Fig. 8 Double-composite Girder under Construction Fig. 10 Two Box Girders
to improve bending
Bottom steel plate (steel-concrete composite slab)
strength and tor-
sional rigidity. Fig. 8 Prestressed or concrete slab
shows a conceptual Semi-closed
section
drawing of cantile-
Lower lateral bracing
vered erection stage (if necessary)
of a double-compos- Lower concrete slab
ite I-girder bridge
e m ploy i ng r ig id ● Longitudinally unstiffened
connection with an ● No cross beam
RC bridge pier. Span
100~200 m
The ultimate
bending strength of
double composite Fig. 9 Design of (80+100+80 m)-span Double–composite Girder Bridge
girders is expected
to reach the plastic CL
mome nt a g a i n s t
positive and nega-
tive bending. That
is, the cross sections
of double composite
girders can be classi-
fied as compact sec- LSD ASD LSD ASD LSD ASD
tions along the entire Material grade SM490Y(fy=355 MPa) SM570(fy=450 MPa) SM490Y(fy=355 MPa)
length of the span,
Upper flange 800 × 34 800 × 47 800 × 65 800 × 120 800 × 31 800 × 32
thereby making it
possible to deter- Web 3100 × 21 3100 × 26 3100 × 36 3100 × 29 3100 × 21 3100 × 26
mine girder sec-
Lower flange 800 × 40 800 × 80 800 × 78 800 × 150 800 × 33 800 × 63
tions using a design
concept similar to Cross-sectional
0.75 1.00 0.77 1.00 0.76 1.00
that for steel shapes. area ratio
Fig. 9 shows the
LSD: Limit state design ASD: Allowable stress design
examples of differ-