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Most of the words in this glossary are followed by a phonetic
Multimedia spelling that serves as a guide to pronunciation. The phonetic
spellings reflect standard scientific usage and can be easily
Laboratory
Manuals interpreted following a few basic rules.

A&P WebSites Any unmarked vowel that ends a syllable or that stands alone as
a syllable has the long sound. Any unmarked vowel that is
Home followed by a consonant has the short sound.
Page If a long vowel appears in the middle of a syllable (followed by
a consonant), it is marked with a macron (=). Similarly, if a
vowel stands alone or ends a syllable but should have a short
sound, it is marked with a breve (u).

Syllables that are emphasized are indicated by stress marks. A

single stress mark (´) indicates the primary emphasis; a
secondary emphasis is indicated by a double stress mark (´´).

A
abdomen (ab´duo-men, ab-do´men) The portion of the trunk between
the diaphragm and pelvis.

abduction (ab-duk´shun) The movement of a body part away from

the axis or midline of the body; movement of a digit away from the
axis of the limb.

ABO system The most common system of classification for red

blood cell antigens. On the basis of antigens on the red blood cell
surface, individuals can be type A, type B, type AB, or type O.

absorption (ab-sorp´shun) The transport of molecules across

epithelial membranes into the body fluids.

accessory organs (ak-ses´uo-re) Organs that assist with the

functioning of other organs within a system.

accommodation (ua-kom´´uo-da´shun) A process whereby the focal

length of the eye is changed by automatic adjustment of the curvature
of the lens to bring images of objects from various distances into
focus on the retina.

acetabulum (as´´ue-tab´yuu-lum) A socket in the lateral surface of

the hipbone (os coxa) with which the head of the femur articulates.

acetone (as´ue-t=on) A ketone body produced as a result of the

oxidation of fats.

acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) (as´ue-tl, ua-set´l) A coenzyme

derivative in the metabolism of glucose and fatty acids that
contributes substrates to the Krebs cycle.

acetylcholine (ACh) (ua-set´´l-ko´l=en) An acetic acid ester of

choline-a substance that functions as a neurotransmitter in somatic
motor nerve and parasympathetic nerve fibers.

acetylcholinesterase (ua-set´´l-ko´´lu1-nes´tue-r=as) An enzyme in

the membrane of postsynaptic cells that catalyzes the conversion of
ACh into choline and acetic acid. This enzymatic reaction inactivates
the neurotransmitter.

Achilles tendon (ua-kil´=ez) See tendo calcaneous.

acid (as´id) A substance that releases hydrogen ions when ionized in

water.

acidosis (as´´u1-do´sis) An abnormal increase in the H+

concentration of the blood that lowers the arterial pH to below 7.35.

acromegaly (ak´´ro-meg´ua-le) A condition caused by the

hypersecretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland after
maturity and characterized by enlargement of the extremities, such as
the nose, jaws, fingers, and toes.

actin (ak´tin) A protein in muscle fibers that together with myosin is

responsible for contraction.

action potential An all-or-none electrical event in an axon or muscle

fiber in which the polarity of the membrane potential is rapidly
reversed and reestablished.

active immunity (u1-myoo´nu1-te) Immunity involving

sensitization, in which antibody production is stimulated by prior
exposure to an antigen.

active transport The movement of molecules or ions across the cell

membranes of epithelial cells by membrane carriers. An expenditure
of cellular energy (ATP) is required.

adduction (au-duk´shun) The movement of a body part toward the

axis or midline of the body; movement of a digit toward the axis of
the limb.

adenohypophysis (ad´´n-o-hi-pof´u1-sis) The anterior, glandular

lobe of the pituitary gland that secretes FSH (follicle-stimulating
hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), ACTH (adrenocorticotropic
hormone), TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), GH (growth
hormone), and prolactin. Secretions of the adenohypophysis are
controlled by hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

adenoids (ad´ue-noidz) The tonsils located in the nasopharynx;

pharyngeal tonsils.

adenylate cyclase (ua-den´l-it si´kl=as) An enzyme found in cell

membranes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP and
pyrophosphate (PP1). This enzyme is activated by an interaction
between a specific hormone and its membrane receptor protein.

ADH Antidiuretic hormone; a hormone produced by the

hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that acts on the
kidneys to promote water reabsorption; also known as vasopressin.

ADP Adenosine diphosphate; a molecule that together with inorganic

phosphate is used to make ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
adrenal cortex (ua-dre´nal kor´teks) The outer part of the adrenal
gland. Derived from embryonic mesoderm, the adrenal cortex
secretes corticosteroid hormones (such as aldosterone and
hydrocortisone).

adrenal medulla (mue-dul´ua) The inner part of the adrenal gland.

Derived from embryonic postganglionic sympathetic neurons, the
adrenal medulla secretes catecholamine hormones-epinephrine and
(to a lesser degree) norepinephrine.

adrenergic (ad´´reu-ner´jik) A term used to describe the actions of

epinephrine, norepinephrine, or other molecules with similar activity
(as in adrenergic receptor and adrenergic stimulation).

adventitia (ad´´ven-tish´ua) The outermost epithelial layer of a

visceral organ; also called serosa.

afferent (af´er-ent) Conveying or transmitting to.

afferent arteriole (ar-tir´e-=ol) A blood vessel within the kidney that

supplies blood to the glomerulus.

afferent neuron (noor´on) See sensory neuron.

agglutinate (ua-gloot´n-=at) A clump of cells (usually erythrocytes)

formed as a result of specific chemical interaction between surface
antigens and antibodies.

agranular leukocytes (ua-gran´yuu-lar loo´ kuo-s1=tz) White blood

cells (leukocytes) that do not contain cytoplasmic granules;
specifically, lymphocytes and monocytes.

albumin (al-byoo´min) A water-soluble protein produced in the

liver; the major component of the plasma proteins.

aldosterone (al-dos´ter-=on) The principal corticosteroid hormone

involved in the regulation of electrolyte balance (mineralocorticoid).

alimentary canal The tubular portion of the digestive tract. See also
gastrointestinal tract (GI tract).

allantois (ua-lan´to-is) An extraembryonic membranous sac involved

in the formation of blood cells. It gives rise to the fetal umbilical
arteries and vein and also contributes to the formation of the urinary
bladder.

allergens (al´er-jenz) Antigens that evoke an allergic response rather

than a normal immune response.

allergy (al´er-je) A state of hypersensitivity caused by exposure to

allergens. It results in the liberation of histamine and other molecules
with histaminelike effects.

all-or-none principle The statement of the fact that muscle fibers of

a motor unit contract to their maximum extent when exposed to a
stimulus of threshold strength.

allosteric (al´´uo-ster´ik) A term used with reference to the alteration

of an enzyme's activity as a result of its combination with a regulator
molecule. Allosteric inhibition by an end product represents negative
feedback control of an enzyme's activity.

alveolar sacs (al-ve´uo-lar) A cluster of alveoli that share a common

chamber or central atrium.

alveolus (al-ve´uo-lus) 1.An individual air capsule within the lung.

The alveoli are the basic functional units of respiration. 2.The socket
that secures a tooth(tooth socket).

amniocentesis (am´´ne-o-sen-te´sis) A procedure in which a sample

of amniotic fluid is aspirated to examine suspended cells for various
genetic diseases.

amnion (am´ne-on) A developmental membrane surrounding the

fetus that contains amniotic fluid.

amphiarthrosis (am´´fe-ar-thro´sis) A slightly movable articulation

in a functional classification of joints.

amphoteric (am-fo-ter´ik) Having both acidic and basic

characteristics; used to denote a molecule that can be positively or
negatively charged, depending on the pH of its environment.

ampulla (am-pool´ua) A saclike enlargement of a duct or tube.

ampulla of Vater (Fua´ter) See hepatopancreatic ampulla.

anabolic steroids (an´´ua-bol´ik ster´oidz) Steroids with
androgenlike stimulatory effects on protein synthesis.

anabolism (ua-nab´uo-liz´´em) A phase of metabolism involving

chemical reactions within cells that result in the production of larger
molecules from smaller ones; specifically, the synthesis of protein,
glycogen, and fat.

anaerobic respiration (an-ua-ro´bik res´´pu1-ra´shun) A form of cell

respiration involving the conversion of glucose to lactic acid in
which energy is obtained without the use of molecular oxygen.

anal canal (a´nal) The terminal tubular portion of the large intestine
that opens through the anus of the GI tract.

anaphylaxis (an´´ua-fu1-lak´sis) An unusually severe allergic

reaction that can result in cardiovascular shock and death.

anastomosis (ua-nas´tuo-mo´sis) An interconnecting aggregation of

blood vessels or nerves that form a network plexus.

anatomical position (an´´ua-tom´u1-kal) An erect body stance with

the eyes directed interior, the arms at the sides, the palms of the
hands facing interior, and the fingers pointing straight down.

anatomy (ua-nat´uo-me) The branch of science concerned with the

structure of the body and the relationship of its organs.

androgens (an´druo-jenz) Steroids containing 18 carbons that have

masculinizing effects; primarily those hormones(such as testosterone)
secreted by the testes, although weaker androgens are also secreted
by the adrenal cortex.

anemia (ua-ne´me-ua) An abnormal reduction in the red blood cell

count, hemoglobin concentration, or hematocrit, or any combination
of these measurements. This condition is associated with a decreased
ability of the blood to carry oxygen.

angina pectoris (an-ji´nua pek´tuo-ris) A thoracic pain, often

referred to the left pectoral and arm area, caused by myocardial
ischemia.

angiotensin II (an´´je-o-ten´sin) An 8-amino-acid polypeptide

formed from angiotensin I(a 10-amino-acid precursor), which in turn
is formed from cleavage of a protein(angiotensinogen) by the action
of renin(an enzyme secreted by the kidneys). Angiotensin II is a
powerful vasoconstrictor and a stimulator of aldosterone secretion
from the adrenal cortex.

anions (an´i-onz) Ions that are negatively charged, such as chloride,

bicarbonate, and phosphate.

antagonist (an-tag´uo-nist) A muscle that acts in opposition to

another muscle.

antebrachium (an´´te-bra´ke-em) The forearm.

anterior (ventral) Toward the front; the opposite of posterior, or

dorsal.

anterior pituitary (pu1-too´u1-ter-e) See adenohypophysis.

anterior root The anterior projection of the spinal cord, composed of

axons of motor neurons.

antibodies (an´tu1-bod´´=ez) Immunoglobin proteins secreted by B

lymphocytes that have transformed into plasma cells. Antibodies are
responsible for humoral immunity. Their synthesis is induced by
specific antigens, and they combine with these specific antigens but
not with unrelated antigens.

anticodon (an´´tu1-ko´don) A base triplet provided by three

nucleotides within a loop of transfer RNA that is complementary in
its base-pairing properties to a triplet(the codon) in mRNA. The
matching of codon to anticodon provides the mechanism for
translating the genetic code into a specific sequence of amino acids.

antigen (an´tu1-jen) A molecule that can induce the production of

antibodies and react in a specific manner with antibodies.

antigenic determinant site (an-tu1-jen´ik) The region of an antigen

molecule that specifically reacts with particular antibodies. A large
antigen molecule may have a number of such sites.

antiserum (an´tu1-sir´´um) A serum that contains specific antibodies.

anus (a´nus) The terminal opening of the GI tract.

aorta (a-or´tua) The major systemic vessel of the arterial system of

the body, emerging from the left ventricle.

aortic arch The superior left bend of the aorta between the ascending
and descending portions.

apex (a´peks) The tip or pointed end of a conical structure.

aphasia (ua-fa´zhua) Defects in speech, writing, or in the

comprehension of spoken or written language caused by brain
damage or disease.

apneustic center (ap-noo´stik) A collection of nuclei(nerve cell

bodies) in the brain stem that participates in the rhythmic control of
breathing.

apocrine gland (ap´uo-krin) A type of sweat gland that functions in

evaporative cooling. It may respond during periods of emotional
stress.

aponeurosis (ap´´uo-noo-ro´sis) A fibrous or membranous sheetlike

tendon.

appendix A short pouch that attaches to the cecum.

aqueous humor (a´kwe-us) The watery fluid that fills the anterior
and posterior chambers of the eye.

arachnoid mater (ua-rak´noid) The weblike middle

covering(meninx) of the central nervous system.

arbor vitae (ar´bor vi´te) The branching arrangement of white matter

within the cerebellum.

arm (brachium) The portion of the upper extremity from the shoulder
to the elbow.

arrector pili muscle (ah-rek´tor pih´le) The smooth muscle attached

to a hair follicle that, upon contraction, pulls the hair into a more
vertical position, resulting in "goose bumps."

arteriole (ar-tir´e-=ol) A minute arterial branch.

arteriosclerosis (ar-tir´´e-o-sklue-ro´sis) Any one of a group of
diseases characterized by thickening and hardening of the artery wall
and in the narrowing of its lumen.

arteriovenous anastomoses (ar-tir´´e-o-ve´nus ua-nas´´tuo-mo´s=ez)

Direct connections between arteries and veins that bypass capillary
beds.

artery (ar´tue-re) A blood vessel that carries blood away from the
heart.

arthrology (ar-throl´uo-je) The scientific study of the structure and

function of joints.

articular cartilage (ar-tik´yuu-lar kar´tu1-lij) A hyaline cartilaginous

covering over the articulating surface of the bones of synovial joints.

articulation (ar-tik´´yuu-la´shun) A joint.

arytenoid cartilages (ar´´ue-te´noid) A pair of small cartilages

located on the superior aspect of the larynx.

ascending colon (ko´lon) The portion of the large intestine between

the cecum and the hepatic flexure.

association neuron (noor´on) A nerve cell located completely within

the central nervous system. It conveys impulses in an arc from
sensory to motor neurons; also called interneuron or internuncial
neuron.

astigmatism (ua-stig´mua-tiz´´em) Unequal curvature of the

refractive surfaces of the eye (cornea and/or lens), so that light
entering the eye along certain meridians does not focus on the retina.

atherosclerosis (ath´´ue-ro-sklue-ro´sis) A common type of

arteriosclerosis found in medium and larger arteries in which raised
areas within the tunica intima are formed from smooth muscle cells,
cholesterol, and other lipids. These plaques occlude arteries and serve
as sites for the formation of thrombi.

atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

atopic dermatitis (ua-top´ik der´´mua-ti´tis) An allergic skin

reaction to agents such as poison ivy and poison oak; a type of
delayed hypersensitivity.

ATP Adenosine triphosphate; the universal energy donor of the cell.

atretic (ua-tret´ik) Without an opening. Atretic ovarian follicles are

those that fail to ovulate.

atrioventricular bundle (a´´tre-o-ven-trik´yuu-lar) A group of

specialized cardiac fibers that conduct impulses from the
atrioventricular node to the ventricular muscles of the heart; also
called the bundle of His or AV bundle.

atrioventricular node A microscopic aggregation of specialized

cardiac fibers located in the interatrial septum of the heart that are a
part of the conduction system of the heart; AV node.

atrioventricular valve A cardiac valve located between an atrium

and a ventricle of the heart; AV valve.

atrium (a´tre-um) Either of the two superior chambers of the heart

that receive venous blood.

atrophy (at´ruo-fe) A gradual wasting away or decrease in the size

of a tissue or an organ.

atropine (at´ruo-p=en) An alkaloid drug obtained from a plant of the

species Belladonna that acts as an anticholinergic agent. It is used
medically to inhibit parasympathetic nerve effects, dilate the pupils
of the eye, increase the heart rate, and inhibit intestinal movements.

auditory (aw´du1-tor-e) Pertaining to the structures of the ear

associated with hearing.

auditory tube A narrow canal that connects the middle ear chamber
to the pharynx; also called the eustachian canal.

auricle (or´1u-kul) 1.The fleshy pinna of the ear. 2.An ear-shaped

appendage of each atrium of the heart.

autoantibodies (aw´´to-an´tu1-bod´´=ez) Antibodies formed in

response to, and that react with, molecules that are part of one's own
body.
autonomic nervous system (aw´´tuo-nom´ik) The sympathetic and
parasympathetic portions of the nervous system that function to
control the actions of the visceral organs and skin; ANS.

autosomal chromosomes (aw´´to-so´mal kro´muo-s=omz) The

paired chromosomes; those other than the sex chromosomes.

axilla (ak-sil´ua) The depressed hollow commonly called the armpit.

axon (ak´son) The elongated process of a nerve cell that transmits an

impulse away from the cell body of a neuron.

ball-and-socket joint The most freely movable type of synovial

joint(e.g., the shoulder or hip joint).

baroreceptor (bar´´o-re-sep´tor) A cluster of neuroreceptors

stimulated by pressure changes. Baroreceptors monitor blood
pressure.

basal metabolic rate (BMR) (ba´sal met´´ua-bol´ik) The rate of

metabolism(expressed as oxygen consumption or heat production)
under resting or basal conditions(14 to 18 hours after eating).

basal nucleus (ba´sal noo´kle-us) A mass of nerve cell bodies

located deep within a cerebral hemisphere of the brain; also called
basal ganglion.

base A chemical substance that ionizes in water to release hydroxyl

ions(OH-) or other ions that combine with hydrogen ions.

basement membrane A thin sheet of extracellular substance to

which the basal surfaces of membranous epithelial cells are attached;
also called the basal lamina.

basophil (ba´suo-fil) A granular leukocyte that readily stains with

basophilic dye.

B cell lymphocytes Lymphocytes that can be transformed by

antigens into plasma cells that secrete antibodies(and are thus
responsible for humoral immunity). The B stands for bursa
equivalent.
belly The thickest circumference of a skeletal muscle.

benign (b1u-n=1n´) Not malignant.

bifurcate (bi´fur-k=at) Forked; divided into two branches.

bile A liver secretion that is stored and concentrated in the

gallbladder and released through the common bile duct into the
duodenum. It is essential for the absorption of fats.

bilirubin (bil´´u1-roo´bin) Bile pigment derived from the breakdown

of the heme portion of hemoglobin.

bipennate (bi-pen´=at) Denoting muscles that have a fiber

architecture coursing obliquely on both sides of a tendon.

blastula (blas´tyoo-lua) An early stage of prenatal development

between the morula and embryonic period.

blood The fluid connective tissue that circulates through the

cardiovascular system to transport substances throughout the body.

blood-brain barrier A specialized mechanism that inhibits the

passage of certain materials from the blood into brain tissue and
cerebrospinal fluid.

bolus (bo´lus) A moistened mass of food that is swallowed from the

oral cavity into the pharynx.

bone A solid, rigid, ossified connective tissue forming an organ of

the skeletal system.

bony labyrinth (lab´u1-rinth) A series of chambers within the

petrous part of the temporal bone associated with the vestibular
organs and the cochlea. The bony labyrinth contains a fluid called
perilymph.

Bowman's capsule (bo´manz kap´sul) See glomerular capsule.

brachial plexus (bra´ke-al plek´sus) A network of nerve fibers that

arise from spinal nerves C5-C8 and T1. Nerves arising from the
brachial plexuses supply the upper extremities.

bradycardia (brad´´u1-kar´de-ua) A slow cardiac rate; fewer than 60

beats per minute.

bradykinins (brad´´u1-ki´ninz) Short polypeptides that stimulate

vasodilation and other cardiovascular changes.

brain The enlarged superior portion of the central nervous system

located in the cranial cavity of the skull.

brain stem The portion of the brain consisting of the medulla

oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

bronchial tree (brong´ke-al) The bronchi and their branching

bronchioles.

bronchiole (brong´ke-=ol) A small division of a bronchus within the

lung.

bronchus (brong´kus) A branch of the trachea that leads to a lung.

buccal cavity (buk´al) The mouth, or oral cavity.

buffer A molecule that serves to prevent large changes in pH by

either combining with H+ or by releasing H+ into solution.

bulbourethral glands (bul´´bo-yoo-re´thral) A pair of glands that

secrete a viscous fluid into the male urethra during sexual
excitement; also called Cowper's glands. bundle of His See
atrioventricular bundle.

bursa (bur´sa) A saclike structure filled with synovial fluid. Bursae

are located at friction points, as around joints, over which tendons
can slide without contacting bone.

buttocks (but´oks) The rump or fleshy masses on the posterior aspect

of the lower trunk, formed primarily by the gluteal muscles.

calcitonin (kal´´su1-to´nin) Also called thyrocalcitonin. A

polypeptide hormone produced by the parafollicular cells of the
thyroid and secreted in response to hypercalcemia. It acts to lower
blood calcium and phosphate concentrations and may serve as an
antagonist of parathyroid hormones.
calmodulin (kal´´mod´y uu´-lin) A receptor protein for Ca++ located
within the cytoplasm of target cells. It appears to mediate the effects
of this ion on cellular activities.

calorie (kal´uo-re) A unit of heat equal to the amount needed to raise

the temperature of one gram of water by 1 C∞.

calyx (ka´liks) A cup-shaped portion of the renal pelvis that encircles

a renal papilla.

cAMP Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; a second messenger in the

action of many hormones, including catecholamines, polypeptides,
and glycoproteins. It serves to mediate the effects of these hormones
on their target cells.

canaliculus (kan´´ua-lik´yuu-lus) A microscopic channel in bone

tissue that connects lacunae.

canal of Schlemm (shlem) See scleral venous sinus.

cancer A tumor characterized by abnormally rapid cell division and

the loss of specialized tissue characteristics. This term usually refers
to malignant tumors.

capacitation (kua-pas´´u1-ta´shun) The process whereby

spermatozoa gain the ability to fertilize ova. Sperm that have not
have been capacitated in the female reproductive tract cannot fertilize
ova.

capillary (kap´u1-lar´´e) A microscopic blood vessel that connects an

arteriole and a venule; the functional unit of the circulatory system.

carbonic anhydrase (kar-bon´ik an-hi´dr=as) An enzyme that

catalyzes the formation or breakdown of carbonic acid. When carbon
dioxide concentrations are relatively high, this enzyme catalyzes the
formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O. When carbon
dioxide concentrations are low, the breakdown of carbonic acid to
CO2 and H2O is catalyzed. These reactions aid the transport of
carbon dioxide from tissues to alveolar air.

cardiac muscle (kar´de-ak) Muscle of the heart, consisting of striated

muscle cells. These cells are interconnected into a mass called the
myocardium.
cardiac output The volume of blood pumped per minute by either
the right or left ventricle.

cardiogenic shock (kar´´de-o-jen´ik) Shock that results from low

cardiac output in heart disease.

carotid sinus (kua-rot´id) An expanded portion of the internal carotid

artery located immediately above the point of branching from the
external carotid artery. The carotid sinus contains baroreceptors that
monitor blood pressure.

carpus (kar´pus) The proximal portion of the hand that contains the
eight carpal bones.

carrier-mediated transport The transport of molecules or ions

across a cell membrane by means of specific protein carriers. It
includes both facilitated diffusion and active transport.

cartilage (kar´tu1-lij) A type of connective tissue with a solid elastic

matrix.

cartilaginous joint (kar´´tu1-laj´u1-nus) A joint that lacks a joint

cavity, permitting little movement between the bones held together
by cartilage.

cast An accumulation of proteins molded from the kidney tubules

that appears in urine sediment

catabolism (kua-tab´o-liz-em) The metabolic breakdown of complex

molecules into simpler ones, often resulting in a release of energy.

catecholamines (kat´´ue-kol´ua-m=enz) A group of molecules

including epinephrine, norepinephrine, L-dopa, and related molecules
with effects similar to those produced by activation of the
sympathetic nervous system.

cations (kat´i-onz) Positively charged ions, such as sodium,

potassium, calcium, and magnesium.

cauda equina (kaw´dua e-kwi´nua) The lower end of the spinal cord
where the roots of spinal nerves have a tail-like appearance.

cecum (se´kum) The pouchlike portion of the large intestine to which

the ileum of the small intestine is attached.

cell The structural and functional unit of an organism; the smallest

structure capable of performing all the functions necessary for life.

cell-mediated immunity (u1-myoo´nu1-te) Immunological defense

provided by T cell lymphocytes that come within close proximity of
their victim cells(as opposed to humoral immunity provided by the
secretion of antibodies by plasma cells).

cellular respiration (sel´yuu-lar res´´pu1-ra´shun) The energy-

releasing metabolic pathways in a cell that oxidize organic molecules
such as glucose and fatty acids.

cementum (se-men´tum) Bonelike material that binds the root of a

tooth to the periodontal membrane of the bony socket.

central canal An elongated longitudinal channel in the center of an

osteon in bone tissue that contains branches of the nutrient vessels
and a nerve; also called a haversian canal.

central nervous system Part of the nervous system consisting of the

brain and the spinal cord; CNS.

centrioles (sen´tru1-olz) Cell organelles that form the spindle

apparatus during cell division.

centromere (sen´truo-m=er) The central region of a chromosome to

which the chromosomal arms are attached.

centrosome (sen´truo-s=om) A dense body near the nucleus of a cell

that contains a pair of centrioles.

cerebellar peduncle (ser´´ue-bel´ar pue-dung´k'l) An aggregation of

nerve fibers connecting the cerebellum with the brain stem.

cerebellum (ser´´ue-bel´um) The portion of the brain concerned with

the coordination of skeletal muscle contraction. Part of the
metencephalon, it consists of two hemispheres and a central vermis.

cerebral arterial circle (ser´ue-bral) An arterial vessel that encircles

the pituitary gland. It provides alternate routes for blood to reach the
brain should a carotid or vertebral artery become occluded; also
called the circle of Willis.

cerebral peduncles A paired bundle of nerve fibers along the

inferior surface of the midbrain that conduct impulses between the
pons and the cerebral hemispheres.

cerebrospinal fluid (ser´´ue-bro-spi´nal) A fluid produced by the

choroid plexus of the ventricles of the brain. It fills the ventricles and
surrounds the central nervous system in association with the
meninges.

cerebrum (ser´ue-brum) The largest portion of the brain, composed

of the right and left hemispheres.

ceruminous gland (sue-roo´mu1-nus) A specialized integumentary

gland that secretes cerumen, or earwax, into the external auditory
canal.

cervical (ser´vu1-kal) Pertaining to the neck or a necklike portion of

an organ.

cervical ganglion (gang´gle-on) A cluster of postganglionic

sympathetic nerve cell bodies located in the neck, near the cervical
vertebrae.

cervical plexus (plek´sus) A network of spinal nerves formed by the

anterior branches of the first four cervical nerves.

cervix (ser´viks) 1.The narrow necklike portion of an organ. 2.The

inferior end of the uterus that adjoins the vagina(cervix of the uterus).

chemoreceptor (ke´´mo-re-sep´tor) A neuroreceptor that is

stimulated by the presence of chemical molecules.

chemotaxis (ke´´mo-tak´sis) The movement of an organism or a cell,

such as a leukocyte, toward a chemical stimulus.

Cheyne-Stokes respiration (ch=an´st=okes´ res´´pu1-ra´shun)

Breathing characterized by rhythmic waxing and waning of the depth
of respiration, with regularly occurring periods of apnea (failure to
breathe).

chiasma (ki-as´mua) A crossing of nerve tracts from one side of the

CNS to the other; also called a chiasm.

choane (ko-a´ne) The two posterior openings from the nasal cavity
into the nasal pharynx; also called the internal nares.

vcholesterol (kuo-les´ter-ol) A 27-carbon steroid that serves as the

precursor of steroid hormones.

cholinergic (ko´´lu1-ner´jik) Denoting nerve endings that liberate

acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter, such as those of the
parasympathetic system.

chondrocranium (kon´´dro-kra´ne-um) The portion of the skull that

supports the brain. It is derived from endochondral bone.

chondrocytes (kon´dro-s=1tz) Cartilage-forming cells.

chordae tendineae (kor´de ten-din´e-e) Chordlike tendinous bands

that connect papillary muscles to the leaflets of the atrioventricular
valves within the ventricles of the heart.

chorea (kuo-re´-ua) The occurrence of a wide variety of rapid,

complex, jerky movements that appear to be well coordinated but
that are performed involuntarily.

chorion An extraembryonic membrane that participates in the

formation of the placenta.

choroid (kor´oid) The vascular, pigmented middle layer of the wall

of the eye.

choroid plexus A mass of vascular capillaries from which

cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into the ventricles of the brain.

chromatids (kro´mua-tidz) Duplicated chromosomes, joined together

at the centromere, that separate during cell division.

chromatin (kro´mua-tin) Threadlike structures in the cell nucleus

consisting primarily of DNA and protein. They represent the
extended form of chromosomes during interphase.

chromatophilic substances (kro´´mua-to-fil´ik) Clumps of rough

endoplasmic reticulum in the cell bodies of neurons; also called Nissl
bodies.
chromosomes (kro´muo-s=omz) Structures in the nucleus that
contain the genes for genetic expression.

chyme (k=1m) The mass of partially digested food that passes from
the pylorus of the stomach into the duodenum of the small intestine.

cilia (sil´e-ua) Microscopic hairlike processes that move in a

wavelike manner on the exposed surfaces of certain epithelial cells.

ciliary body (sil´e-er´´e) A portion of the choroid layer of the eye

that secretes aqueous humor. It contains the ciliary muscle.

circadian rhythms (ser´´kua-de´an) Physiological changes that

repeat at about 24-hour intervals. These are often synchronized with
changes in the external environment, such as the day-night cycles.

circle of Willis See cerebral arterial circle.

circumduction (ser´´kum-duk´shun) A movement of a body part that

outlines a cone, such that the distal end moves in a circle while the
proximal portion remains relatively stable.

cirrhosis (su1-ro´sis) Liver disease characterized by loss of normal

microscopic structure, which is replaced by fibrosis and nodular
regeneration.

clitoris (klit´or-is, kli´tor-is) A small, erectile structure in the vulva

of the female, homologous to the glans penis in the male.

clone (kl=on) 1.A group of cells derived from a single parent cell by
mitotic cell division; since reproduction is asexual, the descendants
of the parent cell are genetically identical. 2. A term used to refer to
cells as separate individuals(as in white blood cells) rather than as
part of a growing organ.

CNS See central nervous system.

coccygeal (kok-sij´e-al) Pertaining to the region of the coccyx; the

caudal termination of the vertebral column.

cochlea (kok´le-ua) The organ of hearing in the inner ear where

nerve impulses are generated in response to sound waves.
cochlear window See round window.

codon (ko´don) The sequence of three nucleotide bases in mRNA

that specifies a given amino acid and determines the position of that
amino acid in a polypeptide chain through complementary base
pairing with an anticodon in tRNA.

coelom (se´lom) The abdominal cavity.

coenzyme (ko-en´z=1m) An organic molecule, usually derived from

a water-soluble vitamin, that combines with and activates specific
enzyme proteins.

cofactor (ko´fak-tor) A substance needed for the catalytic action of

an enzyme; generally used in reference to inorganic ions such as
Ca++ and Mg++.

collateral (kuo-lat´er-al) A small branch of a blood vessel or nerve

fiber.

colloid osmotic pressure (kol´oid oz-mot´ik) Osmotic pressure

exerted by plasma proteins that are present as a colloidal suspension;
also called oncotic pressure.

colon (ko´lon) The first portion of the large intestine.

common bile duct A tube formed by the union of the hepatic duct
and cystic duct that transports bile to the duodenum.

compact bone Tightly packed bone that is superficial to spongy

bone and covered by the periosteum; also called dense bone.

compliance (kom-pli´ans) A measure of the ease with which a

structure such as the lung expands under pressure; a measure of the
change in volume as a function of pressure changes.

conduction myofibers Specialized large-diameter cardiac muscle

fibers that conduct electrical impulses from the AV bundle into the
ventricular walls; also called Purkinje fibers.

condyle (kon´d=1l) A rounded process at the end of a long bone that

forms an articulation.

cone A color receptor cell in the retina of the eye.

congenital (kon-jen´u1-tal) Present at the time of birth.

congestive heart failure (kon-jes´tiv) The inability of the heart to

deliver an adequate blood flow as a result of heart disease or
hypertension. This condition is associated with breathlessness, salt
and water retention, and edema.

conjunctiva (kon´´jungk-ti´vua) The thin membrane covering the

anterior surface of the eyeball and lining the eyelids.

conjunctivitis (kon-jungk´´tu1-vi´tis) Inflammation of the

conjunctiva of the eye, which is sometimes called "pink eye."

connective tissue One of the four basic tissue types within the body.
It is a binding and supportive tissue with abundant matrix.

Conn's syndrome (konz) Primary hyperaldosteronism; excessive

secretion of aldosterone produces electrolyte imbalances.

contralateral (kon´´trua-lat´er-al) Taking place or originating in a

corresponding part on the opposite side of the body.

conus medullaris (kó nus med´´yuu-l=ar´is) The inferior, tapering

portion of the spinal cord.

convolution (kon-vuo-loo´shun) An elevation on the surface of a

structure and an infolding of the tissue upon itself.

cornea (kor´ne-ua) The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the

outer layer of the eyeball.

coronal plane (kor´uo-nal, kuo-ro´nal) A plane that divides the body

into anterior and posterior portions; also called a frontal plane.

coronary circulation (kor´uo-nar´´e) The arterial and venous blood

circulation to the wall of the heart.

coronary sinus A large venous channel on the posterior surface of

the heart into which the cardiac veins drain.

corpora quadrigemina (kor´por-ua kwad´´ru1-jem´u1-na) Four

superior lobes of the midbrain concerned with visual and auditory
functions.
corpus callosum (kor´pus kua-lo´sum) A large tract of white matter
within the brain that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

corpuscle of touch (kor´pus'l) A touch sensory receptor found in the

papillary layer of the dermis of the skin; also called Meissner's
corpuscle.

cortex (kor´teks) 1.The outer layer of an internal organ or body

structure, as of the kidney or adrenal gland. 2. The convoluted layer
of gray matter that covers the surface of each cerebral hemisphere.

corticosteroids (kor´´tu1-ko-ster´oidz) Steroid hormones of the

adrenal cortex, consisting of glucocorticoids(such as hydrocortisone)
and mineralocortocoids(such as aldosterone).

costal cartilage (kos´tal) The cartilage that connects the ribs to the
sternum.

cranial (kra´ne-al) Pertaining to the cranium.

cranial nerves One of 12 pairs of nerves that arise from the brain.

cranium (kra´ne-um) The bones of the skull that enclose or support

the brain and the organs of sight, hearing, and balance.

creatine phosphate (kre´ua-tin fos´f=at) An organic phosphate

molecule in muscle cells that serves as a source of high-energy
phosphate for the synthesis of ATP; also called phosphocreatine.

crenation (kru1-na´shun) A notched or scalloped appearance of the

red blood cell membrane caused by the osmotic loss of water from
these cells.

crest A thickened ridge of bone for the attachment of muscle.

cretinism (kr=et´n-iz´´em) A condition caused by insufficient thyroid

secretion during prenatal development or the years of early
childhood. It results in stunted growth and inadequate mental
development.

cricoid cartilage (kri´koid) A ring-shaped cartilage that forms the

inferior portion of the larynx.
crista (kris´tua) A crest, such as the crista galli that extends
superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone.

cryptorchidism (krip-tor´ku1-diz´´em) A developmental defect in

which one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum and,
instead, remain in the body cavity.

cubital (kyoo´bu1-tal) Pertaining to the antebrachium. The cubital

fossa is the anterior aspect of the elbow joint.

curare (koo-rua-re) A chemical derived from plant sources that

causes flaccid paralysis by blocking ACh receptor proteins in muscle
cell membranes.

Cushing's syndrome (koosh´ingz) Symptoms caused by the

hypersecretion of adrenal steroid hormones as a result of tumors of
the adrenal cortex or ACTH-secreting tumors of the anterior
pituitary.

cyanosis (si´ua-no´sis) A bluish discoloration of the skin or mucous

membranes due to excessive concentration of deoxyhemoglobin;
indicates inadequate oxygen concentration in the blood.

cystic duct (sis´tik dukt) The tube that transports bile from the
gallbladder to the common bile duct.

cytochrome (si´tuo-kr=om) A pigment in mitochondria that

transports electrons in the process of aerobic respiration.

cytokinesis (si´´to-ku1-ne´sis) The division of the cytoplasm that

occurs in mitosis and meiosis, when a parent cell divides to produce
two daughter cells.

cytology (si-tol´uo-je) The science dealing with the study of cells.

cytoplasm (si´tuo-plaz´´em) In a cell, the protoplasm located outside

of the nucleus.

cytoskeleton (si´´to-skel´ue-ton) A latticework of structural proteins

in the cytoplasm arranged in the form of microfilaments and
microtubules.

D
deciduous (du1-sij´oo-us) Pertaining to something shed or cast off in
a particular sequence. Deciduous teeth are shed and replaced by
permanent teeth during development.

decussation (dek´´uh-sa´shun) A crossing of nerve fibers from one

side of the CNS to the other.

defecation (def´´ue-ka´shun) The elimination of feces from the

rectum through the anal canal and out the anus.

deglutition (de´´gloo-tish´un) The act of swallowing.

delayed hypersensitivity An allergic response in which the onset of

symptoms may not occur until 2 or 3 days after exposure to an
antigen. Produced by T cells, it is a type of cell-mediated immunity.

denaturation (de-na´´chur-a´shun) Irreversible changes in the

tertiary structure of proteins caused by heat or drastic pH changes.

dendrite (den´dr=1t) A nerve cell process that transmits impulses

toward a neuron cell body.

dentin (den´tin) The main substance of a tooth, covered by enamel

over the crown of the tooth and by cementum on the root.

dentition (den-tish´un) The number, arrangement, and shape of

teeth.

depolarization (de-po´´lar-u1-za´shun) The loss of membrane

polarity in which the inside of the cell membrane becomes less
negative in comparison to the outside of the membrane. The term is
also used to indicate the reversal of membrane polarity that occurs
during the production of action potentials in nerve and muscle cells.

dermal papilla (pua-pil´ua) A projection of the dermis into the

epidermis.

dermis (der´mis) The second, or deep, layer of skin beneath the

epidermis.

descending colon The segment of the large intestine that descends

on the left side from the level of the spleen to the level of the left
iliac crest.
diabetes insipidus (di´´ua-be´t=ez in-sip´u1-dus) A condition in
which inadequate amounts of antidiuretic hormone(ADH) are
secreted by the posterior pituitary. It results in the inadequate
reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules and, thus, in the
excretion of a large volume of dilute urine.

diabetes mellitus (mue-li´tus) The appearance of glucose in the urine

due to the presence of high plasma glucose concentrations, even in
the fasting state. This disease is caused by either lack of sufficient
insulin secretion or inadequate responsiveness of the target tissues to
the effects of insulin.

diapedesis (di´´ua-pue-de´sis) The migration of white blood cells

through the endothelial walls of blood capillaries into the
surrounding connective tissues.

diaphragm (di´ua-fram) A sheetlike dome of muscle and connective

tissue that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

diaphysis (di-af´u1-sis) The shaft of a long bone.

diarrhea (di´´ua-re´ua) Abnormal frequency of defecation

accompanied by abnormal liquidity of the feces.

diarthrosis (di´´ar-thro´sis) A type of functionally classified joint in

which the articulating bones are freely movable; also called a
synovial joint.

diastole (di-as´tuo-le) The sequence of the cardiac cycle during

which a heart chamber wall is relaxed.

diencephalon (di´´en-sef´ua-lon) A major region of the brain that

includes the third ventricle, thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary
gland.

diffusion (du1-fyoo´zhun) The net movement of molecules or ions

from regions of higher to regions of lower concentration.

digestion The process by which larger molecules of food substance

are broken down mechanically and chemically into smaller molecules
that can be absorbed.

diploe (dip´lo-e) The spongy layer of bone positioned between the

inner and outer layers of compact bone.

diploid (dip´loid) Denoting cells having two of each chromosome or

twice the number of chromosomes that are present in sperm or ova.

disaccharide (di-sak´ua-r=1d) Any of a class of double sugars;

carbohydrates that yield two simple sugars, or monosaccharides,
upon hydrolysis.

distal (dis´tal) Away from the midline or origin; the opposite of

proximal.

diuretic (di´´yuu-ret´ik) An agent that promotes the excretion of

urine, thereby lowering blood volume and pressure.

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; composed of nucleotide bases and

deoxyribose sugar. It is found in all living cells and contains the
genetic code.

dopamine (do´pua-m=en) A type of neurotransmitter in the central

nervous system; also is the precursor of norepinephrine, another
neurotransmitter molecule.

dorsal (dor´sal) Pertaining to the back or posterior portion of a body

part; the opposite of ventral; also called posterior.

dorsal root ganglion See posterior root ganglion.

dorsiflexion (dor´´su1-flek´shun) Movement at the ankle as the

dorsum of the foot is elevated.

ductus arteriosus (duk´tus ar-tir´´e-o´sus) The blood vessel that

connects the pulmonary trunk and the aorta in a fetus.

ductus deferens (def´er-enz) pl. ductus deferentia A tube that carries

spermatozoa from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct; also called
the vas deferens or seminal duct.

ductus venosus (ven-o´sus) A fetal blood vessel that connects the

umbilical vein and the inferior vena cava.

duodenum (doo´´uo-de´num, doo-od´ue-num) The first portion of

the small intestine that leads from the pylorus of the stomach to the
jejunum.
dura mater (door´ua ma´ter) The outermost meninx.

dwarfism A condition in which a person is undersized due to

inadequate secretion of growth hormone.

dyspnea (disp-ne´ua) Subjective difficulty in breathing.

eccrine gland (ek´rin) A sweat gland that functions in

thermoregulation.

ECG See electrocardiogram.

ectoderm (ek´tuo-derm) The outermost of the three primary germ

layers of an embryo.

ectopic focus (ek-top´ik) An area of the heart other than the SA node
that assumes pacemaker activity.

ectopic pregnancy Embryonic development that occurs anywhere

other than in the uterus (as in the uterine tubes or body cavity).

edema (ue-de´mua) An excessive accumulation of fluid in the body

tissues.

EEG See electroencephalogram.

effector(ue-fek´tor) An organ, such as a gland or muscle, that

responds to a motor stimulation.

efferent (ef´er-ent) Conveying away from the center of an organ or

structure.

efferent arteriole (ar-tir´e-=ol) An arteriole of the renal vascular

system that conducts blood away from the glomerulus of a nephron.

efferent ductules (duk´toolz) A series of coiled tubules through

which spermatozoa are transported from the rete testis to the
epididymis.

efferent neuron (noor´on) See motor neuron.

ejaculation (ue-jak´´yuu-la´shun) The discharge of semen from the
male urethra that accompanies orgasm.

ejaculatory duct (ue-jak´yuu-lua-tor´´-e) A tube that transports

spermatozoa from the ductus deferens to the prostatic urethra.

elastic fibers (ue-las´tik) Protein strands that are found in certain

connective tissue that have contractile properties.

elbow The synovial joint between the brachium and the

antebrachium.

electrocardiogram (ue-lek´´tro-kar´de-uo-gram´´) A recording of the

electrical activity that accompanies the cardiac cycle; ECG or EKG.

electroencephalogram (ue-lek´´tro-en-sef´ua-luo-gram) A recording

of the brain-wave patterns or electrical impulses of the brain from
electrodes placed on the scalp; EEG.

electrolytes (ue-lek´tro-l=1tz) Ions and molecules that are able to

ionize and thus carry an electric current. The most common
electrolytes in the plasma are Na+, HCO3-, and K+.

electromyogram (ue-lek´´tro-mi´uo-gram) A recording of the

electrical impulses or activity of skeletal muscles using surface
electrodes; EMG.

electrophoresis (ue-lek´´tro-fuo-re´sis) A biochemical technique in

which different molecules can be separated and identified by their
rate of movement in an electric field.

elephantiasis (el´´ue-fan-ti´ua-sis) A disease caused by infection

with a nematode worm in which the larvae block lymphatic drainage
and produce edema; the lower areas of the body can become
enormously swollen as a result.

embryology (em´´bre-ol´uo-je) The study of prenatal development

from conception through the eighth week in utero.

EMG See electromyogram.

emphysema (em´´fu1-se´mua, em´´fu1-ze´mua) A lung disease in

which the alveoli are destroyed and the remaining alveoli become
larger. It results in decreased vital capacity and increased airway
resistance.

emulsification (ue-mul´´su1-fu1-ka´shun) The process of producing

an emulsion or fine suspension; in the small intestine, fat globules
are emulsified by the detergent action of bile.

enamel (ue-nam´el) The outer dense substance covering the crown of

a tooth.

endergonic (en´´der-gon´ik) Denoting a chemical reaction that

requires the input of energy from an external source in order to
proceed.

endocardium (en´´do-kar´de-um) The endothelial lining of the heart

chambers and valves.

endochondral bone (en´´duo-kon´dral) Denoting bones that develop

as hyaline cartilage models first and that are then ossified.

endocrine gland (en´duo-krin) A ductless, hormone-producing gland

that is part of the endocrine system.

endocytosis (en´´do-si-to´sis) A general term for the cellular uptake

of particles that are too large to cross the cell membrane. See also
phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

endoderm (en´duo-derm) The innermost of the three primary germ

layers of an embryo.

endogenous (en-doj´ue-nus) Denoting a product or process arising

from within the body (as opposed to exogenous products or
influences from external sources).

endolymph (en´duo-limf) A fluid within the membranous labyrinth

and cochlear duct of the inner ear that aids in the conduction of
vibrations involved in hearing and the maintenance of equilibrium.

endometrium (en´´do-me´tre-um) The inner lining of the uterus.

endomysium (en´´do-mis´e-um) The connective tissue sheath that

surrounds each skeletal muscle fiber, separating the muscle cells from
one another.
endoneurium (en´´do-nyoo´re-um) The connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each nerve fiber, separating the nerve fibers one from
another within a nerve.

endoplasmic reticulum (en-do-plaz´mik rue-tik´yuu-lum) A

cytoplasmic organelle composed of a network of canals running
through the cytoplasm of a cell.

endorphins (en-dor´finz) A group of endogenous opiate molecules

that may act as a natural analgesic.

endothelium (en´´do-the´le-um) The layer of epithelial tissue that

forms the thin inner lining of blood vessels and heart chambers.

endotoxin (en´´do-tok´sin) A toxin found within certain types of

bacteria that is able to stimulate the release of endogenous pyrogen
and produce a fever.

enkephalins (en-kef´ua-linz) Short polypeptides, containing five

amino acids, that have analgesic effects and that may function as
neurotransmitters in the brain. The two known enkephalins (which
differ in only one amino acid) are endorphins.

enteric (en-ter´ik) The term referring to the small intestine.

entropy (en´truo-pe) The energy of a system that is not available to

perform work. A measure of the degree of disorder in a system,
entropy increases whenever energy is transformed.

enzyme (en´z=1m) A protein catalyst that increases the rate of

specific chemical reactions.

eosinophil (e´´uo-sin´uo-fil) A type of white blood cell characterized

by the presence of cytoplasmic granules that become stained by
acidic eosin dye. Eosinophils normally constitute about 2% to 4% of
the white blood cells.

epicardium (ep´´u1-kar´de-um) A thin, outer layer of the heart; also

called the visceral pericardium.

epicondyle (ep´´u1-kon´d1=l) A projection of bone above a condyle.

epidermis (ep´´u1-der´mis) The outermost layer of the skin,

composed of several stratified squamous epithelial layers.

epididymis (ep´´u1-did´u1-mis) A highly coiled tube located along

the posterior border of the testis. It stores spermatozoa and transports
them from the seminiferous tubules of the testis to the ductus
deferens.

epidural space (ep´´u1-door´al) A space between the spinal dura

mater and the bone of the vertebral canal.

epiglottis (ep´´u1-glot´is) A leaflike structure positioned on top of

the larynx. It covers the glottis during swallowing.

epimysium (ep´´u1-mis´e-um) A fibrous outer sheath of connective

tissue surrounding a skeletal muscle.

epinephrine (ep´´u1-nef´rin) A hormone secreted from the adrenal

medulla resulting in actions similar to those resulting from
sympathetic nervous system stimulation; also called adrenaline.

epineurium (ep´´u1-nyoo´re-um) A fibrous outer sheath of

connective tissue surrounding a nerve.

epiphyseal plate (ep´´u1-fiz´e-al) A hyaline cartilaginous layer

located between the epiphysis and diaphysis of a long bone. It
functions as a longitudinal growing region.

epiphysis (ue-pif´u1-sis) The end segment of a long bone, separated

from the diaphysis early in life by an epiphyseal plate but later
becoming part of the larger bone.

episiotomy (ue-pe´´ze-ot´uo-me) An incision of the perineum at the

end of the second stage of labor to facilitate delivery and to avoid
tearing the perineum.

epithelial tissue (ep´´u1-the´le-al) One of the four basic tissue types;

the type of tissue that covers or lines all exposed body surfaces.

eponychium (ep´´uo-nik´e-um) The thin layer of stratum corneum of

the epidermis of the skin that overlaps and protects the lunula of the
nail.

EPSP Excitatory postsynaptic potential; a graded depolarization of a

postsynaptic membrane in response to stimulation by a
neurotransmitter chemical. EPSPs can be summated but can be
transmitted only over short distances. They can stimulate the
production of action potentials when a threshold level of
depolarization has been attained.

erythroblastosis fetalis (ue-rith´´ro-blas-to´sis fu1-tal´is) Hemolytic

anemia in an Rh positive newborn caused by maternal antibodies
against the Rh factor that have crossed the placenta.

erythrocyte (ue-rith´ruo-s1=t) A red blood cell.

esophagus (ue-sof´ua-gus) A tubular portion of the GI tract that leads

from the pharynx to the stomach as it passes through the thoracic
cavity.

essential amino acids Those eight amino acids in adults or nine

amino acids in children that cannot be made by the human body;
therefore, they must be obtained in the diet.

estrogens (es´tro-jenz) Any of several female sex hormones secreted

from the ovarian (graafian) follicle.

estrus cycle (es´trus) Cyclic changes in the structure and function of

the ovaries and female reproductive tract of mammals other than
humans, accompanied by periods of "heat" (estrus) or sexual
receptivity. Estrus is the equivalent of the human menstrual cycle but
differs from the human menstrual cycle in that the endometrium is
not shed with accompanying bleeding.

etiology (e´´te-ol´uo-je) The study of cause, especially of disease,

including the origin and what pathogens, if any, are involved.

eustachian canal (yoo-sta´ke-an) See auditory tube.

eversion (ue-ver´zhun) A movement of the foot in which the sole is

turned outward.

exergonic (ek´´ser-gon´ik) Denoting chemical reactions that liberate

energy.

exocrine gland (ek´suo-krin) A gland that secretes its product to an

epithelial surface, directly or through ducts.
exocytosis (ek´´so-si-to´sis) The process of cellular secretion in
which the secretory products are contained within a membrane-
enclosed vesicle. The vesicle fuses with the cell membrane so that
the lumen of the vesicle is open to the extracellular environment.

expiration (ek´´spu1-ra´shun) The process of expelling air from the

lungs through breathing out; also called exhalation.

extension (ek-sten´shun) A movement that increases the angle

between parts of a joint.

extensor A muscle that, upon contraction, increases the angle of a

joint.

external (superficial) Located on or toward the surface.

external acoustic meatus (ua-koo´stik me-a´tus) An opening through

the temporal bone that connects with the tympanum and the middle-
ear chamber and through which sound vibrations pass; also called the
external auditory meatus.

exteroceptors (ek´´stue-ro-sep´torz) Sensory receptors that are

sensitive to changes in the external environment (as opposed to
interoceptors).

extraocular muscles (ek´´strua-ok´yuu-lar) The muscles that insert

into the sclera of the eye and that act to change the position of the
eye in its orbit (as opposed to the intraocular muscles, such as those
of the iris and ciliary body within the eye).

extrinsic (eks-trin´sik) Pertaining to an outside or external origin.

face 1.The anterior aspect of the head not supporting or covering the
brain. 12 2.The exposed surface of a structure.

facet (fas´et) A small, smooth surface of a bone where articulation

occurs.

facilitated diffusion (fua-sil´u1-ta´´tid) The carrier-mediated

transport of molecules through the cell membrane along the direction
of their concentration gradients. It does not require the expenditure of
metabolic energy.

FAD Flavin adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme derived from

riboflavin that participates in electron transport within the
mitochondria.

falciform ligament (fal´su1-form lig´ua-ment) An extension of

parietal peritoneum that separates the right and left lobes of the liver.

fallopian tube (fua-lo´pe-an) See uterine tube.

false vocal cords The supporting folds of tissue for the true vocal
cords within the larynx.

falx cerebelli (falks ser´´ue-bel´e) A fold of the dura mater anchored

to the occipital bone. It projects inward between the cerebellar
hemispheres.

falx cerebri (ser´ue-bre) A fold of dura mater anchored to the crista

galli of the ethmoid bone. It extends between the right and left
cerebral hemispheres.

fascia (fash´e-ua) A tough sheet of fibrous tissue binding the skin to

underlying muscles or supporting and separating muscles.

fasciculus (fua-sik´yuu-lus) A small bundle of muscle or nerve

fibers.

fauces (faw´s=ez) The passageway between the mouth and the

pharynx.

feces (fe´s=ez) Material expelled from the GI tract during defecation,

composed of undigested food residue, bacteria, and secretions; also
called stool.

fertilization (fer´´tu1-lu1-za´shun) The fusion of an ovum and

spermatozoon.

fetus (fe´tus) A prenatal human after 8 weeks of development.

fibrillation (fib´´ru1-la´shun) A condition of cardiac muscle

characterized electrically by random and continuously changing
patterns of electrical activity and resulting in the inability of the
myocardium to contract as a unit and pump blood. It can be fatal if it
occurs in the ventricles.

fibrin (fi´brin) The insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen by the

enzymatic action of thrombin during the process of blood clot
formation.

fibrinogen (fi-brin´uo-jen) A soluble plasma protein that serves as

the precursor of fibrin; also called factor I.

fibroblast (fi´bro-blast) An elongated connective tissue cell with

cytoplasmic extensions that is capable of forming collagenous fibers
or elastic fibers.

fibrous joint (fi´brus) A type of articulation bound by fibrous

connective tissue that allows little or no movement (e.g., a
syndesmosis).

filiform papillae (fil´u1-form pua-pil´e) Numerous small projections

over the entire surface of the tongue in which taste buds are absent.

filum terminale (fi´lum ter-mu1-nal´e) A fibrous, threadlike

continuation of the pia mater, extending inferiorly from the terminal
end of the spinal cord to the coccyx.

fimbriae (fim´bre-e) Fringelike extensions from the borders of the

open end of the uterine tube.

fissure (fish´ur) A groove or narrow cleft that separates two parts,

such as the cerebral hemispheres of the brain.

flagellum (flua-jel´um) A whiplike structure that provides motility

for sperm.

flare-and-wheal reaction (hw=el, w=el) A cutaneous reaction to

skin injury or the administration of antigens, produced by release of
histamine and related molecules and characterized by local edema
and a red flare.

flavoprotein (fla´´vo-pro´te-in) A conjugated protein containing a

flavin pigment that is involved in electron transport within the
mitochondria.

flexion (flek´shun) A movement that decreases the angle between

parts of a joint.

flexor (flek´sor) A muscle that decreases the angle of a joint when it

contracts.

fontanel (fon´´tua-nel´) A membranous-covered region on the skull

of a fetus or baby where ossification has not yet occurred; commonly
called a soft spot.

foot The terminal portion of the lower extremity, consisting of the

tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges.

foramen (fuo-ra´men), pl. foramina An opening in an anatomical

structure, usually in a bone, for the passage of a blood vessel or a
nerve.

foramen ovale (o-val´e) An opening through the interatrial septum of

the fetal heart.

forearm The portion of the upper extremity between the elbow and
the wrist; also called the antebrachium.

fornix (for´niks) 1.A recess around the cervix of the uterus where it
protrudes into the vagina. 2.A tract within the brain connecting the
hippocampus with the mammillary bodies.

fossa (fos´ua) A depressed area, usually on a bone.

fourth ventricle (ven´tru1-k'l) A cavity within the brain, between the

cerebellum and the medulla oblongata and the pons, containing
cerebrospinal fluid.

fovea centralis (fo´ve-ua sen-tra´ lis) A depression on the macula

lutea of the eye, where only cones are located; the area of keenest
vision.

frenulum (fren´yuu-lum) A membranous structure that serves to

anchor and limit the movement of a body part.

frontal 1.Pertaining to the region of the forehead. 2. A plane through

the body, dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions; also
called the coronal plane.

FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone; one of the two gonadotropic

hormones secreted from the anterior pituitary. In females, FSH
stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles; in males, it
stimulates the production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules.

fungiform papillae (fun´ju1-form pua-pil´e) Flattened, mushroom-

shaped projections interspersed over the surface of the tongue in
which taste buds are present.

GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid; believed to function as an

inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

gallbladder A pouchlike organ attached to the underside of the liver

in which bile secreted by the liver is stored and concentrated.

gamete (gam´=et) A haploid sex cell; either an egg cell or a sperm

cell.

ganglion (gang´gle-on) An aggregation of nerve cell bodies

occurring outside the central nervous system.

gastric intrinsic factor (gas´trik) A glycoprotein secreted by the

stomach that is needed for the absorption of vitamin B12.

gastrin (gas´trin) A hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates

the gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsin.

gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) (gas´´tro-in-tes´tu1-nal) The portion

of the digestive tract that includes the stomach and the small and
large intestines.

gates Structures composed of one or more protein molecules that

regulate the passage of ions through channels within the cell
membrane. Gates may be chemically regulated (by neurotransmitters)
or voltage regulated (in which case they open in response to a
threshold level of depolarization).

genetic recombination (jue-net´ik re´´kom-bu1-na´shun) The

formation of new combinations of genes, as by crossing-over
between homologous chromosomes.

genetic transcription (tran-skrip´shun) The process by which RNA

is produced with a sequence of nucleotide bases that is
complementary to a region of DNA.

genetic translation (trans-la´shun) The process by which proteins are

produced with amino acid sequences specified by the sequence of
codons in messenger RNA.

gigantism (ji-gan´tiz´´em) Abnormal body growth as a result of the

excessive secretion of growth hormone.

gingiva (jin´ju1-vua) The fleshy covering over the mandible and

maxilla through which the teeth protrude within the mouth; also
called the gum.

gland An organ that produces a specific substance or secretion.

glans penis (glanz pe´nis) The enlarged, sensitive, distal end of the
penis.

gliding joint A type of synovial joint in which the articular surfaces

are flat, permitting only side-to-side and back-and-forth movements.

glomerular capsule (glo-mer´yuu-lar) The double-walled proximal

portion of a renal tubule that encloses the glomerulus of a nephron;
also called Bowman's capsule.

glomerular filtration rate (GFR) The volume of filtrate produced

per minute by both kidneys.

glomerular ultrafiltrate (ul´´trua-fil´tr=at) Fluid filtered through the

glomerular capillaries into the glomerular capsule of the kidney
tubules.

glomerulonephritis (glo-mer´´yuu-lo-nue-fri´tis) Inflammation of the

renal glomeruli, associated with fluid retention, edema, hypertension,
and the appearance of protein in the urine.

glomerulus (glo-mer´yuu-lus) A coiled tuft of capillaries surrounded

by the glomerular capsule that filtrates urine from the blood.

glottis (glot´is) A slitlike opening into the larynx, positioned between

the true vocal cords.

glucagon (gloo´kua-gon) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the

alpha cells of the pancreatic islets. It acts primarily on the liver to
promote glycogenolysis and raise blood glucose levels.

glucocorticoids (gloo´´ko-kor´tu1-koidz) Steroid hormones secreted

by the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids). They affect the metabolism of
glucose, protein, and fat and also have anti-inflammatory and
immunosuppressive effects. The major glucocorticoid in humans is
hydrocortisone (cortisol).

gluconeogenesis (gloo´´ko-ne´´uo-jen´u1-sis) The formation of

glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules, such as amino acids and
lactic acid.

glycerol (glis´ue-rol) A 3-carbon alcohol that serves as a building

block of fats.

glycogen (gli´kuo-jen) A polysaccharide of glucose-also called

animal starch-produced primarily in the liver and skeletal muscles.
Similar to plant starch in composition, glycogen contains more
highly branched chains of glucose subunits than does plant starch.

glycogenesis (gli´´kuo-jen´u1-sis) The formation of glycogen from

glucose.

glycogenolysis (gli´´kuo-jue-nol´u1-sis) The hydrolysis of glycogen

to glucose 1-phosphate, which can be converted to glucose 6-
phosphate, which then may be oxidized via glycolysis or (in the
liver) converted to free glucose.

glycolysis (gli´´kol´u1-sis) The metabolic pathway that converts

glucose to pyruvic acid; the final products are two molecules of
pyruvic acid and two molecules of reduced NAD, with a net gain of
two ATP molecules. In anaerobic respiration, the reduced NAD is
oxidized by the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid. In aerobic
respiration, pyruvic acid enters the Krebs cycle in mitochondria and
reduced NAD is ultimately oxidized to yield water.

glycosuria (gli´´kuo-soor´e-ua) The excretion of an abnormal amount

of glucose in the urine (urine normally only contains trace amounts
of glucose).

goblet cell A unicellular mucus-secreting gland that is associated

with columnar epithelia; also called a mucous cell.
Golgi apparatus (gol´je) A network of stacked, flattened
membranous sacs within the cytoplasm of cells. Its major function is
to concentrate and package proteins for secretion from the cell.

Golgi tendon organ A sensory receptor found near the junction of

tendons and muscles.

gonad (go´nad) A reproductive organ, testis or ovary, that produces

gametes and sex hormones.

gonadotropic hormones (go-nad´´uo-tro´pik) Hormones of the

anterior pituitary that stimulate gonadal function-the formation of
gametes and secretion of sex steroids. The two gonadotropins are
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone),
which are essentially the same in males and females.

graafian follicle (graf´e-an) A mature ovarian follicle, containing a

single fluid-filled cavity, with the ovum located toward one side of
the follicle and perched on top of a hill of granulosa cells.

granular leukocytes (loo´kuo-s=1tz) Leukocytes with granules in

the cytoplasm; on the basis of the staining properties of the granules,
these cells are classified as neutrophils, eosinophils, or basophils.

Graves' disease A hyperthyroid condition believed to be caused by

excessive stimulation of the thyroid gland by autoantibodies; it is
associated with exophthalmos (bulging eyes), high pulse rate, high
metabolic rate, and other symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

gray matter The region of the central nervous system composed of

nonmyelinated nerve tissue.

greater omentum (o-men´tum) A double-layered peritoneal

membrane that originates on the greater curvature of the stomach. It
hangs inferiorly like an apron over the contents of the abdominal
cavity.

gross anatomy The branch of anatomy concerned with structures of

the body that can be studied without a microscope.

growth hormone A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that

stimulates growth of the skeleton and soft tissues during the growing
years and that influences the metabolism of protein, carbohydrate,
and fat throughout life.

gustatory (gus´tua-tor´´e) Pertaining to the sense of taste.

gut The GI tract or a portion thereof; generally used in reference to

the embryonic digestive tube, consisting of the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut.

gyrus (ji´rus) A convoluted elevation or ridge.

hair A threadlike appendage of the epidermis consisting of

keratinized dead cells that have been pushed up from a dividing basal
layer.

hair cells Specialized receptor nerve endings for detecting

sensations, such as in the spiral organ (organ of Corti).

hair follicle (fol´lu1-k'l) A tubular depression in the dermis of the

skin in which a hair develops.

hand The terminal portion of the upper extremity, containing the

carpal bones, metacarpal bones, and phalanges.

haploid (hap´loid) A cell that has one of each chromosome type and
therefore half the number of chromosomes present in most other
body cells; only the gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid.

haptens (hap´tenz) Small molecules that are not antigenic by

themselves, but which-when combined with proteins-become
antigenic and thus capable of stimulating the production of specific
antibodies.

hard palate (pal´it) The bony partition between the oral and nasal
cavities, formed by the maxillae and palatine bones and lined by
mucous membrane.

haustra (haws´trua) Sacculations or pouches of the colon.

haversian canal (hua-ver´shan) See central canal.

haversian system See osteon.

hay fever A seasonal type of allergic rhinitis caused by pollen; it is
characterized by itching and tearing of the eyes, swelling of the nasal
mucosa, attacks of sneezing, and often by asthma.

head The uppermost portion of a human that contains the brain and
major sense organs.

heart A four-chambered, muscular pumping organ positioned in the

thoracic cavity, slightly to the left of midline.

heart murmur An auscultatory sound of cardiac or vascular origin,

usually caused by an abnormal flow of blood in the heart as a result
of structural defects of the valves or septum.

helper T cells A subpopulation of T cells (lymphocytes) that helps to

stimulate the antibody production of B lymphocytes by antigens.

hematocrit (hu1-mat´uo-krit) The ratio of packed red blood cells to

total blood volume in a centrifuged sample of blood, expressed as a
percentage.

heme (h=em) The iron-containing red pigment that, together with the
protein globin, forms hemoglobin.

hemoglobin (he´muo-glo´´bin) The pigment of red blood cells

constituting about 33% of the cell volume that transports oxygen and
carbon dioxide.

hemopoiesis (hem´´uo-poi-e´sis) The production of red blood cells.

heparin (hep´ar-in) A mucopolysaccharide found in many tissues,

but most abundantly in the lungs and liver, that is used medically as
an anticoagulant.

hepatic duct (hue-pat´ik) A duct formed from the fusion of several

bile ducts that drain bile from the liver. The hepatic duct merges with
the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the common bile duct.

hepatic portal circulation The return of venous blood from the

digestive organs and spleen through a capillary network within the
liver before draining into the heart.

hepatitis (hep´´ua-ti´tis) Inflammation of the liver.

hepatopancreatic ampulla (hep´´ua-to-pan´´kre-at´ik) A small,
elevated area within the duodenum where the combined pancreatic
and common bile duct empties; also called the ampulla of Vater.

Hering-Breuer reflex A reflex in which distension of the lungs

stimulates stretch receptors, which in turn act to inhibit further
distension of the lungs.

hermaphrodite (her-maf´ruo-d=1t) An organism having both testes

and ovaries.

heterochromatin (het´´ue-ro-kro´mua-tin) A condensed, inactive

form of chromatin.

hiatal hernia (hi-a´tal her´ne-ua) A protrusion of an abdominal

structure through the esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm into the
thoracic cavity.

hiatus An opening or fissure; a foramen.

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) (lip´´o-pro´te-inz) Combinations

of lipids and proteins that migrate rapidly to the bottom of a test tube
during centrifugation. HDLs are carrier proteins for lipids, such as
cholesterol, that appear to offer some protection from atherosclerosis.

hilum (hi´lum) A concave or depressed area where vessels or nerves

enter or exit an organ; also called hilus.

hinge joint A type of synovial articulation characterized by a convex

surface of one bone fitting into a concave surface of another such that
movement is confined to one plane, as in the knee or interphalangeal
joint.

histamine (his´tua-m=en) A compound secreted by tissue mast cells

and other connective tissue cells that stimulates vasodilation and
increases capillary permeability. It is responsible for many of the
symptoms of inflammation and allergy.

histology (hu1-stol´uo-je) Microscopic anatomy of the structure and

function of tissues.

homeostasis (ho´´me-o-sta´sis) The dynamic constancy of the

internal environment, the maintenance of which is the principal
function of physiological regulatory mechanisms. The concept of
homeostasis provides a framework for understanding most
physiological processes.

homologous chromosomes (huo-mol´uo-gus) The matching pairs of

chromosomes in a diploid cell.

horizontal (transverse) plane A directional plane that divides the

body, organ, or appendage into superior and inferior or proximal and
distal portions.

hormone (hor´m=on) A chemical substance produced in an

endocrine gland and secreted into the bloodstream to cause an effect
in a specific target organ.

humoral immunity (hyoo´mor-al u1-myoo´nu1-te) The form of

acquired immunity in which antibody molecules are secreted in
response to antigenic stimulation (as opposed to cell mediated
immunity); also called antibody-mediated immunity.

hyaline cartilage (hi´ua-l=1n) A cartilage with a homogeneous

matrix. It is the most common type, occurring at the articular ends of
bones, in the trachea, and within the nose. Most of the bones in the
body are formed from hyaline cartilage.

hyaline membrane disease A disease affecting premature infants

who lack pulmonary surfactant, it is characterized by collapse of the
alveoli (atelectasis) and pulmonary edema; also called respiratory
distress syndrome.

hydrocortisone (hi´´druo-kor´tu1-s=on) The principal corticosteroid

hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex, with glucocorticoid action;
also called cortisol.

hydrophilic (hi´´druo-fil´ik) Denoting a substance that readily

absorbs water; literally, "water loving."

hydrophobic (hi´´druo-fo´bik) Denoting a substance that repels, and

that is repelled by, water; "water fearing."

hymen (hi´men) A developmental remnant (vestige) of membranous

tissue that partially covers the vaginal opening.
hyperbaric oxygen (hi´´per-bar´ik) Oxygen gas present at greater
than atmospheric pressure.

hypercapnia (hi´´per-kap´ne-ua) Excessive concentration of carbon

dioxide in the blood.

hyperextension (hi´´per-ek-sten´shun) Extension beyond the normal

anatomical position or 180∞.

hyperglycemia (hi´´per-gli-se´me-ua) An abnormally increased

concentration of glucose in the blood.

hyperkalemia (hi´´per-kua-le´me-ua) An abnormally high

concentration of potassium in the blood.

hyperopia (hi´´per-o´pe-ua) A refractive disorder in which rays of

light are brought to a focus behind the retina as a result of the eyeball
being too short; also called farsightedness.

hyperplasia (hi´´per-pla´zha) An increase in organ size due to an

increase in cell numbers as a result of mitotic cell division (in
contrast to hypertrophy).

hyperpolarization (hi´´per-po´´lar-u1-za´shun) An increase in the

negativity of the inside of a cell membrane with respect to the resting
membrane potential.

hypersensitivity (hi´´per-sen´´su1-tiv´u1-te) Another name for

allergy; abnormal immune response that may be immediate (due to
antibodies of the IgE class) or delayed (due to cell-mediated
immunity).

hypertension (hi´´per-ten´shun) Elevated or excessive blood

pressure.

hypertonic (hi´´per-ton´ik) Denoting a solution with a greater solute

concentration and thus a greater osmotic pressure than plasma.

hypertrophy (hi´´per´truo-fe) Growth of an organ due to an increase

in the size of its cells (in contrast to hyperplasia).

hyperventilation (hi´´per-ven´´tu1-la´shun) A high rate and depth of

breathing that results in a decrease in the blood carbon dioxide
concentration to below normal.

hypodermis (hi´´puo-der´mis) A layer of fat beneath the dermis of

the skin.

hyponychium (hi´´puo-nik´e-um) A thickened, supportive layer of

stratum corneum at the distal end of a digit under the free edge of the
nail.

hypothalamic hormones (hi´´po-thua-lam´ik) Hormones produced

by the hypothalamus. These include antidiuretic hormone and
oxytocin, which are secreted by the posterior pituitary, and both
releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the secretions of the
anterior pituitary.

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system (hi-pof´´u1se´al) A

vascular system that transports releasing and inhibiting hormones
from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary.

hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract The tract of nerve fibers (axons)

that transports antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin from the
hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary.

hypothalamus (hi´´po-thal´ua-mus) A portion of the forebrain within

the diencephalon that lies below the thalamus, where it functions as
an autonomic nerve center and regulates the pituitary gland.

hypovolemic shock (hi´´po-vo-le´mik) A rapid fall in blood pressure

as a result of diminished blood volume.

hypoxemia (hi´´pok-se´me-ua) A low oxygen concentration of the

arterial blood.

ileocecal valve (il´´e-uo-se´kal) A modification of the mucosa at the

junction of the small and large intestine that forms a one-way passage
and prevents the backflow of food materials.

ileum (il´e-um) The terminal portion of the small intestine between

the jejunum and cecum.

immediate hypersensitivity (hi´´per-sen´´su1-tiv´u1-te)

Hypersensitivity (allergy) mediated by antibodies of the IgE class that
results in the release of histamine and related compounds from tissue
cells.

immunization (im´´yuu-nu1-za´shun) The process of increasing

one's resistance to pathogens. In active immunity a person is injected
with antigens that stimulate the development of clones of specific B
or T lymphocytes; in passive immunity a person is injected with
antibodies produced by another organism.

immunoassay (im´´yuu-no-as´a) Any of a number of laboratory or

clinical techniques that employ the specific binding between an
antigen and its homologous antibody in order to identify and
quantify a substance in a sample.

immunoglobulins (im´´yuu-no-glob´yuu-linz) Subclasses of the

gamma globulin fraction of plasma proteins that have antibody
functions, providing humoral immunity.

immunosurveillance (im´´yuu-no-ser-va´lens) The concept that the

immune system recognizes and attacks malignant cells that produce
antigens not recognized as "self." This function is believed to be cell
mediated rather than humoral.

implantation (im´´plan-ta´shun) The process by which a blastocyst

attaches itself to and penetrates into the endometrium of the uterus.

incus (ing´kus) The middle of three auditory ossicles within the

middle-ear chamber; commonly called the anvil.

inferior vena cava (ve´nua ka´vua) A large systemic vein that

collects blood from the body regions inferior to the level of the heart
and returns it to the right atrium.

infundibulum (in´´fun-dib´yuu-lum) The stalk that attaches the

pituitary gland to the hypothalamus of the brain.

ingestion (in-jes´chun) The process of taking food or liquid into the

body by way of the oral cavity.

inguinal (ing´gwu1-nal) Pertaining to the groin region.

inguinal canal The circular passageway in the abdominal wall

through which a testis descends into the scrotum.

inhibin (in-hib´in) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the testes that

is believed to specifically exert negative feedback inhibition of FSH
secretion from the anterior pituitary.

inositol (u1-no´su1-tol) A sugarlike B-complex vitamin. Inositol

triphosphate is believed to act as a second messenger in the action of
some hormones.

insertion The more movable attachment of a muscle, usually more

distal.

inspiration (in´´spu1-ra´shun) The act of breathing air into the

alveoli of the lungs; also called inhalation.

insula (in´suu-lua) A deep, paired cerebral lobe.

insulin (in´suu-lin) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the beta cells

of the pancreatic islets that promotes the anabolism of carbohydrates,
fat, and protein. Insulin acts to promote the cellular uptake of blood
glucose and, therefore, to lower the blood glucose concentration;
insulin deficiency results in hyperglycemia and diabetes mellitus.

integument (in-teg´yoo-ment) The skin; the largest organ of the

body.

intercalated disc (in-ter´kua-l=at-ed) A thickened portion of the

sarcolemma that extends across a cardiac muscle fiber, indicating the
boundary between cells.

intercellular substance (in´´ter-sel´yuu-lar) The matrix or material

between cells that largely determines tissue types.

interferons (in´´ter-f=er´onz) A group of small proteins that inhibit

the multiplication of viruses inside host cells and that also have
antitumor properties.

internal (deep) Toward the center, away from the surface of the
body.

internal ear The innermost portion or chamber of the ear, containing

the cochlea and the vestibular organs.
interneurons (in´´ter-noor´onz) Multipolar neurons interposed
between sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons and confined
entirely within the central nervous system; also called association
neurons.

interoceptors (in´´ter-o-sep´torz) Sensory receptors that respond to

changes in the internal environment (as opposed to exteroceptors).

interphase The interval between successive cell divisions, during

which time the chromosomes are in an extended state and are active
in directing RNA synthesis.

interstitial cells (in´´ter-stish´al) Cells located in the interstitial

tissue between adjacent convolutions of the seminiferous tubules of
the testes; they secrete androgens (mainly testosterone); also called
cells of Leydig.

intervertebral disc (in´´ter-ver´tue-bral) A pad of fibrocartilage

located between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.

intestinal crypt A simple tubular digestive gland opening onto the

surface of the intestinal mucosa that secretes digestive enzymes; also
called the crypt of Lieberkühn.

intrafusal fibers (in´´trua-fyoo´sal) Modified muscle fibers that are

encapsulated to form muscle spindle organs, which are muscle stretch
receptors.

intramembranous ossification See membranous bone. 163

intrapleural space (in´´trua-ploor´al) An actual or potential space

between the visceral pleural membrane covering the lungs and the
somatic pleural membrane lining the thoracic wall.

intrinsic (in-trin´zik) Situated within or pertaining to internal origin.

inulin (in´yuu-lin) A polysaccharide of fructose, produced by certain

plants, that is filtered by the human kidneys but neither reabsorbed
nor secreted. The clearance rate of injected insulin is thus used to
measure the glomerular filtration rate.

inversion (in-ver´zhun) A movement of the foot in which the sole is

turned inward.
in vitro (in ve´tro) Occurring outside the body, in a test tube or other
artificial environment.

in vivo (in ve´vo) Occurring within the body.

ion (i´on) An atom or group of atoms that has either lost or gained
electrons and thus has a net positive or a net negative charge.

ionization (i-on-u1-za´shun) The dissociation of a solute to form

ions.

ipsilateral (ip´´su1-lat´er-al) On the same side (as opposed to

contralateral).

IPSP Inhibitory postsynaptic potential; hyperpolarization of the

postsynaptic membrane in response to a particular neurotransmitter
chemical, which makes it more difficult for the postsynaptic cell to
attain a threshold level of depolarization required to produce action
potentials. It is responsible for postsynaptic inhibition.

iris (i´ris) The pigmented portion of the vascular tunic of the eye that
surrounds the pupil and regulates its diameter.

ischemia (u1-ske´me-ua) A rate of blood flow to an organ that is

inadequate to supply sufficient oxygen and maintain aerobic
respiration in that organ.

islets of Langerhans (i´letz of lang´er-hanz) See pancreatic islets.

isoenzymes (i´´so-en´z1=mz) Enzymes, usually produced by

different organs, that catalyze the same reaction but that differ from
each other in amino acid composition.

isometric contraction (i´´suo-met´rik) Muscle contraction in which

there is no appreciable shortening of the muscle.

isotonic contraction (i´´suo-ton´ik) Muscle contraction in which the

muscle shortens in length and maintains approximately the same
amount of tension throughout the shortening process.

isotonic solution A solution having the same total solute

concentration, osmolality, and osmotic pressure as the solution with
which it is compared; a solution with the same solute concentration
and osmotic pressure as plasma.

isthmus (is´mus) A narrow neck or portion of tissue connecting two

structures.

jaundice (jawn´dis) A condition characterized by high blood

bilirubin levels and staining of the tissues with bilirubin, which
imparts a yellow color to the skin and mucous membranes.

jejunum (jue-joo´num) The middle portion of the small intestine,

located between the duodenum and the ileum.

joint capsule The fibrous tissue that encloses the joint cavity of a
synovial joint.

keratin (ker´ua-tin) An insoluble protein present in the epidermis and

in epidermal derivatives, such as hair and nails.

ketoacidosis (ke´´to-ua-su1-do´sis) A type of metabolic acidosis

resulting from the excessive production of ketone bodies, as in
diabetes mellitus.

ketogenesis (ke´´to-jen´u1-sis) The production of ketone bodies.

ketone bodies (ke´´to=n) The substances derived from fatty acids via
acetyl coenzyme A in the liver; namely, acetone, acetoacetic acid,
and b-hydroxybutyric acid. Ketone bodies are oxidized by skeletal
muscles for energy.

ketosis (ke-to´sis) An abnormal elevation in the blood concentration

of ketone bodies that does not necessarily produce acidosis.

kidney (kid´ne) One of a pair of organs of the urinary system that

contains nephrons and that filters wastes from the blood in the
formation of urine.

kilocalorie (kil´uo-kal´´uo-re) A unit of measurement equal to 1000

calories, which are units of heat (a kilocalorie is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 C∞). In
nutrition, the kilocalorie is called a big calorie (Calorie).
kinesiology (ku1-ne´´se-ol´uo-je) The study of body movement.

Klinefelter's syndrome (kl=1n´fel-terz sin´dr=om) An abnormal

condition of male sex characteristics due to the presence of an extra
X chromosome (genotype XXY).

knee A region in the lower extremity between the thigh and the leg
that contains a synovial hinge joint.

Krebs cycle (krebz) A cyclic metabolic pathway in the matrix of

mitochondria by which the acetic acid part of acetyl CoA is oxidized
and substrates provided for reactions that are coupled to the
formation of ATP.

Kupffer cells (koop´fer) Phagocytic cells lining the sinusoids of the

liver that are part of the body immunity system.

labial frenulum (la´be-al fren´yuu-lum) A longitudinal fold of

mucous membrane that attaches the lips to the gum along the midline
of both the upper and lower lip.

labia majora (la´be-ua mua-jor´ua), sing. labium majus A portion of

the external genitalia of a female consisting of two longitudinal folds
of skin extending downward and backward from the mons pubis.

labia minora (mu1-nor´ua), sing. labium minus Two small folds of

skin, devoid of hair and sweat glands, lying between the labia major
of the external genitalia of a female.

labyrinth (lab´u1-rinth) An intricate structure consisting of

interconnecting passages (e.g., the bony and membranous labyrinths
of the inner ear.

lacrimal canaliculus (lak´ru1-mal kan´´ua-lik´yuu-lus) A drainage

duct for tears, located at the medial corner of an eyelid. It conveys
the tears medially into the nasolacrimal sac.

lacrimal gland A tear-secreting gland, located on the superior lateral

portion of the eyeball underneath the upper eyelid.

lactation (lak-ta´shun) The production and secretion of milk by the

mammary glands.

lacteal (lak´te-al) A small lymphatic duct associated with a villus of

the small intestine.

lactose (lak´t=os) Milk sugar; a disaccharide of glucose and

galactose.

lactose intolerance A disorder resulting in the inability to digest

lactose because of an enzyme, lactase, deficiency. Symptoms include
bloating, intestinal gas, nausea, diarrhea, and cramps.

lacuna (lua-kyoo´nua) A small, hollow chamber that houses an

osteocyte in mature bone tissue or a chondrocyte in cartilage tissue.

lambdoidal suture (lam´doid-al soo´chur) The immovable joint in

the skull between the parietal bones and the occipital bone.

lamella (lua-mel´ua) A concentric ring of matrix surrounding the

central canal in an osteon of mature bone tissue.

lamellated corpuscle (lam´ue-la-ted) A sensory receptor for

pressure, found in tendons, around joints, and in visceral organs; also
called a pacinian corpuscle.

lamina (lam´u1-nua) A thin plate of bone that extends superiorly

from the body of a vertebra to form either side of the arch of a
vertebra.

lanugo (lau-noo´go) Short, silky fetal hair, which may be present for
a short time on a premature infant.

large intestine The last major portion of the GI tract, consisting of

the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.

laryngopharynx (lua-ring´´go-far´ingks) The inferior or lower

portion of the pharynx in contact with the larynx. 686

larynx (lar´ingks) The structure located between the pharynx and

trachea that houses the vocal cords; commonly called the voice box.

lateral (lat´er-al) Pertaining to the side; farther from the midplane.

lateral ventricle (ven´tru1-k'l) A cavity within the cerebral

hemisphere of the brain that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

L-dopa Levodopa; a derivative of the amino acid tyrosine. It serves

as the precursor for the neurotransmitter molecule dopamine and is
given to patients with Parkinson's disease to stimulate dopamine
production.

leg The portion of the lower extremity between the knee and ankle.

lens (lenz) A transparent refractive organ of the eye positioned

posterior to the pupil and iris.

lesion (le´zhun) A wounded or damaged area.

lesser omentum (o-men´tum) A peritoneal fold of tissue extending

from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver.

leukocyte (loo´kuo-s=1t) A white blood cell; variant spelling,

leucocyte.

ligament (lig´ua-ment) A tough cord or fibrous band of connective

tissue that binds bone to bone to strengthen and provide flexibility to
a joint. It also may support viscera.

limbic system (lim´bik) A portion of the brain concerned with

emotions and autonomic activity.

linea alba (lin´e-ua al´bua) A vertical fibrous band extending down

the anterior medial portion of the abdominal wall.

lingual frenulum (ling´gwal fren´yuu-lum) A longitudinal fold of

mucous membrane that attaches the tongue to the floor of the oral
cavity.

lipogenesis (lip´´uo-jen´ue-sis) The formation of fat or triglycerides.

lipolysis (lu1-pol´u1-sis) The hydrolysis of triglycerides into free

fatty acids and glycerol.

liver A large visceral organ inferior to the diaphragm in the right

hypochondriac region. The liver detoxifies the blood and modifies
the blood plasma concentration of glucose, triglycerides, ketone
bodies, and proteins.
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) (lip´´o-pro´te-inz) Plasma proteins
that transport triglycerides and cholesterol. They are believed to
contribute to arteriosclerosis.

lower extremity A lower appendage, including the hip, thigh, knee,

leg, and foot.

lumbar (lum´bar) Pertaining to the region of the loins.

lumbar plexus (plek´sus) A network of nerves formed by the

anterior branches of spinal nerves L1 through L4.

lumen (loo´men) The space within a tubular structure through which

a substance passes.

lung One of the two major organs of respiration positioned within

the thoracic cavity on either side of the mediastinum.

lung surfactant (sur-fak´tant) A mixture of lipoproteins (containing

phospholipids) secreted by type II alveolar cells into the alveoli of
the lungs. It lowers surface tension and prevents collapse of the lungs
as occurs in hyaline membrane disease, in which surfactant is absent.

lunula (loo´nyoo-lua) The half-moon-shaped whitish area at the

proximal portion of a nail.

luteinizing hormone (LH) (loo´te-u1-ni´´zing) A hormone secreted

by the adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) of the pituitary gland that
stimulates ovulation and the secretion of progesterone by the corpus
luteum. It also influences mammary gland milk secretion in females
and stimulates testosterone secretion by the testes in males.

lymph (limf) A clear, plasmalike fluid that flows through lymphatic

vessels.

lymphatic system (lim-fat´ik) The lymphatic vessels and lymph

nodes.

lymph node A small, ovoid mass of reticular tissue located along the
course of lymph vessels.

lymphocyte (lim´fuo-s1=t) A type of white blood cell characterized

by agranular cytoplasm. Lymphocytes usually constitute about 20%
to 25% of the white blood cell count.

lymphokines (lim´fuo-k=1ns) A group of chemicals released from T

cells that contribute to cell-mediated immunity.

lysosomes (li´suo-s=omz) Organelles containing digestive enzymes

and responsible for intracellular digestion.

macromolecules (mak´´ro-mol´u1-kyoolz) Large molecules; a term

that usually refers to protein, RNA, and DNA.

macrophage (mak´ruo-f=aj) A wandering phagocytic cell.

macula lutea (mak´yuu-lua loo´te-ua) A yellowish depression in the

retina of the eye that contains the fovea centralis, the area of keenest
vision.

malignant Threatening to life; virulent. Of a tumor, cancerous,

tending to metastasize.

malleus (mal´e-us) The first of three auditory ossicles that attaches to

the tympanum; commonly called the hammer.

mammary gland (mam´er-e) The gland of the female breast

responsible for lactation and nourishment of the young.

marrow (mar´o) The soft connective tissue found within the inner
cavity of certain bones that produces red blood cells.

mast cell A type of connective tissue cell that produces and secretes
histamine and heparin and promotes local inflammation.

mastication (mas´´tu1-ka´shun) The chewing of food.

matrix (ma´triks) The intercellular substance of a tissue.

maximal oxygen uptake The maximum amount of oxygen that can

be consumed by the body per unit time during heavy exercise.

meatus (me-a´tus) A passageway or opening into a structure.

mechanoreceptor (mek´´ua-no-re-sep´tor) A sensory receptor that

responds to a mechanical stimulus.

medial (me´de-al) Toward or closer to the midplane of the body.

mediastinum (me´´de-ua-sti´num) The partition in the center of the

thorax between the two pleural cavities.

medulla (mue-dul´ua) The center portion of an organ.

medulla oblongata (ob´´long-gua´tua) A portion of the brain stem

located between the spinal cord and the pons.

medullary (marrow) cavity (med´l-er´´e) The hollow core of the

diaphysis of a long bone in which marrow is found.

megakaryocyte (meg´´ua-kar´e-o-s=1t) A bone marrow cell that

gives rise to blood platelets.

meiosis (mi-o´sis) A specialized type of cell division by which

gametes or haploid sex cells are formed.

Meissner's corpuscle (m=1s´nerz) See corpuscle of touch.

melanin (mel´ua-nin) A dark pigment found within the epidermis or

epidermal derivatives of the skin.

melanocyte (mel´ua-no-s=1t) A specialized melanin-producing cell

found in the deepest layer of the epidermis.

melanoma (mel´´ua-no´mua) A dark, malignant tumor of the skin

that frequently forms in moles.

melatonin (mel´´ua-to´nin) A hormone secreted by the pineal gland

that produces lightening of the skin in lower vertebrates and that may
contribute to the regulation of gonadal function in mammals.
Secretion follows a circadian rhythm and peaks at night.

membrane potential The potential difference or voltage that exists

between the inner and outer sides of a cell membrane. It exists in all
cells but is capable of being changed by excitable cells (neurons and
muscle cells).

membranous bone (mem´brua-nus) Bone that forms from

membranous connective tissue rather than from cartilage.
membranous labyrinth (lab´u1-rinth) A system of communicating
sacs and ducts within the bony labyrinth of the inner ear that includes
the cochlea and vestibular apparatus. It is filled with endolymph and
surrounded by perilymph and bone.

menarche (mue-nar´ke) The first menstrual discharge.

Ménière's disease (m=an-yarz´) Deafness, tinnitus, and vertigo

resulting from a disorder of the labyrinth.

meninges (mue-nin´j=ez), sing. meninx A group of three fibrous

membranes covering the central nervous system, composed of the
dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

menisci (mue-nis´ke) Wedge-shaped fibrocartilages in certain

synovial joints.

menopause (men´uo-pawz) The period marked by the cessation of

menstrual periods in the human female.

menstrual cycle (men´stroo-al) The rhythmic female reproductive

cycle, characterized by changes in hormone levels and physical
changes in the uterine lining.

menstruation (men´´stroo-a´shun) The discharge of blood and tissue

from the uterus at the end of the menstrual cycle.

mesencephalic aqueduct (mez´´en-sue-fal´ik ak´wue-dukt) The

channel that connects the third and fourth ventricles of the brain; also
called the aqueduct of Sylvius.

mesencephalon (mes´´en-sef´ua-lon) The midbrain, which contains

the corpora quadrigemina and the cerebral peduncles.

mesenchyme (mez´en-k=1m) An embryonic connective tissue that

can migrate, and from which all connective tissues arise.

mesenteric patches (mes´´en-ter´ik) Clusters of lymph nodes on the

walls of the small intestine; also called Peyer's patches.

mesentery (mes´en-ter´´e) A fold of peritoneal membrane that

attaches an abdominal organ to the abdominal wall.
mesoderm (mes´uo-derm) The middle one of the three primary germ
layers.

mesothelium (mes´´uo-the´lium) A simple squamous epithelial tissue

that lines body cavities and covers visceral organs; also called serosa.

mesovarium (mes´´uo-va´re-um) The peritoneal fold that attaches an

ovary to the broad ligament of the uterus.

messenger RNA (mRNA) A type of RNA that contains a base

sequence complementary to a part of the DNA that specifies the
synthesis of a particular protein.

metabolism (mue-tab´uo-liz-em) The sum total of the chemical

changes that occur within a cell.

metacarpus (met´´ua-kar´pus) The region of the hand between the

wrist and the phalanges, including the five metacarpal bones that
support the palm of the hand.

metarteriole (met´´ar-tir´e-=ol) A small blood vessel that emerges

from an arteriole, passes through a capillary network, and empties
into a venule.

metastasis (mue-tas´tua-sis) The spread of a disease from one organ

or body part to another.

metatarsus (met´´ua-tar´sus) The region of the foot between the

ankle and the phalanges that includes the five metatarsal bones.

metencephalon (met´´en-sef´ua-lon) The most superior portion of

the hindbrain that contains the cerebellum and the pons.

micelles (mi-selz´) Colloidal particles formed by the aggregation of

many molecules.

microglia(mi-krog´le-ua) Small phagocytic cells found in the central

nervous system.

microvilli (mi´´kro-vil´i) Microscopic hairlike projections of cell

membranes on certain epithelial cells.

micturition (mik´´tuu-rish´un) The process of voiding urine; also

called urination.
midbrain The portion of the brain between the pons and the
forebrain.

middle ear The middle of the three portions of the ear that contains
the three auditory ossicles.

midsagittal plane (mid-saj´u1-tal) A plane that divides the body into

equal right and left halves; also called the median plane or midplane.

mineralocorticoids (min´´er-al-o-kor´tu1-koidz) Steroid hormones of

the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids) that regulate electrolyte balance.

mitochondria (mi´´tuo-kon´dre-ua), sing. mitochondrion

Cytoplasmic organelles that serve as sites for the production of most
of the cellular energy; the so-called powerhouses of the cell.

mitosis (mi-to´sis) The process of cell division that results in two

identical daughter cells, containing the same number of
chromosomes.

mitral valve (mi´tral) The left atrioventricular heart valve; also called
the bicuspid valve.

mixed nerve A nerve that contains both motor and sensory nerve
fibers.

molal (mo´lal) Pertaining to the number of moles of solute per

kilogram of solvent.

molar (mo´lar) Pertaining to the number of moles of solute per liter

of solution.

mole (m=ol) The number of grams of a chemical that is equal to its

formula weight (atomic weight for an element or molecular weight
for a compound).

monoclonal antibodies (mon´´uo-kl=on´al an´tu1-bod´´=ez)

Identical antibodies derived from a clone of genetically identical
plasma cells.

monocyte (mon´o-sit) A phagocytic type of white blood cell,

normally constituting about 3% to 8% of the white blood cell count.
monomer (mon´uo-mer) A single molecular unit of a longer, more
complex molecule. Monomers are joined together to form dimers,
trimers, and polymers; the hydrolysis of polymers eventually yields
separate monomers.

monosaccharide (mon´´uo-sak´ua-r=1d) The monomer of the more

complex carbohydrates, examples of which include glucose, fructose,
and galactose; also called a simple sugar.

mons pubis (monz pyoo´bis) A fatty tissue pad covering the

symphysis pubis and covered by pubic hair in the female.

morula (mor´yuu-lua) An early stage of embryonic development

characterized by a solid ball of cells.

motile (m=ot´l), mo´t=1l) Capable of self-propelled movement.

motor area A region of the cerebral cortex from which motor

impulses to muscles or glands originate.

motor nerve A nerve composed of motor nerve fibers.

motor neuron (noor´on) A nerve cell that conducts action potentials

away from the central nervous system and innervates effector organs
(muscle and glands). It forms the anterior roots of the spinal nerves;
also called an efferent neuron.

motor unit A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it

innervates.

mucosa (myoo-ko´sua) A mucous membrane that lines cavities and

tracts opening to the exterior.

mucous cell (myoo´kus) See goblet cell.

mucous membrane A thin sheet consisting of layers of visceral

organs that include the lining epithelium, submucosal connective
tissue, and(in some cases) a thin layer of smooth muscle (the
muscularis mucosa).

multipolar neuron A nerve cell with many processes originating

from the cell body.

muscle (mus´el) A major type of tissue adapted to contract. The

three kinds of muscle are cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.

muscle spindles Sensory organs within skeletal muscles composed

of intrafusal fibers. They are sensitive to muscle stretch and provide a
length detector within muscles.

muscularis (mus´´kyuu-la´ris) A muscular layer or tunic of an organ,

composed of smooth muscle tissue.

myelencephalon (mi´´ue-len-sef´ua-lon) The posterior portion of the

hindbrain that contains the medulla oblongata.

myelin (mi´ue-lin) A lipoprotein material that forms a sheathlike

covering around nerve fibers.

myelin sheath A sheath surrounding axons formed by successive

wrappings of a neuroglial cell membrane. Myelin sheaths are formed
by neurolemmocytes in the peripheral nervous system and by
oligodendrocytes within the central nervous system.

myenteric plexus (mi´´en-ter´ik plek´sus) A network of sympathetic

and parasympathetic nerve fibers located in the muscularis tunic of
the small intestine; also called the plexus of Auerbach.

myocardial infarction (mi´´uo-kar´de-al in-fark´shun) An area of

necrotic tissue in the myocardium that is filled in by scar
(connective) tissue.

myocardium (mi´´uo-kar´de-um) The cardiac muscle layer of the

heart.

myofibril (mi´´uo-fi´bril) A bundle of contractile fibers within

muscle cells.

myogenic (mi´´uo-jen´ik) Originating within muscle cells; used to

describe self-excitation by cardiac and smooth muscle cells.

myoglobin (mi´´uo-glo´bin) A molecule composed of globin protein

and heme pigment. It is related to hemoglobin but contains only one
subunit (instead of the four in hemoglobin) and is found in skeletal
and cardiac muscle cells where it serves to store oxygen.

myogram (mi´uo-gram) A recording of electrical activity within a

muscle.

myology (mi-ol´uo-je) The science or study of muscle structure and

function.

myometrium (mi´´o-me´tre-um) The layer or tunic of smooth muscle

within the uterine wall.

myoneural junction (mi´´uo-noor´al) The site of contact between an

axon of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

myopia (mi-o´pe-ua) A visual defect in which objects may be seen

distinctly only when very close to the eyes; also called
nearsightedness.

myosin (mi´uo-sin) A thick myofilament protein that together with

actin causes muscle contraction.

myxedema (mik´´su1-de´mua) A type of edema associated with

hypothyroidism. It is characterized by the accumulation of
mucoproteins in tissue fluid.

NAD Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; a coenzyme derived from

niacin that helps to transport electrons from the Krebs cycle to the
electron-transport chain within mitochondria.

nail A hardened, keratinized plate that develops from the epidermis

and forms a protective covering on the surface of the distal phalanges
of fingers and toes.

naloxone (nal´ok-s=on, nua-lok´s=on) A drug that antagonizes the

effects of morphine and endorphins.

nasal cavity (na´zal) A mucosa-lined space above the oral cavity,

divided by a nasal septum. It is the first chamber of the respiratory
system.

nasal concha (kong´kua) A scroll-like bone extending medially from

the lateral wall of the nasal cavity; also called a turbinate bone.

nasal septum (sep´tum) A bony and cartilaginous partition that

separates the nasal cavity into two portions.
nasopharynx (na´´zo-far´ingks) The first or uppermost chamber of
the pharynx, positioned posterior to the nasal cavity and extending
down to the soft palate.

natriuretic (na´´tru1-yoo-ret´ik) An agent that promotes the

excretion of sodium in the urine. Atrial natriuretic hormone has this
effect.

neck 1.Any constricted portion, such as the neck of an organ. 2.The

cervical region of the body between the head and thorax.

necrosis (nue-kro´sis) Cellular death or tissue death due to disease or

trauma.

negative feedback A mechanism in the body for maintaining a state

of internal constancy, or homeostasis; effectors are activated by
changes in the internal environment, and the actions of the effectors
serve to counteract these changes and maintain a state of balance.

neonatal (ne´´o-na´tal) The stage of life from birth to the end of 4

weeks.

neoplasm (ne´uo-plazm) A new, abnormal growth of tissue, as in a

tumor.

nephron (nef´ron) The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a

glomerulus, convoluted tubules, and a nephron loop.

nerve A bundle of nerve fibers outside the central nervous system.

neurilemma (noor´´u1-lem´ua) A thin, membranous covering

surrounding the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber.

neurofibril node A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber; also

called a node of Ranvier.

neuroglia (noo-rog´le-ua) Specialized supportive cells of the central

nervous system.

neurohypophysis (noor´´o-hi-pof´u1-sis) The posterior lobe of the

pituitary gland derived from the brain. Its major secretions include
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin, and oxytocin,
produced in the hypothalamus.
neurolemmocyte (noor´´uo-lem´uo-s=1t) A specialized neuroglia
cell that surrounds an axon fiber of a peripheral nerve and forms the
neurilemmal sheath; also called a Schwann cell.

neuron (noor´on) The structural and functional unit of the nervous

system, composed of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon; also called
a nerve cell.

neurotransmitter (noor´´o-trans´mit-er) A chemical contained in

synaptic vesicles in nerve endings that is released into the synaptic
cleft, where it stimulates the production of either excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.

neutrons (noo´tronz) Electrically neutral particles that exist together

with positively charged protons in the nucleus of atoms.

neutrophil (noo´truo-fil) A type of phagocytic white blood cell,

normally constituting about 60% to 70% of the white blood cell
count.

nexus (nek´sus) A bond between members of a group; the type of

bonds present in single-unit smooth muscles.

nidation (ni-da´shun) Implantation of the blastocyst into the

endometrium of the uterus.

nipple A dark pigmented, rounded projection at the tip of the breast.

Nissl bodies (nis´l) See chromatophilic substances.

node of Ranvier (ran´ve-a) See neurofibril node.

norepinephrine (nor´´ep-u1-nef´rin) A catecholamine released as a

neurotransmitter from postganglionic sympathetic nerve endings and
as a hormone (together with epinephrine) from the adrenal medulla.

notochord (no´tuo-kord) A flexible rod of tissue that extends the

length of the back of an embryo.

nucleolus (noo-kle´uo-lus) A dark-staining area within a cell

nucleus; the site where ribosomal RNA is produced.

nucleoplasm (noo´kle-uo-plaz´´em) The protoplasmic contents of the

nucleus of a cell.

nucleotide (noo´kle-uo-t=1d) The subunit of DNA and RNA

macromolecules. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base
(adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine or uracil); a sugar
(deoxyribose or ribose); and a phosphate group.

nucleus (noo´kle-us) A spheroid body within a cell that contains the

genetic factors of the cell.

nucleus pulposus (pul-po´sus) The soft, pulpy core of an

intervertebral disc; a remnant of the notochord.

nystagmus (nu1-stag´mus) Involuntary oscillary movements of the

eye.

obese (o-b=es´) Excessively fat.

olfactory (ol-fak´tuo-re) Pertaining to the sense of smell.

olfactory bulb An aggregation of sensory neurons of an olfactory

nerve, lying inferior to the frontal lobe of the cerebrum on either
lateral side of the crista galli of the ethmoid bone.

olfactory tract The olfactory sensory tract of axons that conveys

impulses from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory portion of the
cerebral cortex.

oligodendrocyte (ol´´u1-go-den´druo-s=1t) A type of neuroglial cell

concerned with the formation of the myelin of nerve fibers within the
central nervous system.

oncology (on-kol´uo-je) The study of tumors.

oncotic pressure (on-kot´ik) The colloid osmotic pressure of

solutions produced by proteins. In plasma, it serves to
counterbalance the outward filtration of fluid from capillaries due to
hydrostatic pressure.

oocyte (o´uo-s=1t) A developing egg cell.

oogenesis (o´´uo-jen´ue-sis) The process of female gamete formation.

opsonization (op´´suo-nu1-za´shun) The process by which antibodies
enhance the ability of phagocytic cells to attack bacteria.

optic (op´tik) Pertaining to the eye.

optic chiasma (ki-az´mua) An X-shaped structure on the inferior

aspect of the brain, anterior to the pituitary gland, where there is a
partial crossing over of fibers in the optic nerves; also called the optic
chiasm.

optic disc A small region of the retina where the fibers of the
ganglion neurons exit from the eyeball to form the optic nerve; also
called the blind spot.

optic tract A bundle of sensory axons located between the optic

chiasma and the thalamus that functions to convey visual impulses
from the photoreceptors within the eye.

oral Pertaining to the mouth.

ora serrata The jagged peripheral margin of the retina.

organ A structure consisting of two or more tissues that performs a

specific function.

organelle (or´´gua-nel´) A minute living structure of a cell with a

specific function.

organism An individual living creature.

organ of Corti (kor´te) See spiral organ.

orifice (or´u1-fis) An opening into a body cavity or tube.

origin The place of muscle attachment-usually the more stationary

point or the proximal bone; opposite the insertion.

oropharynx (o´´ro-far´ingks) The second portion of the pharynx,

located posterior to the oral cavity and extending from the soft palate
to the hyoid bone.

osmolality (oz´´muo-lal´u1-te) A measure of the total concentration

of a solution; the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
osmoreceptors (oz´´muo-re-cep´torz) Sensory neurons that respond
to changes in the osmotic pressure of the surrounding fluid.

osmosis (oz-mo´sis) The passage of solvent (water) from a more

dilute to a more concentrated solution through a membrane that is
more permeable to water than to the solute.

osmotic pressure (oz-mot´ik) A measure of the tendency of a

solution to gain water by osmosis when separated by a membrane
from pure water. Directly related to the osmolality of the solution, it
is the pressure required to just prevent osmosis.

osseous tissue (os´e-us) Bone tissue.

ossicle (os´u1-kul) One of the three bones of the middle ear; also
called the auditory ossicle.

ossification (os´´u1-fu1-ka´shun) The process of bone tissue

formation.

osteoblast (os´te-uo-blast) A bone-forming cell.

osteoclast (os´te-uo-klast) A cell that causes erosion and resorption

of bone tissue.

osteocyte (os´te-uo-s=1t) A mature bone cell.

osteology (os´´te-ol´uo-je) The study of the structure and function of

bone and the entire skeleton.

osteomalacia (os´´te-o-mua-la´shua) Softening of bones due to a

deficiency of vitamin D and calcium.

osteon (os´te-on) A group of osteocytes and concentric lamellae

surrounding a central canal, constituting the basic unit of structure in
osseous tissue; also called a haversian system.

osteoporosis (os´´te-o-puo-ro´sis) Demineralization of bone, seen

most commonly in postmenopausal women and patients who are
inactive or paralyzed. It may be accompanied by pain, loss of stature,
and other deformities and fractures.

otoliths (o´tuo-liths) Small, hardened particles of calcium carbonate

in the saccule and utricle of the inner ear, associated with the
receptors of equilibrium; also called statoconia.

outer ear The outer portion of the ear, consisting of the auricle and
the external auditory canal.

oval window An oval opening in the bony wall between the middle
and inner ear, into which the footplate of the stapes fits; also called
the vestibular window.

ovarian follicle (o-var´e-an fol´u1-kul) A developing ovum and its

surrounding epithelial cells.

ovarian ligament (lig´ua-ment) A cordlike connective tissue that

attaches the ovary to the uterus.

ovary (o´vua-re) The female gonad in which ova and certain sexual
hormones are produced.

oviduct (o´vu1-dukt) The tube that transports ova from the ovary to
the uterus; also called the uterine tube or fallopian tube.

ovulation (ov-yuu-la´shun) The rupture of an ovarian (graafian)

follicle with the release of an ovum.

ovum (o´vum) A secondary oocyte capable of developing into a new

individual when fertilized by a spermatozoon.

oxidative phosphorylation (ok´´su1-da´tiv fos´´for-u1-la´shun) The

formation of ATP using energy derived from electron transport to
oxygen. It occurs in the mitochondria.

oxidizing agent (ok´su1-d=1z-ing) An atom that accepts electrons in

an oxidation-reduction reaction.

oxyhemoglobin (ok´´se-he´´muo-glo´bin) A compound formed by

the bonding of molecular oxygen to hemoglobin.

oxyhemoglobin saturation The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of

the amount of oxyhemoglobin relative to the total amount of
hemoglobin in blood.

oxytocin (ok´´su1-to´sin) One of the two hormones produced in the

hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary (the other
hormone is vasopressin). Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of
uterine smooth muscles and promotes milk ejection in females.

pacemaker (p=as´ma´´ker) A group of cells that has the fastest

spontaneous rate of depolarization and contraction in a mass of
electrically coupled cells; in the heart, this is the sinoatrial, or SA,
node.

pacinian corpuscle (pua-sin´e-an) See lamellated corpuscle.

PAH Para-aminohippuric acid; a substance used to measure total

renal plasma flow because its clearance rate is equal to the total rate
of plasma flow to the kidneys. PAH is filtered and secreted but not
reabsorbed by the renal nephrons.

palate (pal´at) The roof of the oral cavity.

palatine (pal´ua-t=1n) Pertaining to the palate.

palmar (pal´mar) Pertaining to the palm of the hand.

palpebra (pal´pue-brua) An eyelid.

pancreas (pan´kre-as) A mixed organ in the abdominal cavity that

secretes pancreatic juices into the GI tract and insulin and glucagon
into the blood.

pancreatic duct (pan´´kre-at´ik) A drainage tube that carries

pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the duodenum of the
hepatopancreatic ampulla.

pancreatic islets A cluster of cells within the pancreas that forms the
endocrine portion and secretes insulin and glucagon; also called islets
of Langerhans.

papillae (pua-pil´e) Small, nipplelike projections.

papillary muscle (pap´u1-ler´´e) Muscular projections from the

ventricular walls of the heart to which the chordea tendineae are
attached.

paranasal sinus (par´´ua-na´zal si´nus) An air chamber lined with a

mucous membrane that communicates with the nasal cavity.

parasympathetic (par´´ua-sim´´pua-thet´ik) Pertaining to the

division of the autonomic nervous system concerned with activities
that, in general, inhibit or oppose the physiological effects of the
sympathetic nervous system.

parathyroid hormone (PTH) A polypeptide hormone secreted by

the parathyroid glands. PTH acts to raise the blood Ca++ levels
primarily by stimulating reabsorption of bone.

parathyroids (par´´ua-thi´roidz) Small endocrine glands embedded

on the posterior surface of the thyroid glands that are concerned with
calcium metabolism.

parietal (pua-ri´ue-tal) Pertaining to a wall of an organ or cavity.

parietal pleura (ploor´ua) The thin serous membrane attached to the

thoracic walls of the pleural cavity.

Parkinson's disease (par´kin-sunz) A tremor of the resting muscles

and other symptoms caused by inadequate dopamine-producing
neurons in the basal nuclei of the cerebrum; also called paralysis
agitans.

parotid gland (pua-rot´id) One of the paired salivary glands located

on the side of the face over the masseter muscle just anterior to the
ear and connected to the oral cavity through a salivary duct.

parturition (par´´tyoo-rish´un) The process of giving birth;

childbirth.

passive immunity (u1-myoo´nu1-te) Specific immunity granted by

the administration of antibodies made by another organism.

pathogen (path´uo-jen) Any disease-producing microorganism or

substance.

pectoral (pek´tuo-ral) Pertaining to the chest region.

pectoral girdle The portion of the skeleton that supports the upper
extremities.

pedicle (ped´u1-k'l) The portion of a vertebra that connects and

attaches the lamina to the body.

pelvic (pel´vik) Pertaining to the pelvis.

pelvic girdle The portion of the skeleton to which the lower

extremities are attached.

pelvis (pel´vis) A basinlike bony structure formed by the sacrum and

ossa coxae.

penis(pe´nis) The male organ of copulation, used to introduce sperm

into the female vagina and through which urine passes during
urination.

pennate (pen´=at) Pertaining to a skeletal muscle fiber arrangement

in which the fibers are attached to tendinous slips in a featherlike
pattern.

pepsin (pep´sin) The protein-digesting enzyme secreted in gastric

juice.

peptic ulcer (pep´tik ul´ser) An injury to the mucosa of the

esophagus, stomach, or small intestine due to the action of acidic
gastric juice.

perforating canal A minute duct through compact bone by which

blood vessels and nerves penetrate to the central canal of an osteon;
also called Volkmann's canal.

pericardium (per´´u1-kar´de-um) A protective serous membrane that

surrounds the heart.

perichondrium (per´´u1-kon´dre-um) A toughened connective sheet

that covers some kinds of cartilage.

perikaryon (per´´u1-kar´e-on) The cell body of a neuron.

perilymph (per´u1-limf) A fluid of the inner ear that provides a

liquid-conducting medium for the vibrations involved in hearing and
the maintenance of equilibrium.

perimysium (per´´u1-mis´e-um) Fascia (connective tissue)

surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers.
perineum (per´´u1-ne´um) The floor of the pelvis, which is the
region between the anus and the symphysis pubis. It is the region that
contains the external genitalia.

perineurium (per´´u1-noor´e-um) Connective tissue surrounding a

bundle of nerve fibers.

periodontal membrane (per´´e-uo-don´tal) A fibrous connective

tissue lining the dental alveoli.

periosteum (per´´e-os´te-um) A fibrous connective tissue covering

the outer surface of bone.

peripheral nervous system (pue-rif´er-al) The nerves and ganglia of

the nervous system that lie outside of the brain and spinal cord; PNS.

peristalsis (per´´u1-stal´sis) Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle

in the walls of various tubular organs by which the contents are
forced onward.

peritoneum (per´´1u-tuo-ne´um) The serous membrane that lines the

abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal visceral organs.

Peyer's patches(pi´erz) See mesenteric patches.

pH A measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution,

numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions. The pH scale in common
use ranges from 0 to 14. Solutions with a pH lower than 7 are acidic
and those with a higher pH are basic.

phagocytosis (fag´´uo-si-to´sis) Cellular eating; the ability of some

cells (such as white blood cells) to engulf large particles (such as
bacteria) and digest these particles by merging the food vacuole in
which they are contained with a lysosome containing digestive
enzymes.

phalanx (fa´langks), pl. phalanges A bone of a finger or toe.

pharynx (far´ingks) The organ of the digestive system and

respiratory system located at the back of the oral and nasal cavities
that extends to the larynx anteriorly and to the esophagus posteriorly;
also called the throat.
photoreceptor (fo´´to-re-sep´tor) A sensory nerve ending that
responds to the stimulation of light.

physiology (fiz´´e-ol´uo-je) The science that deals with the study of

body functions.

pia mater (pi´ua ma´ter) The innermost meninx that is in direct

contact with the brain and spinal cord.

pineal gland (pin´e-al) A small cone-shaped gland located in the

roof of the third ventricle.

pinna (pin´ua) The outer, fleshy portion of the external ear; also
called the auricle.

pinocytosis (pin´´uo-si-to´sis) Cell drinking; invagination of the cell

membrane forming narrow channels that pinch off into vacuoles.
This allows for cellular intake of extracellular fluid and dissolved
molecules.

pituitary gland (pu1-too´u1-ter-e) A small, pea-shaped endocrine

gland situated on the interior surface of the diencephalonic region of
the brain, consisting of anterior and posterior lobes; also called the
hypophysis.

pivot joint (piv´ut) A synovial joint in which the rounded head of

one bone articulates with the depressed cup of another to permit a
rotational type of movement.

placenta (plua-sen´tua) The organ of metabolic exchange between

the mother and the fetus.

plantar (plan´tar) Pertaining to the sole of the foot.

plasma (plaz´mua) The fluid, extracellular portion of circulating

blood.

plasma cells Cells derived from B lymphocytes that produce and

secrete large amounts of antibodies. They are responsible for humoral
immunity.

platelets (pl=at-letz) Small fragments of specific bone marrow cells

that function in blood coagulation; also called thrombocytes.
pleural (ploor´al) Pertaining to the serous membranes associated
with the lungs.

pleural cavity The potential space between the visceral pleura and
parietal pleura.

pleural membranes Serous membranes that surround the lungs and

provide protection and compartmentalization.

plexus (plek´sus) A network of interlaced nerves or vessels.

plexus of Auerbach (ow´er-bak) See myenteric plexus.

plexus of Meissner (m=1s´ner) See submucosal plexus.

plicae circulares (pli´ce sur-kyuu-lar´=ez) Deep folds within the

wall of the small intestine that increase the absorptive surface area.

pneumotaxic area (noo´´muo-tak´sik) The region of the respiratory

control center located in the pons of the brain.

polar body A small daughter cell formed by meiosis that

degenerates in the process of oocyte production.

polar molecule A molecule in which the shared electrons are not

evenly distributed, so that one side of the molecule is negatively (or
positively) charged in comparison with the other side. Polar
molecules are soluble in polar solvents, such as water.

polydipsia (pol´´e-dip´se-ua) Excessive thirst.

polymer (pol´ue-mer) A large molecule formed by the combination

of smaller subunits, or monomers.

polymorphonuclear leukocyte (pol´´e-mor´´fuo-noo´kle-ar loo´kuo-

s=1t) A granular leukocyte containing a nucleus with a number of
lobes connected by thin, cytoplasmic strands. This type includes
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

polypeptide (pol´´e-pep´t1=d) A chain of amino acids connected by

covalent bonds called peptide bonds. A very large polypeptide is
called a protein.

polysaccharide (pol´´e-sak´ua-r=1d) A carbohydrate formed by

covalent bonding of numerous monosaccharides. Examples include
glycogen and starch.

polyuria (pol´´e-yoor´e-ua) Excretion of an excessively large volume

of urine in a given period.

pons (ponz) The portion of the brain stem just above the medulla
oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum.

popliteal (pop´´lu1-te´al, pop-lit´e-al) Pertaining to the concave

region on the posterior aspect of the knee.

posterior (pos-t=er´e-or) Toward the back; also called dorsal.

posterior pituitary (pu1-too´u1-ter-e) See neurohypophysis.

posterior root An aggregation of sensory neuron fibers lying

between a spinal nerve and the posterolateral aspect of the spinal
cord; also called the dorsal root or sensory root.

posterior root ganglion (gang´gle-on) A cluster of cell bodies of

sensory neurons located along the posterior root of a spinal nerve.

postganglionic neuron (p=ost´´gang-gle-on´ik) The second neuron

in an autonomic motor pathway. Its cell body is outside the central
nervous system and it terminates at an effector organ.

postnatal (p=ost-na´tal) After birth.

postsynaptic inhibition (p=ost´´su1-nap´tik) The inhibition of a

postsynaptic neuron by axon endings that release a neurotransmitter
that induces hyperpolarization (inhibitory postsynaptic potentials).

preganglionic neuron (pre´´gang-gle-on´ik) The first neuron in an

autonomic motor pathway. Its cell body is inside the central nervous
system and it terminates on a postganglionic neuron.

pregnancy A condition in which a female is carrying a developing

offspring within the body.

prenatal (pre-na´tal) Pertaining to the period of offspring

development during pregnancy; before birth.

prepuce (pre´pyoos) A fold of loose, retractable skin covering the

glans of the penis or clitoris; also called the foreskin.

presynaptic inhibition (pre´´su1-nap´tik) Neural inhibition in which

axoaxonic synapses inhibit the release of neurotransmitter chemicals
from the presynaptic axon terminal.

prolactin (pro-lak´tin) A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary

that, in conjunction with other hormones, stimulates lactation in the
postpartum female. It may also participate (along with the
gonadotropins) in regulating gonadal function in some mammals.

pronation (pro-na´shun) A rotational movement of the forearm in

which the palm of the hand is turned posteriorly.

proprioceptor (pro´´pre-o-sep´tor) A sensory nerve ending that

responds to changes in tension in a muscle or tendon.

prostaglandin (pros´´tua-glan´din) Any of a family of fatty acids that

have numerous autocrine regulatory functions, including the
stimulation of uterine contractions and of gastric acid secretion and
the promotion of inflammation.

prostate (pros´t=at) A walnut-shaped gland surrounding the male

urethra just below the urinary bladder that secretes an additive to
seminal fluid during ejaculation.

prosthesis (pros-the´sis) An artificial device to replace a diseased or

worn body part.

proton (pro´ton) A unit of positive charge in the nucleus of atoms.

protoplasm (pro´tuo-plaz´´em) A general term for the colloidal

complex of protein that constitutes the living material of a cell. It
includes cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.

protraction (pro-trak´shun) The movement of a body part, such as

the mandible, forward on a plane parallel with the ground; the
opposite of retraction.

proximal (prok´-su1-mal) Closer to the midplane of the body or to

the origin of an appendage; the opposite of distal.

pseudohermaphrodite (soo´´duo-her-maf´ruo-d1=t) An individual

with some of the physical characteristics of both sexes, but who
lacks functioning gonads of both sexes; a true hermaphrodite has
both testes and ovaries.

pseudopods (soo´duo-podz) Footlike extensions of the cytoplasm

that enable some cells (with amoeboid motion) to move across a
substrate. Pseudopods are also used to surround food particles in the
process of phagocytosis.

ptyalin (ti´ua-lin) An enzyme in saliva that catalyzes the hydrolysis

of starch into smaller molecules; also called salivary amylase.

puberty (pyoo´ber-te) The period of development in which the

reproductive organs become functional.

pulmonary (pul´muo-ner´´e) Pertaining to the lungs.

pulmonary circulation The system of blood vessels from the right

ventricle of the heart to the lungs that transports deoxygenated blood
and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the
heart.

pulp cavity A cavity within the center of a tooth that contains blood
vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.

pupil The opening through the iris that permits light to enter the
posterior cavity of the eyeball and be refracted by the lens through
the vitreous chamber.

Purkinje fibers (pur-kin´je) See conduction myofibers.

pyloric sphincter (pi-lor´ik sfingk´ter) A modification of the

muscularis tunic between the stomach and the duodenum that
functions to regulate the food material leaving the stomach.

pyramid (pir´ua-mid) Any of several structures that have a

pyramidal shape (e.g., the renal pyramids in the kidney and the
medullary pyramids on the anterior surface of the brain).

pyrogen (pi´ruo-jen) A fever-producing substance.

QRS complex The principal deflection of an electrocardiogram that

is produced by depolarization of the ventricles.

ramus (ra´mus) A branch of a bone, artery, or nerve.

raphe (ra´fe) A ridge or a seamlike structure between two similar

parts of a body organ, as in the scrotum.

receptor (re-sep´tor) A sense organ or a specialized distal end of a

sensory neuron that receives stimuli from the environment.

rectum (rek´tum) The terminal portion of the GI tract, between the

sigmoid colon and the anal canal.

red marrow (mar´o) A tissue that forms blood cells, located in the
medullary cavity of certain bones.

red nucleus (noo´kle-us) An aggregation of gray matter of a reddish

color located in the upper portion of the midbrain. It sends fibers to
certain brain tracts.

reduced hemoglobin (he´muo-glo´´bin) Hemoglobin with iron in the

reduced ferrous state. It is able to bond with oxygen but is not
combined with oxygen. Also called deoxyhemoglobin.

reducing agent An electron donor in a coupled oxidation-reduction

reaction.

reflex (re´fleks) A rapid involuntary response to a stimulus.

reflex arc The basic conduction pathway through the nervous

system, consisting of a sensory neuron, an association neuron, and a
motor neuron.

regional anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with structural

arrangement in specific areas of the body, such as the head, neck,
thorax, or abdomen.

renal (re´nal) Pertaining to the kidney.

renal corpuscle (kor´pus'l) The portion of the nephron consisting of

the glomerulus and a glomerular capsule; also called the malpighian
corpuscle.
renal cortex The outer portion of the kidney, primarily vascular.

renal medulla (mue-dul´ua) The inner portion of the kidney,

including the renal pyramids and renal columns.

renal pelvis The inner cavity of the kidney formed by the expanded
ureter and into which the calyces open.

renal plasma clearance rate The milliliters of plasma cleared of a

particular solute per minute by the excretion of that solute in the
urine. If there is no reabsorption or secretion of that solute by the
nephron tubules, the plasma clearance rate is equal to the glomerular
filtration rate.

renal pyramid A triangular structure within the renal medulla

composed of nephron loops and the collecting ducts.

repolarization (re-po´´lar-u1-za´shun) The reestablishment of the

resting membrane potential after depolarization has occurred.

respiration (res´´pu1-ra´shun) The exchange of gases between the

external environment and the cells of an organism.

respiratory acidosis (ru1-sp=1r´ua-tor-e as´´u1-do´sis) A lowering

of the blood pH to below 7.35 due to accumulation of CO2 as a
result of hypoventilation.

respiratory alkalosis (al´´kua-lo´sis) A rise in blood pH to above

7.45 due to excessive elimination of blood CO2 as a result of
hyperventilation.

respiratory center The structure or portion of the brain stem that

regulates the depth and rate of breathing.

respiratory distress syndrome A lung disease of the newborn, most

frequently occurring in premature infants, that is caused by
abnormally high alveolar surface tension as a result of a deficiency in
lung surfactant; also called hyaline membrane disease.

respiratory membrane A thin, moistened membrane within the

lungs, composed of an alveolar portion and a capillary portion,
through which gaseous exchange occurs.
rete testis (re´te tes´tis) A network of ducts in the center of the testis
associated with the production of spermatozoa.

reticular formation (rue-tik´yuu-lar) A network of nervous tissue

fibers in the brain stem that arouses the higher brain centers.

retina (ret´u1-nua) The principal portion of the internal tunic of the

eyeball that contains the photoreceptors.

retraction (re-trak´shun) The movement of a body part, such as the

mandible, backward on a plane parallel with the ground; the opposite
of protraction.

retroperitoneal (ret´´ro-per´´u1-tuo-ne´al) Positioned behind the

parietal peritoneum.

rhodopsin (ro-dop´sin) A pigment in rod cells that undergoes a

photochemical dissociation in response to light, and in so doing
stimulates electrical activity in the photoreceptors.

rhythmicity area (rith-mis´u1-te) A portion of the respiratory control

center located in the medulla oblongata that controls inspiratory and
expiratory phases.

ribosome (ri´bo-s=om) A cytoplasmic organelle composed of protein

and RNA in which protein synthesis occurs.

rickets (rik´ets) A condition caused by a deficiency of vitamin D and

associated with an interference of the normal ossification of bone.

right lymphatic duct (lim-fat´ik) A major vessel of the lymphatic

system that drains lymph from the upper right portion of the body
into the right subclavian vein.

rigor mortis (rig´or mor´tis) The stiffening of a dead body due to the
depletion of ATP and the production of rigor complexes between
actin and myosin in muscles.

RNA Ribonucleic acid; a nucleic acid consisting of the nitrogenous

bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil; the sugar ribose; and
phosphate groups. There are three types of RNA found in cytoplasm:
messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal
RNA (rRNA).
rod A photoreceptor in the retina of the eye that is specialized for
colorless, dim-light vision.

root canal The hollow, tubular extension of the pulp cavity into the
root of the tooth that contains vessels and nerves.

rotation (ro-ta´shun) The movement of a bone around its own

longitudinal axis.

round window A round, membrane-covered opening between the

middle and inner ear, directly below the oval window; also called the
cochlear window.

rugae (roo´je) The folds or ridges of the mucosa of an organ.

saccadic eye movements (sua-kad´ik) Very rapid eye movements

that occur constantly and that change the focus on the retina from one
point to another.

saccule (sak´yool) A saclike cavity in the membranous labyrinth

inside the vestibule of the inner ear that contains a vestibular organ
for equilibrium.

sacral (sa´kral) Pertaining to the sacrum.

sacral plexus (plek´sus) A network of nerve fibers that arises from

spinal nerves L4 through S3. Nerves arising from the sacral plexus
merge with those from the lumbar plexus to form the lumbosacral
plexus and supply the lower extremity.

saddle joint A synovial joint in which the articular surfaces of both

bones are concave in one plane and convex or saddle shaped, in the
other plane, such as in the distal carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.

sagittal plane (saj´u1-tal) A vertical plane, running parallel to the

midsagittal plane, that divides the body into unequal right and left
portions.

salivary gland (sal´u1-ver-e) An accessory digestive gland that

secretes saliva into the oral cavity.
saltatory conduction (sal´tua-to´´re) The rapid passage of action
potentials from one node of Ranvier (neurofibril node) to another in
myelinated axons.

sarcolemma (sar´´kuo-lem´ua) The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.

sarcomere (sar´´kuo-m=er) The portion of a striated muscle fiber

between the two adjacent Z lines that is considered the functional
unit of a myofibril.

sacroplasm (sar´kuo-plaz´´em) The cytoplasm within a muscle fiber.

sarcoplasmic reticulum (sar´´kuo-plaz´mik rue-tik´yuu-lum) The

smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle cells.
It surrounds each myofibril and stores Ca++ when the muscle is at
rest.

scala tympani (ska´lau tim´pua-ne) The lower channel of the cochlea

that is filled with perilymph.

scala vestibuli (vue-stib´yuu-le) The upper channel of the cochlea

that is filled with perilymph.

Schwann cell (schwahn) See neurolemmocyte.

sclera (skler´ua) The outer white layer of fibrous connective tissue

that forms the protective covering of the eyeball.

scleral venous sinus (ve´nus) A circular venous drainage for the

aqueous humor from the anterior chamber; located at the junction of
the sclera and the cornea; also called the canal of Schlemm.

scrotum (skro´tum) A pouch of skin that contains the testes and their
accessory organs.

sebaceous gland (sue-ba´shus) An exocrine gland of the skin that

secretes sebum.

sebum (se´bum) An oily, waterproofing secretion of the sebaceous

glands.

second messenger A molecule or ion whose concentration within a

target cell is increased by the action of a regulatory compound (e.g.,
a hormone or neurotransmitter) and which stimulates the metabolism
of that target cell in a way that mediates the intracellular effects of
that regulatory compound.

secretin (sue-kre´tin) A polypeptide hormone secreted by the small

intestine in response to acidity of the intestinal lumen. Along with
cholecystokinin, secretin stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice
into the small intestine.

semen (se´men) The thick, whitish secretion of the reproductive

organs of the male, consisting of spermatozoa and additives from the
prostate and seminal vesicles.

semicircular canals Tubule channels within the inner ear that

contain receptors for equilibrium.

semilunar valve (sem´´e-loo´nar) Crescent- or half-moon-shaped

heart valves positioned at the entrances to the aorta and the
pulmonary trunk.

seminal vesicles (sem´u1-nal ves´u1-k'lz) A pair of accessory male

reproductive organs lying posterior and inferior to the urinary bladder
that secrete additives to spermatozoa into the ejaculatory ducts.

seminiferous tubules (sem´´u1-nif´er-us too´byoolz) Numerous

small ducts in the testes, where spermatozoa are produced.

semipermeable membrane (sem´´e-per´me-ua-b'l) A membrane

with pores of a size that permits the passage of solvent and some
solute molecules while restricting the passage of other solute
molecules.

senescence (sue-nes´ens) The process of aging.

sensory area A region of the cerebral cortex that receives and

interprets sensory nerve impulses.

sensory neuron (noor´on) A nerve cell that conducts an impulse

from a receptor organ to the central nervous system; also called an
afferent neuron.

septum (sep´tum) A membranous or fleshy wall dividing two

cavities.
serous membrane (ser´us) An epithelial and connective tissue
membrane that lines body cavities and covers visceral organs within
these cavities; also called serosa.

Sertoli cells (ser-to´le) See sustentacular cells.

serum (ser´um) Blood plasma with the clotting elements removed.

sesamoid bone (ses´ua-moid) A membranous bone formed in a

tendon in response to joint stress (e.g., the patella).

sex chromosomes The X and Y chromosomes; the unequal pairs of

chromosomes involved in sex determination (which is based on the
presence or absence of a Y chromosome). Females lack a Y
chromosome and normally have the genotype XX; males have a Y
chromosome and normally have the genotype XY.

shock As it relates to the cardiovascular system, this term refers to a

rapid, uncontrolled fall in blood pressure, which in some cases
becomes irreversible and leads to death.

shoulder The region of the body where the humerus articulates with
the scapula.

sickle-cell anemia A hereditary, autosomal recessive trait that occurs

primarily in people of African ancestry, in which it evolved
apparently as a protection (in the carrier state) against malaria. In the
homozygous state, hemoglobin S is made instead of hemoglobin A;
this leads to the characteristic sickling of red blood cells, hemolytic
anemia, and organ damage.

sigmoid colon (sig´moid ko´lon) The S-shaped portion of the large

intestine between the descending colon and the rectum.

sinoatrial node (sin´´no-a´tre-al) A mass of specialized cardiac

tissue in the wall of the right atrium that initiates the cardiac cycle;
the SA node; also called the pacemaker.

sinus (si´nus) A cavity or hollow space within a body organ, such as

a bone.

sinusoid (si´nuu-soid) A small, blood-filled space in certain organs,

such as the spleen or liver.
skeletal muscle A specialized type of multinucleated muscle tissue
that occurs in bundles, has crossbands of proteins, and contracts in
either a voluntary or involuntary fashion.

sleep apnea (ap´ne-ua) A temporary cessation of breathing during

sleep, usually lasting for several seconds.

sliding filament theory The theory that the thick and thin filaments
of a myofibril slide past each other during muscle contraction, while
maintaining their initial length.

small intestine The portion of the GI tract between the stomach and
the cecum whose function is the absorption of food nutrients.

smooth muscle A specialized type of nonstriated muscle tissue

composed of fusiform, single-nucleated fibers. It contracts in an
involuntary, rhythmic fashion within the walls of visceral organs.

sodium/potassium pump (so´de-um puo-tas´e-um) An active

transport carrier with ATPase enzymatic activity that acts to
accumulate K+ within cells and extrude Na+ from cells, thus
maintaining gradients for these ions across the cell membrane.

soft palate (pal´at) The fleshy, posterior portion of the roof of the
mouth, from the palatine bones to the uvula.

somatic (so-mat´ik) Pertaining to the nonvisceral parts of the body.

somatomedins (so´´mat´uo-m=ed-inz) A group of small polypeptides

believed to be produced in the liver in response to growth hormone
stimulation and to mediate the actions of growth hormone on the
skeleton and other tissues.

somatostatin (so-mat´´uo-st=at´in) A polypeptide produced in the

hypothalamus that acts to inhibit the secretion of growth hormone
from the anterior pituitary. Somatostatin is also produced in the
pancreatic islets, but its function there has not been established.

somatotropic hormone (so-mat´´uo-trop´ik) Growth hormone; an

anabolic hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates
skeletal growth and protein synthesis in many organs.

sounds of Korotkoff (kuo-rot´kof) The sounds heard when pressure

measurements are taken. These sounds are produced by the turbulent
flow of blood through an artery that has been partially constricted by
a pressure cuff.

spermatic cord (sper-mat´ik) The structure of the male reproductive

system composed of the ductus deferens, spermatic vessels, nerves,
cremaster muscle, and connective tissue. The spermatic cord extends
from a testis to the inguinal ring.

spermatogenesis (sper-mat´´uo-jen´u1-sis) The production of male

sex gametes, or spermatozoa.

spermatozoon (sper-mat´´uo-zo´on), pl. spermatozoa or, loosely,

sperm A mature male sperm cell, or gamete.

spermiogenesis (sper´´me-uo-jen´ue-sis) The maturational changes

that transform spermatids into spermatozoa.

sphincter (sfingk´ter) A circular muscle that functions to constrict a

body opening or the lumen of a tubular structure.

sphincter of ampulla The muscular constriction at the opening of

the common bile and pancreatic ducts; also called the sphincter of
Oddi.

sphincter of Oddi (o´de) See sphincter of ampulla.

sphygmomanometer (sfig´´mo-mua-nom´u1-ter) A manometer

(pressure transducer) used to measure the blood pressure.

spinal cord (spi´nal) The portion of the central nervous system that
extends downward from the brain stem through the vertebral canal.

spinal ganglion A cluster of nerve cell bodies on the posterior root

of a spinal nerve.

spinal nerve One of the 31 pairs of nerves that arise from the spinal
cord.

spindle fibers (spin´d'l) Filaments that extend from the poles of a

cell to its equator and attach to the chromosomes during the
metaphase stage of cell division. Contraction of the spindle fibers
pulls the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell.
spinous process (spi´nus) A sharp projection of bone or a ridge of
bone, such as on the scapula.

spiral organ The functional unit of hearing, consisting of a basilar

membrane supporting receptor hair cells and a tectorial membrane
within the endolymph of the cochlear duct; also known as the organ
of Corti.

spironolactones (spi´´ruo-no-lak´t=onz) Diuretic drugs that act as an

aldosterone antagonist.

spleen (spl=en) A large, blood-filled, glandular organ located in the

upper left quadrant of the abdomen and attached by mesenteries to
the stomach.

spongy bone Bone tissue with a latticelike structure; also called

cancellous bone.

squamous (skwa´mus) Flat or scalelike.

stapes (sta´p=ez) The innermost of the auditory ossicles that fits

against the oval window of the inner ear; also called the stirrup.

steroid (ster´oid) A lipid, derived from cholesterol, that has three 6-

sided carbon rings and one 5-sided carbon ring. These form the
steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex and gonads.

stomach A pouchlike digestive organ located between the esophagus

and the duodenum.

stratified (strat´u1-f=1d) Arranged in layers, or strata.

stratum basale (stra´tum bua-sua´le) The deepest epidermal layer,

where mitotic activity occurs.

stratum corneum (kor´ne-um) The outer, cornified layer of the

epidermis of the skin.

stroke volume The amount of blood ejected from each ventricle at

each heartbeat.

stroma (stro´mua) A connective tissue framework in an organ,

gland, or other tissue.
subarachnoid space (sub´´ua-rak´noid) The space within the
meninges between the arachnoid mater and pia mater, where
cerebrospinal fluid flows.

sublingual gland (sub-ling´gwal) One of the three pairs of salivary

glands. It is located below the tongue and its duct opens to the side
of the lingual frenulum.

submandibular gland (sub´´man-dib´yuu-lar) One of the three pairs

of salivary glands. It is located below the mandible and its duct
opens to the side of the lingual frenulum.

submucosa (sub´´myoo-ko´sa) A layer of supportive connective

tissue that underlies a mucous membrane.

submucosal plexus (sub´´myoo-k=os´al plek´sus) A network of

sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers located in the
submucosa tunic of the small intestine; also called the plexus of
Meissner.

substrate (sub´str=at) In enzymatic reactions, the molecules that

combine with the amino acids lining the active sites of an enzyme
and are converted to products by catalysis of the enzyme.

sulcus (sul´kus) A shallow impression or groove.

superficial (soo´´per-fish´al) Toward or near the surface.

superficial fascia (fash´e-ua) A binding layer of connective tissue

between the dermis of the skin and the underlying muscle.

superior Toward the upper part of a structure or toward the head;

also called cephalic.

superior vena cava A large systemic vein that collects blood from
regions of the body superior to the heart and returns it to the right
atrium.

supination (soo´´pu1-na´shun) Rotation of the arm so that the palm

is directed forward or anteriorly; the opposite of pronation.

suppressor T cell A subpopulation of T lymphocytes that acts to

inhibit the production of antibodies against specific antigens by B
lymphocytes.

surface anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with the

structures that can be identified from the outside of the body.

surfactant (sur-fak´tant) A substance produced by the lungs that

decreases the surface tension within the alveoli.

suspensory ligament (suu-spen´suo-re) 1.A portion of the

peritoneum that extends laterally from the surface of the ovary to the
wall of the pelvic cavity. 877 2.A ligament that supports an organ or
body part, such as that supporting the lens of the eye.

sustentacular cells (sus-ten-tak´yuu-lar) Specialized cells within the

testes that supply nutrients to developing spermatozoa; also called
Sertoli cells or nurse cells.

sutural bone (soo´chur-al) A small bone positioned within a suture

of certain cranial bones; also called a wormian bone.

suture (soo´chur) A type of fibrous joint found between bones of the

skull.

sweat gland A skin gland that secretes a fluid substance for

evaporative cooling.

sympathetic (sim´´pua-thet´ik) Pertaining to the division of the

autonomic nervous system concerned with activities that, in general,
arouse the body for physical activity; also called the thoracolumbar
division.

symphysis (sim´fu1-sis) A type of cartilaginous joint characterized

by a fibrocartilaginous pad between the articulating bones, which
provides slight movement.

symphysis pubis (pyoo´bis) A slightly movable joint located

anteriorly between the two pubic bones of the pelvic girdle.

synapse (sin´aps) A minute space between the axon terminal of a

presynaptic neuron and a dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron.

synarthrosis (sin´´ar-thro´sis) A fibrous joint, such as a syndesmosis

or a suture.
synchondrosis (sin´´kon-dro´sis) A cartilaginous joint in which the
articulating bones are separated by hyaline cartilage.

syndesmosis (sin´´des-mo´sis) A type of fibrous joint in which two

bones are united by an interosseous ligament.

synergist (sin´er-jist) A muscle that assists the action of the prime

mover.

synergistic (sin´´er-jis´tik) Pertaining to regulatory processes or

molecules (such as hormones) that have complementary or additive
effects.

synovial cavity (su1-no´ve-al) A space between the two bones of a

synovial joint, filled with synovial fluid.

synovial joint A freely movable joint in which there is a synovial

cavity between the articulating bones; also called a diarthrotic joint.

synovial membrane The inner membrane of a synovial capsule that

secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity.

system A group of body organs that function together.

systemic (sis-tem´ik) Relating to the entire organism rather than to

individual parts.

systemic anatomy The division of anatomy concerned with the

structure and function of the various systems.

systemic circulation The portion of the circulatory system concerned

with blood flow from the left ventricle of the heart to the entire body
and back to the heart via the right atrium (in contrast to the
pulmonary system, which involves the lungs).

systole (sis´tuo-le) The muscular contraction of a heart chamber

during the cardiac cycle.

systolic pressure (sis-tol´ik) Arterial blood pressure during the

ventricular systolic phase of the cardiac cycle.

tachycardia (tak´´u1-kar´de-ua) An excessively rapid heart rate,

usually in excess of 100 beats per minute (in contrast to bradycardia,
in which the heart rate is very slow).

tactile (tak´til) Pertaining to the sense of touch.

taeniae coli (te´ne-e ko´li) The three longitudinal bands of muscle in

the wall of the large intestine.

target organ The specific body organ that a particular hormone

affects.

tarsal gland An oil-secreting gland that opens on the exposed edge

of each eyelid; also called a meibomian gland.

tarsus (tar´sus) The region of the foot containing the seven tarsal
bones.

taste bud An organ containing the chemocreceptors associated with

the sense of taste.

T cell A type of lymphocyte that provides cell-mediated immunity

(in contrast to B lymphocytes, which provide humoral immunity
through the secretion of antibodies). There are three subpopulations
of T cells: cytotoxic, helper, and suppressor.

tectorial membrane (tek-to´re-al) A gelatinous membrane positioned

over the hair cells of the spiral organ in the cochlea.

telencephalon (tel´´en-sef´ua-lon) The anterior portion of the

forebrain, constituting the cerebral hemispheres and related parts.

tendo calcaneous (ten´do kal-ka´ne-us) The tendon that attaches the

calf muscles to the calcaneous bone; also called the Achilles tendon.

tendon (ten´dun) A band of dense regular connective tissue that

attaches muscle to bone.

tendon sheath A covering of synovial membrane surrounding certain

tendons.

tentorium cerebelli (ten-to´re-um ser´´ue-bel´e) An extension of

dura mater that forms a partition between the cerebral hemispheres
and the cerebellum and covers the cerebellum.
teratogen (tue-rat´uo-jen) Any agent or factor that causes a physical
defect in a developing embryo or fetus.

testis (tes´tis) The primary reproductive organ of a male that

produces spermatozoa and male sex hormones.

testosterone (tes-tos´tue-r=on) The major androgenic steroid secreted

by the interstitial cells of the testes after puberty.

tetanus (tet´n-us) A smooth contraction of a muscle (as opposed to

muscle twitching).

thalamus (thal´ua-mus) An oval mass of gray matter within the

diencephalon that serves as a sensory relay center.

thalassemia (thal´´ua-se´me-ua) Any of a group of hemolytic

anemias caused by the hereditary inability to produce either the alpha
or beta chain of hemoglobin. It is found primarily among
Mediterranean people.

thigh The proximal portion of the lower extremity between the hip
and the knee in which the femur is located.

third ventricle (ven´tr1u-k'l) A narrow cavity between the right and

left halves of the thalamus and between the lateral ventricles that
contains cerebrospinal fluid.

thoracic (tho-ras´ik) Pertaining to the chest region.

thoracic duct The major lymphatic vessel of the body that drains
lymph from the entire body, except for the upper right quadrant, and
returns it to the left subclavian vein.

thorax (thor´aks) The chest.

threshold stimulus The weakest stimulus capable of producing an

action potential in an excitable cell.

thrombocyte (throm´buo-s=1t) A blood platelet formed from a

fragmented megakaryocyte.

thrombus (throm´bus) A blood clot produced by the formation of

fibrin threads around a platelet plug.
thymus (thi´mus) A bilobed lymphoid organ positioned in the upper
mediastinum, posterior to the sternum and between the lungs.

thyroid cartilage (thi´roid kar´tu1-lij) The largest cartilage in the

larynx that supports and protects the vocal cords; commonly called
the Adam's apple.

thyroxine (thi-rok´sin) Also called tetraiodothyronine, or T4. The

major hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, which regulates the
basal metabolic rate and stimulates protein synthesis in many organs.
A deficiency of this hormone in early childhood produces cretinism.

tinnitus (tu1-ni´tus) The spontaneous sensation of a ringing sound or

other noise without sound stimuli.

tissue An aggregation of similar cells and their binding intercellular

substance, joined to perform a specific function.

tongue A protrusible muscular organ on the floor of the oral cavity.

tonsil (ton´sil) A node of lymphoid tissue located in the mucous

membrane of the pharynx.

toxin (tok´sin) A poison.

trabeculae (trua-bek´yuu-le) A supporting framework of fibers

crossing the substance of a structure, as in the lamellae of spongy
bone.

trachea (tra´ke-ua) The airway leading from the larynx to the

bronchi, composed of cartilaginous rings and a ciliated mucosal
lining of the lumen; commonly called the windpipe.

tract A bundle of nerve fibers within the central nervous system.

transamination (trans´´am-u1-na´shun) The transfer of an amino

group from an amino acid to an alpha-keto acid, forming a new keto
acid and a new amino acid without the appearance of free ammonia.

transpulmonary pressure (trans´´pul´muo-ner´´e) The pressure

difference across the wall of the lung, equal to the difference between
intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure.

transverse colon (trans-vers´ ko´lon) A portion of the large intestine

that extends from right to left across the abdomen between the
hepatic and splenic flexures.

transverse fissure (fish´ur) The prominent cleft that horizontally

separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum.

transverse plane A plane that divides the body into superior and
inferior portions; also called a horizontal, or cross-sectional, plane.

tricuspid valve (tri-kus´pid) The heart valve located between the

right atrium and the right ventricle.

trigone (tri´g=on) A triangular area in the urinary bladder between

the openings of the ureters and the urethra.

triiodothyronine (tri´´i-o´´do-thi´ruo-n=en) Abbreviated T3; a

hormone secreted in small amounts by the thyroid; the active
hormone in target cells, formed from thyroxine.

trochanter (tro-kan´ter) A broad, prominent process on the

proximolateral portion of the femur.

trochlea (trok´le-ua) A pulleylike anatomical structure (e.g., the

medial surface of the distal end of the humerus that articulates with
the ulna).

tropomyosin (tro´´puo-mi´uo-sin) A filamentous protein that

attaches to actin in the thin myofilaments and that acts, together with
another protein called troponin, to inhibit and regulate the attachment
of myosin cross bridges to actin.

true vocal cords Folds of the mucous membrane in the larynx that
produce sound as they are pulled taut and vibrated.

trunk The thorax and abdomen together.

trypsin (trip´sin) A protein-digesting enzyme in pancreatic juice that

is released into the small intestine.

tubercle (too´ber-k'l) A small, elevated process on a bone.

tuberosity (too´bu1-ros´u1-te) An elevation or protuberance on a

bone.
tunica albuginea (too´nu1-kua al´´byoo-jin´e-ua) A tough, fibrous
tissue surrounding the testis.

tympanic membrane (tim-pan´ik) The membranous eardrum

positioned between the external and middle ear.

umbilical cord (um-bu1´lu1-kal) A cordlike structure containing the

umbilical arteries and vein and connecting the fetus with the
placenta.

umbilicus (um-bu1-lu1-kus) The site where the umbilical cord was

attached to the fetus; commonly called the navel.

unipolar neuron (yoo´nu1-po-lar noor´on) A nerve cell that has a

single nerve fiber extending from its cell body.

universal donor A person with blood type O who is able to donate

blood to people with other blood types in emergency blood
transfusions.

universal recipient A person with blood type AB who can receive

blood of any type in emergency transfusions.

upper extremity The appendage attached to the pectoral girdle,

consisting of the shoulder, brachium, elbow, antebrachium, and hand.

urea (yoo-re´ua) The chief nitrogenous waste product of protein

catabolism in the urine, formed in the liver from amino acids.

uremia (yoo-re´me-ua) The retention of urea and other products of

protein catabolism as a result of inadequate kidney function.

ureter (yoo-re´ter) A tube that transports urine from the kidney to the
urinary bladder.

urethra (yoo-re´thrua) A tube that transports urine from the urinary

bladder to the outside of the body.

urinary bladder (yoo´ru1-ner´´e) A distensible sac that stores urine,

situated in the pelvic cavity posterior to the symphysis pubis.

urobilinogen (yoo´´ruo-bi-lin´uo-jen) A compound formed from

bilirubin in the small intestine; some is excreted in the feces, and
some is absorbed and enters the enterohepatic circulation, where it
may be excreted either in the bile or in the urine.

uterine tube (yoo´ter-in) The tube through which the ovum is

transported to the uterus and the site of fertilization; also called the
oviduct or fallopian tube.

uterus (yoo´ter-us) A hollow, muscular organ in which a fetus

develops. It is located within the female pelvis between the urinary
bladder and the rectum; commonly called the womb.

utricle (yoo´tru1-k'l) An enlarged portion of the membranous

labyrinth, located within the vestibule of the inner ear.

uvula (yoo´vyuu-lua) A fleshy, pendulous portion of the soft palate

that blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing.

vacuole (vak-yoo´=ol) A small space or cavity within the cytoplasm

of a cell.

vagina (vua-ji´nua) A tubular organ leading from the uterus to the

vestibule of the female reproductive tract that receives the male penis
during coitus.

vallate papillae (val´=at pua-pil´e) The largest papillae on the

surface of the tongue. They are arranged in an inverted V-shaped
pattern at the posterior portion of the tongue.

vasectomy (vua-sek´tuo-me, va-zek´tuo-me) Surgical removal of

portions of the ductus deferentia to induce infertility.

vasoconstriction (va´´zo-kon-strik´shun) Narrowing of the lumen of

blood vessels due to contraction of the smooth muscles in their
walls.

vasodilation (va´´zo-di-la´shun) Widening of the lumen of blood

vessels due to relaxation of the smooth muscles in their walls.

vasomotor center (va´´zo-mo´tor) A cluster of nerve cell bodies in

the medulla oblongata that controls the diameter of blood vessels. It
is therefore important in regulating blood pressure.

vein (v=an) A blood vessel that conveys blood toward the heart.

vena cava (ve´nau ka´vua) One of two large vessels that return
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.

ventilation (ven´´tu1-la´shun) Breathing; the process of moving air

into and out of the lungs.

ventral (ven´tral) Toward the front or facing surface; the opposite of

dorsal; also called inferior.

ventricle (ven´tru1-k'l) A cavity within an organ; especially those

cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid and those in the
heart that contain blood to be pumped from the heart.

venule (ven´yool) A small vessel that carries venous blood from

capillaries to a vein.

vermis (ver´mis) The coiled middle lobular structure that separates

the two cerebellar hemispheres.

vertebral canal (ver´tue-bral) The tubelike cavity extending through

the vertebral column that contains the spinal cord; also called the
spinal canal.

vertigo (ver´tu1-go) A feeling of movement or loss of equilibrium.

vestibular window See oval window.

vestibule (ves´tu1-byool) A space or cavity at the entrance to a

canal, especially that of the nose, inner ear, or vagina.

villus (vil´us) A minute projection that extends outward into the

lumen from the mucosal layer of the small intestine.

virulent (vir´yuu-lent) Pathogenic; able to cause disease.

viscera (vis´er-a) The organs within the abdominal or thoracic

cavities.

visceral (vis´er-al) Pertaining to the membranous covering of the

viscera.
visceral peritoneum (per´´u1-tuo-ne´um) A serous membrane that
covers the surfaces of abdominal viscera.

visceral pleura (ploor´ua) A serous membrane that covers the

surfaces of the lungs.

visceroceptor (vis´´er-uo-sep´tor) A sensory receptor located within

body organs that responds to information concerning the internal
environment.

vitreous humor (vit´re-us hyoo´mer) The transparent gel that

occupies the space between the lens and retina of the eyeball.

Volkmann's canal (f=olk´manz) See perforating canal.

vulva (vul´vua) The external genitalia of the female that surround the
opening of the vagina.

white matter Bundles of myelinated axons located in the central

nervous system.

wormian bone (wer´me-an) See sutural bone.

yellow marrow (mar´o) Specialized lipid storage tissue within bone

cavities.

zygote (zi´g=ot) A fertilized egg cell formed by the union of a sperm

cell and an ovum.

zymogens (zi´muo-jenz) Inactive enzymes that become active when

part of their structure is removed by the action of another enzyme or
by some other means.

Click here to go to Definitions.

Prefixes and Suffixes

Element Definition and Example

a- absent, deficient, lack of: atrophy

ab- off, away from: abduct
abdomin relating to the abdomen: abdominal
-able capable of: viable
ac- toward, to: actin
acou- hear: acoustic
ad- toward, to: adduct
af- movement toward a central point: afferent artery
alb- white: corpus albicans
-algia pain: neuralgia
ambi- both: ambidextrous
angi- pertaining to the vessels: angiology
ante- before, in front of: antebrachium
anti- against: anticoagulant
aque- water: aqueous
arch- beginning, origin: archenteron
arthr- joint: arthritis
-asis condition or state of: homeostasis
aud- hearing, sound: auditory
auto- self: autolysis
bi- two: bipedal
bio- life: biopsy
blast- generative or germ bud: blastocyst
brachi- arm: brachialis
brachy- short: brachydont
brady- slow: bradycardia
bucc- cheek: buccal cavity
cac- bad, ill: cachexia
calc- stone: calculus
capit- head: capitis
carcin- cancer: carcinogenic
cardi- heart: cardiac
cata- lower, under, against: catabolism
caud- tail: cauda equina
cephal- head: cephalic
cerebro- brain: cerebrospinal fluid
chol- bile: cholic
chondr- cartilage: chondrocyte
chrom- color: chromocyte
-cide destroy: germicide
circum- around: circumduct
co- together: copulation
coel - hollow cavity: coelom
-coele swelling, an enlarged space or cavity: blastocoele
con- with, together: congenital
contra- against, opposite: contraception
corn - denoting hardness: cornified
corp- body: corpus
crypt- hidden: cryptorchidism
cyan- blue: cyanosis
cyst- sac or bladder: cystoscope
cyto- cell: cytology
de- down, from: descent
derm- skin: dermatology
di- two: diarthrotic
dipl- double: diploid
dis- apart, away from: disarticulate
duct- lead, conduct: ductus deferens
dur- hard: dura mater
dys- bad, difficult, painful: dysentery
e- out, from: eccrine
ec- outside, outer, external: ectoderm

Element Definition and Example

a- absent, deficient, lack of: atrophy

ab- off, away from: abduct
abdomin relating to the abdomen: abdominal
-able capable of: viable
ac- toward, to: actin
acou- hear: acoustic
ad- toward, to: adduct
af- movement toward a central point: afferent artery
alb- white: corpus albicans
-algia pain: neuralgia
ambi- both: ambidextrous
angi- pertaining to the vessels: angiology
ante- before, in front of: antebrachium
anti- against: anticoagulant
aque- water: aqueous
arch- beginning, origin: archenteron
arthr- joint: arthritis
-asis condition or state of: homeostasis
aud- hearing, sound: auditory
auto- self: autolysis
bi- two: bipedal
bio- life: biopsy
blast- generative or germ bud: blastocyst
brachi- arm: brachialis
brachy- short: brachydont
brady- slow: bradycardia
bucc- cheek: buccal cavity
cac- bad, ill: cachexia
calc- stone: calculus
capit- head: capitis
carcin- cancer: carcinogenic
cardi- heart: cardiac
cata- lower, under, against: catabolism
caud- tail: cauda equina
cephal- head: cephalic
cerebro- brain: cerebrospinal fluid
chol- bile: cholic
chondr- cartilage: chondrocyte
chrom- color: chromocyte
-cide destroy: germicide
circum- around: circumduct
co- together: copulation
coel- hollow cavity: coelom
-coele swelling, an enlarged space or cavity: blastocoele
con- with, together: congenital
contra- against, opposite: contraception
corn- denoting hardness: cornified
corp- body: corpus
crypt- hidden: cryptorchidism
cyan- blue: cyanosis
cyst- sac or bladder: cystoscope
cyto- cell: cytology
de- down, from: descent
derm- skin: dermatology
di- two: diarthrotic
dipl- double: diploid
dis- apart, away from: disarticulate
duct- lead, conduct: ductus deferens
dur- hard: dura mater
dys- bad, difficult, painful: dysentery
e- out, from: eccrine
ec- outside, outer, external: ectoderm

Element Definition and Example

proct- anus: proctology

pseudo- false: pseudostratified
psycho- mental: psychology
pyo- pus: pyorrhea
quad- fourfold: quadriceps femoris
re- back, again: repolarization
rect- straight: rectus abdominis
ren- kidney: renal
rete- network: rete testis
retro- backward, behind: retroperitoneal
rhin- nose: rhinitis
-rrhagia excessive flow: menorrhagia
-rrhea flow or discharge: diarrhea
sanguin- blood: sanguineous
sarc- flesh: sarcoma
-scope instrument for examining a part: stethoscope
-sect cut: dissect
semi- half: semilunar
-sis process or action: dialysis
steno- narrow: stenosis
-stomy surgical opening: tracheostomy
sub- under, beneath, below: subcutaneous
super- above, beyond, upper: superficial
supra- above, over: suprarenal
syn- (sym-) together, joined, with: synapse
tachy- swift, rapid: tachycardia
tele- far: telencephalon
tens- stretch: tensor tympani
tetra- four: tetrad
therm- heat: thermogram
thorac- chest: thoracic cavity
thrombo- lump, clot: thrombocyte
-tomy cut: appendectomy
tox- poison: toxemia
tract- draw, drag: traction
trans- across, over: transfuse
tri- three: trigone
trich- hair: trichology
-trophy a state relating to nutrition: hypertrophy
-tropic turning toward, changing: gonadotropic
ultra- beyond, excess: ultrasonic
uni- one: unicellular
-uria urine: polyuria
uro- urine, urinary organs or tract: uroscope
vas- vessel: vasoconstriction
viscer- organ: visceral
vit- life: vitamin
zoo- animal: zoology
zygo- union, join: zygote
aa of each
a.c. before meals
A/G albumin globulin ratio
ANS autonomic nervous system
Bib. drink
bid twice a day
bihor during two hours
B.M.R. basal metabolic rate
bp blood pressure
BUN blood urea nitrogen
b.v. vapor bath
=c with
caps. capsule
c.b.c. complete blood count
cc. cubic centimeter(s)
cm. centimeter(s)
CNS central nervous system
Co., Comp. compound
cr tomorrow
CFS cerebrospinal fluid
CT computed tomography
CVP central venous pressure
CXR chest x-ray
d. a day
D&C dilatation and curettage
D.C. discontinue
D, Det. give
de d. in d. from day to day
Dieb. secund every second day
Dieb. tert. every third day
dim. one-half
d. in dup. give twice as much
D. in p. aeq. divide into equal parts
dr. dram
D.T.D. give of such doses
Dur. dolor. while pain lasts
Dx diagnosis
e out of, with
ECG, EKG electrocardiogram
EEG electroencephalogram
e.m.p. in the manner prescribed
feb fever
GI gastrointestinal
gm. gram
gr. grain
Grad. gradually
gtt. drop(s)
h. hour
Hct hematocrit
Hg. mercury
Hgb hemoglobin
hs at bedtime
Hx history
ibid. in the same place
IM intramuscular
incid. cut
in d. in a day
inj. an injection
int. cib. between meals
int. noct. during the night
IV intravenous
kg. kilogram
Lat. dol. to the painful side
M. mix
man. in the morning
mEq. milliequivalent
mg. milligram
ml. milliliter
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
Noct. at night
Noct. maneq. night and morning
N.P.O. nothing by mouth
O.D. right eye
o.d. every day
Omn. hor. every hour
Omn. man. every morning
Omn. noct. every night
O.S. left eye
O.U. both eyes
oz. ounce
P pulse
Part. aeq. equal parts
pc after meals
pCO2 partial pressure of carbon dioxide
PNS peripheral nervous system
PO by mouth
pO2 partial pressure of oxygen
p.p.a. having first shaken the bottle
p.r.n. as needed
pro. us. ext. for external use
pt patient
pt. let it be continued
q. each; every
qd every day
qh every hour
q. h. every hours
qhs every evening
qid four times a day
qod every other day
q.q. also
q.s. sufficient quantity
RBC red blood cell
=s without
Semih. half an hour
Sig. write, label
S.O.S. if needed
 sp. gr. specific gravity
ss., -ss one-half
s.s.s. layer on layer
stat. immediately
sum. take
s.v.r. alcohol
t. three times
tab. tablet
tid three times a day
ung. ointment
Ut. dict. as directed
vic. times
WBC white blood cell

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