Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
POLISH
PEASANT
AND
AMERICA
VOLUME
PRIMARY-GROUP
IN
ORGANIZATION
EUROPE
T/'
THE
N
PEASANT
POLISH
EUROPE
AMERICA
and
:ONOGRAPH
OF
AN
IMMIGRANT
GROUP
V
WILLIAM
I. THOMAS
and
FLORIAN
ZNANIECKI
VOLUME
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
.2.
1.1 "??:'"
BOSTON
RICHARD
THE
G.
GORHAM
BADGER
PRESS
1918
COPYRIGHT
RICHARD
BY
:
All Rights
"
G.
"
BADGER
i
Reserved
T5
v.
ORHAM
PRESS.
BOSTON,
U.
S. A
GRATEFULLY
DEDICATED
TO
HELEN
CULVER
PREFACE
unformulated
field
logical order)
are:
assimilation;
the
and
races
and
social
of
anti-social
of
the
difference
about
brought
and
values
and
and,
particular
introduction
of
laws
of
social
resulting
from
the
and
of
social
of
study
social
common
desirable
tion;
of revolu-
way
of the
most
reality,preliminary
satisfactory,or
of
control
our
of
and
the
to
social
reflective
new
control'as
is
increasingly satisfactory,as
possible withouM
determination
the
rela-
containing Sr
selection
recourse
generally,
more
and
without
of
and
the
unreflective
rational
introduction
the
means;
of
framework
between
by
worth
vagabondage,
functions
by tradition,
about
cultural
nationalism
of individualization
rate
co-operation brought
world,
moral
to
ciency
class-hierarchization; effi-
social
the
to
the
disorganization;
the
and
happiness, particularly as
bis activities;
to
and
reference
prejudice;
behavior;
democracy
general
racial
relatively
yet
as
(without
mental
comparative
forms
and
attitudes
the
science
immigration;
internationalism;
ends
in
other
cohesion
included
questions
the
Among
the
material
the
of
laws
as
physical
reality.
Now
but
these
and
are
we
and
we
of
and
primarily
convinced
social
studying them,
of the
an
expression
selection
first,in the
then
immigration
and
necessity
totality of
comparatively.
of interest
of this
in these
interested
of
exclusively or
in the
society
by
The
other
was
their
societies
objective
present
study
primarily
even
Polish
peasant
influenced
by
considerations
lems,
prob-
approaching
was
our
are
other
complexity,
as
ourselves
the
named
(although
question
below,
PREFACE
Vlll
best
study will be
the
as
standpoint
methodological note forming
a
The
present volume.
of the
first pages
the
in
outlined
method
selected rather
was
of
exemplification
the
object for
convenient
and
Polish peasant
the
but
ff.),
74
pp.
scope
of
this
fact
appreciated by having
our
in
mind.
consists of five
work
The
Volumes
in their character.
the
organizationof
and
community),and
organizationunder
of
of
system
and
Volume
III is the
nf
a.n
volumes, largelydocumentary
the
I and
the
comprise a study
primary
peasant
of the
II
influence
immigration
to
of the
of this system
industrial
new
America
and
Germany.
autobiography
disorganizationof
in
volved
individual
the
under
from one
rapidj:ransition
Volume
tion_tp_another.
primary group and the
IV
the
conditions
in-
treats
social and
of the
political
reorganization
and
(family
groups
evolution
partial.
of
in Poland
on
the
of rational
V is based
co-operation. Volume
studies of the Polish immigrant in America
and shows
on
the degrees and
forms of disorganization
associated with
a
too-rapid and inadequatelymediated
individualization,
with a sketch of the beginningsof reorganization.
ground
new
We
unable
are
of
recognition
many
sources,
the
to
courts,
record
the generous
but
wish
here
in
assistance
we
detailed
have
way
our
received from
particularappreciation
following individuals,societies,periodicals,
to
express
etc.:
Professor
Stefan
to
Fr.
Surzycki,University of Cracow;
Cracow;
Mr.
Roman
Grabski,Warsaw;
Dmowski,
Mr.
Dr.
Warsaw; Mr.
Jerzy Goscicki,Warsaw;
Professor
Hupka,
Wladysiaw
S.
Priest
Jan
ix
PREFACE
Starawies;
Gralewski,
Eileen
for
Society
the
(Berlin:
Institut
Gazeta
Stanislawa
the
R.
Dr.
A.
Gol^biowski)
S.
Chief
Cracow
two
(TowarzysLand-
Mary
Hunter,
and
the
officials of the
Stanislaw
Tygodnik
Mr.
Rutkowski,
(Posen:
Gospodarski
(Posen);
the
Juvenile
Charities
the
Court;
Coroner's
the
keepers
the
Judge
Chief
probation
of the
Municipal
Pinckney,
W.
District;
Chicago;
the
Olson,
United
Northwest
County
Miss
(Warsaw:
Narod
Poznanski
Bartelme,
records
Criminal
Mrs.
Malinowski,
Poradnik
Dziennik
Bertling).
O.
Kosmowska)
(Mr.
Amerika
Proszynski,
M.
M.
Zgoda
Chicagoski (Chicago).
Judge
probation
Cook
Warsaw
Women
Karl
Dr.
Simon);
Merritt
Judge
of
Mrs.
Krakowie)
Country
United
of
Irene
Zorza
Dziennik
the
County
Miss
Justice Harry
Chicago;
Society
the
Tadeusz
(Mr.
Gustaw
Brownsford);
K.
the
of
(Warsaw:
Domanski);
Stanislaw
(Chicago);
of
Umiejqtnosci
Drechsler,
W.
Malinowska,
(Warsaw:
D.
the
Society
Zaranie
Polski
Joel
Wychodzcami};
Knowledge
Swiqteczna
Burtnowska);
Arnold,
of
(Towarzystwo ZjednoczonychZiemianek);
Residents
Mr.
Vilna;
Association
(Akademia
Krajoznawcze);
Mr.
nod
Opieki
of Sciences
Academy
the
Protective
Emigrants'
(Towarzystwo
Kulikowski,
Chicago.
Znaniecka,
The
A.
Mr.
Court
the
keepers
Victor
P.
and
Officer
keepers
of Cook
of
County;
Chicago, particularly
officials
of
of
Probation
officers
of
Court
of
the
records
of
the
Legal
of the
records
Aid
Cook
of the
Office.
W.
I. T.
F.
Z.
CONTENTS
PAGE
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
INTRODUCTION
*The
:......
VOLUMES
TO
AND
II
87
Family
Peasant
87
'
........
yMarriage
106
"
in
Class-System
^The
^Social
128
Environment
^Economic
Religious
Society
Polish
140
Life
and
Attitudes
Magical
205
.
Theoretic
FORM
AND
and
Aesthetic
FUNCTION
Specimen
OF
Peasant
CORRESPONDENCE
156
288
Interests
THE
PEASANT
LETTER
303
Letters
BETWEEN
308
MEMBERS
OF
FAMILY-GROUPS
.316
.
Borek
Series
317
.
Wroblewski
Stelmach
Osinski
Gosciak
Markiewicz
Series
Series
Series
325
379
394
Series
451
Series
455
NOTE
METHODOLOGICAL
One
is the
of the
tends
ready
active
to
let
to
and
individual
or
social
moral
religious,or
marvelous
The
the
analogous
be
procedure
Our
able
actual
gives
While
but
reason,
attitude
objective
realization
our
of
our
in
"legislation"
will
or
is not
world.
of
an
Our
in
shall eventually
same
not
simply
some
success
we
in the
due,
technique
apply
to
us
toward
This
measure.
to
historical
the
to
mental
funda-
any
reality is
social
the
of
is four
in
"moral
tendency
constitutes
at
old,
suasion"
with
rational
to
immediate
any
centuries
shows
control
the
to
is
this
that
social
in
growing
insistent
an
act
confidence
our
regard
present
controlled
be
can
demand
social sciences.
demand
for
so
the
far
as
whole
this
rational
of
based
were
stabilityof
in
nature
independent
as
and
increasing rapidity
control
that
But
the
it
reason
only
our
rational
that
this line is
only by treating
on
whim
acquisition.
recent
idea
confidence
us
inefficiencyin
of
our
dissatisfied
mere
reality.
social world
the
that
social
the
limitation
fact
by
reality invite
to
control
to
without
preconceived philosophical,
upon
attained
material
controlling nature
less and
generalizations.
results
of
sphere
or
are
more
a
upon
rational
on
and
evolution
and
We
go
more
based
body,
life.
processes
feel
we
interference
active
any
social
any
of social
conscious
in social
assume
interference
with
in
which
growing importance
technique
less
significantfeatures
most
social
upon
evolution.
the
social
results
control
The
of
assumption
framework
stabilitywas
real.
old
and
In
an
were
a
the
from
forms
of
essential
effective
stable
social
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
the
made
errors
phenomena
imperil the
in
treating the
seldom
of
existence
the
if
group;
and
uncommon
a
manner
they do,
has
"
to
take
an
"
developed during
of beliefs and
the Polish
example
centuries
many
rules of behavior
to
as
then
the
inevitable.
rare
peasant community
complicated systems
social
sufficient to control
life under
the
when, owing
and
its contact
social evolution
the breakdown
to
with
more
becomes
more
complex and
rapid and
is
no
time
elaboration
of control, and
adequate means
be
passivelyborne, but every one must
no
met
fluid
world,
the
crises
for the
of
mately
approxi-
crisis
hi
same
can
more
be
or
less
or
even
thousands
of years
ago.
METHODOLOGICAL
of
that
is
crisisby
an
most
"
"
"
of the undesirable
decree.
Dhase
of natural
bringinga
of
thought
s
of the desirable
the appearance
or
and
na,
oldest but
The
NOTE
to
decreed
technique.
determined
desirable
both,
effect is
enforce
the
more
less
or
of which
and
the
magical
the essential
means
consciously
In
phenom-
the action
the effect
is
merely
an
act
new
of will with
introduced, instead
of
material
new
trying to
find and
of
not
sories
accesremove
he
A
good instance of this in the
perturbing causes.
social field is the typicallegislative
procedure of today.
It frequentlyhappens both in magic and in the orderingand-forbiddingtechnique that the means
by which the act
of will is helped are reallyeffective,
and thus the result is
attained,but, as the process of causation,being unknown,
be controlled,the success
is always more
less
cannot
or
the stabilityof general
accidental
and
dependent upon
enditions; when
these
are
effect
for the
subject is unable to account
reaiBlrof the failure and can only try by guesswork some
)ther means.
And
this accidental
even
more
frequenttl^an
is the result that the action bringssome
but
iuccess
effect,
appear,
ailjig^h
ot
the desired
There
md-f
the
one.
is,indeed,
one
difference between
orbidding technique
xpressed act
the person
or
of will may
body
from
and
magic.
be sometimes
which
it emanates
In
a
the
ordering-
social
real cause,
has
life
an
when
particular
ORGANIZA1
PRIMARY-GROUP
of those
techniqueas such.
was
a
legislators
the
and
under
efficient cause
not
the
order
change the
or
hibition
pro-
of
nature
prestigeof rulers,ecclesiastics,
The
condition
old
the
whom
to
this does
ION
making
of will
act
an
an
regimes,but
in the modern
partlyor completelyrepublicanorganizations.
based upon
"common
sense"
A more
effective technique,
and
representedby "practical" sociology,has naturally
originatedin those lines of social action in which there was
in which
the hoc
either no place for legislative
measures
or
volo,sic jubeo proved too evidentlyinefficient in business,
in charity and
philanthropy,in diplomacy, in personal
etc.
association,
Here, indeed, the act of will having been
recognizedas inefficient in directingthe causal process, real
"
for every
are
real
cause
sought
by
rather
directed
possibilities,
and
and
more
to be shown
efficient method
of action is
The
is the latent
manifest
or
we
live in it,and
relations
as
certain
acquaintance with
same
world
have
as
because
the
them.
in the ancient
we
on
The
that
the
attitude
act
in
mere
it,and
common
of
sense
know
know
It
social
things
assume
empirical
our
is here
about
the
the
physical
that therefore
we
specialand thorough
basis of "common
we
new
exposed.
we
can
basis
assumption that
live and
the
we
be introduced.
often been
rightof generalizingwithout
investigation,
on
to
if
removed
suppositionthat
realitybecause
and
and
many
can
sense."
The
good examples
lead, such as the
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
adaptationof
degrees of
are
is to
appliedin
success
in
exercised
elements
Two
errors.
many
the
over
success
in
is the
one
other
the
environment;
of
reallyarea
large
very
denotes
found
are
adaptation;
every
for
of which
partialfailures,each
of
number
and
"
allowance
they make
low, because
very
be
societymay
human
of
subjective,and
large extent
standard
the
proof
forget that
thoroughly,we
that
success,
is
his environment
to
this environment
that he knows
there
the individual
or
one
varying
portions
pro-
control
actual
claims
is the
the
this control
control
to
serves
within
the
given
the individual
better control
the group
or
or
of claims
range
proves
either
can
in
And,
sufficie
in-
develop a
fact,in
every
important
very
of his environment
in
absolutelysuccessful.
is due
practicalsuccess
limited
truths
number
of the
in which
In
this way
and
always
in
the
does
far
so
or
the individual
how
and
of
much
this
luck, even
doubtful.
Finally,the
practiceare always
of individual
as
singular,
are
the situations
finds himself.
acquaintance with
only in the
actually control it;
as
they are perfectly,
chance
mere
knowledge
real
as
remember
we
becomes
we
social data
comes
must
the
in number
the well-known
part of practicalwisdom
general terms;
and
acquire in practice
generality. Thence
in
he
if
and
concrete
stated
to
individual's
considered
And
test
the individual
knowledge
are
the
the
only in
of truths
that stand
schemes
be
which
be true
can
Thus
can
particularmatters
his schemes
role.
fact that
acquired7by
"
cannot
acquire it
be
afresh
METHODOLOGICAL
by
of
kind
personalityand
sense
both
and
insignificant
sociologythat
to
remain
in the
for his
own
of
he
based
individual
on
own
particular
use
which
his
encounters.
common-
experienceare
subject to innumerable
exceptions.
condemns
itself
necessarily
accepts them
same
methodologicalstage, and a practice
them
be
must
activityof
is the
demands
learningto
constituting the
generalizations
upon
the
situations
concrete
that is,by
"
construct
to
of the
schemes
as
life
apprenticeshipto
experiencesaccording to
select
based
NOTE
as
every
insecure and
full of failures
as
individual.
an
"practical" sociologymakes
the level of popular generalizations
effort to get above
vidual
by the study of social realityinstead of relyingupon indi-
Whenever,
this
now,
it stillpreserves
the same
method
the
as
experience,
individual in his personal reflection;
^investigationalways
reference to practical
aims, and
g^es on with an immediate
the
standards
ground
This
the
of
which
upon
is the
second
results of work
been
theoretic
and
undesirable
problems
efforts that
enormous
social reforms.
to
The
have
example
techniqueshould
have
science and
material
that
scientific investigation,
which
only a
the
are
preparatory
are
approached.
fallacyof the practicalsociology,and
this standpoint are
proportion
from
quite dis-
the
to
desirable
the
recently
of materials
of
shown
physical
long ago
is
quitefree from
useful
practically
study crime
from
war
the method
must
And
or
as
of the
be excluded
this has
not
the chemist
studies
dyestuffs. But
tions
study itself all practicalconsideraif
we
want
the results
to
*"
be valid.
sociology. !
yet been realized by practical
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
realityshould
with which
norm
implicit
be intrinsic to the
may
is that
standpoint here
usual
The
things is normal;
be
it may
or
explicitor
an
comply.
The
norm
it is presumed
reality,as when
actuallyprevailingtraditional
the
of
state
customary
or
when
extrinsic,as
that
of
moral,
and
the norm,
far abnormal.
so
But
essential
the
abnormal,
abnormal
the
case
is the
with
disharmony
is the
the
in
exceptional,
the
constitutes
an
the
In
norm.
second
case
first
it
exception,but
of
generalmethod
empiricalstudies.
introduce
we
for
artificial;
determined
It is the
at
if these
only
on
terms
the
criterion of
normalitymust
normal, not only a
in the
life and
limited class of
different stages
through
whole
social
of
varietyof
group
once
have
basis
of
be such
as
to
allow
certain determined
facts,but also
which
we
us
to
are
be
the
include
stage of social
the whole
phenomena.
of facts that
meaning it can
and
investigation,
a
^ The
definition
going
to
series of
and
the
priori
investigateas
a
METHODOLOGICAL
abnormal
has
immediate
two
attention is turned
NOTE
to
First,our
important
consequences.
such facts
as
the
seem
most
as
conspicuouslycontrary to the
practically,
being most
for reform.
and
But
the
norm
insistently
callingmost
important may be quite insigthings that are practically
nificant
theoreticallyand,
have
to
seem
view
The scientificvalue of
other
the
contrary, those
fact
depends
in this connection
facts,and
which
no
be the
may
on
its connection
on
the
most
with
commonplace
valuable
while
preciselythe most
ones,
stirs the moral feeling
a fact that strikes the imaginationor
be reallyeither isolated or exceptional,
so
or
simple as
may
facts
often
are
involve
fruitful.
normal
any
There
and
only with
But
the
the
the
continuity between
life that would permit
concrete
correspondingbodies
of the normal
theoretic abstraction
and
the abnormal
can
be
of material,
perfectlyunderstood
of this
fallacy. When
of the investigation,
starting-point
other consequences
are
is not
result but
it is in this case,
practicalcustom
moral, political,
religious
view, claims to be
as
every
abnormal
and
to
The
result is harmful
treat
as
suppress
all the
contrary
to
the
every
whatever
both
practice,as historyshows
a social technique based
social
mined
deter-
as
help of comparison.
the
there
norm
in
the abnormal
the nature
by
in
break
no
separationof
exact
and
is
in
and
does
not
practiceand
as
we
see
at
agree
in
habit,
or
the
norm
with
theory.
every
it.
In
moment,
tends to
norms
pre-existing
social energieswhich seem
to act in a way
demands
of the norm,
and to ignoreall the
energiesnot
upon
included
in the
sphere embraced
by
the
ORGANIZATION
the
practicalimportance of
it simply harmful instead of
the techniqueand often makes
its basis
useful. In theory, a sociologyusing norms
as
deprives itself of the possibilityof understanding and
This
norm.
PRIMARY-GROUP
Indeed,
controlling
any important facts of social evolution.
social process of real importance always includes a
every
of the
change
by the
embraced
norms
undergo
religion,
and
Traditions
norms.
an
evolution
and
of the
activity
customs, morality
that is
and
more
more
moments
when
social^crisis
the evolution
of
norms
becomes
with
whole
last
centuries
two
which
system,
begins to
be
may
before
retreat
socialism
state
quite different
or
something
quite new.
Thev third fallacyof the
sociologyis
common-sense
the
of
perhaps unconsciouslydrawn
social organization,
in which the
groups
of facts is
In
any
certain
kind
individuals
as
are
are
not
used, and
will take
able and
they will
from
of
practicallife.
activityonly
it is assumed
part in this
actions of
that
only such
particularorganization
METHODOLOGICAL
that
may
army
corps
NOTE
isolation of
of facts from
group
the
The
reallyand
these
and
social
actions.
The
task
of social
theory
of these systems; it begins,
tendencies not harmonizing
techniquelies outside
for
introduced
in the
the workmen
system of organizedactivityonly
is a permanent
at
of
moments
crisis,
artificial,
abstractlyformed
of facts such as "prostitution,"
tion,"
"crime," "educagroups
"war," etc. Every singlefact included under these
is connected
ties with an
generalizations
by innumerable
indefinite number
of other facts belongingto various groups,
and
If
these relations
start
we
to
give to
study
every
these facts
as
fact
a
different character.
whole, without
heeding
their connection
with
come
necessarily
quite arbitrarygeneralizations.If we
these facts in a uniform way simply because
start
to act
we
must
to
upon
their abstract
essence
seems
to be the same,
we
must
sarily
neces-
tions
produce quitedifferent results,varying with the relaof every particular
to the rest of the social world.
case
This
does
not
mean
that it is not
posteriori,in
the
same
way
as
the
distinction
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
12
between
the
normal
first be taken
belong, and
the abnormal.
and
in connection
the
which
problem
the whole
with
question of
The
in
must
which
to
later isolation is
shall treat
we
facts
they
ological
method-
later part of
this note.
There
fallacies involved
other
two
are
certain extent
to a
in social
react
same
their individual
to
external
profitin
and
that
(2) that
The
assumption
influences is found
them
given conditions,
favorable
create
to
give birth
of
identical
in the most
reactions
or
to
or
various
identical
to
lines of traditional
are
assumptions
about
all the
parties,
to
illustrate it.
the
this
"motives"
in order
enable
given tendencies.
suppress
social
conditions
which
from
way
it is sufficient to
unfavorable
remove
in various individuals
influence,tendencies
therefore
it is
therefore
that
develop spontaneously,
men
uniform
regardlessof
influences
same
identical behavior
full and
the
or
possibleto provoke
by identical means;
without
to
way
of the
In
of education
the former
of the
behavior
all the
of the
of
and examination,
investigation
based
courts, are essentially
principle. Considerations
traditions,habits,temperaments,
of
etc., enter
the
variety of
only
tally
inciden-
in the
objectivesystem
in the American
of laws
juvenilecourts,
and
an
rules.
And
where,
attempt is made
to
as
base
aristocratic class do
has
Poland
all
understand
alone, without
And
of the
innumerable
departments
Polish
pay
of
people than
the
to
to
the material
psychology of
who
and
and
tangible,
and
we
know
realize almost
how
the material
And
ascribe
to
of
which
objectiveprincipleson
tends
to grasp
perfectplans of
in the absence
while
it is easy
science of behavior
attention
more
could
examples
in the absence
that
social reformers
not
Polish
with
universities.
be cited from
no
the
association,
only a privatephilosophical
literature
than twice as much
originalphilosophical
been published recentlyas in Russia with her eleven
endowed
to
in
in
than
Russian
In
conditions
Northern
the saloon
universityand
more
hinder
not
and
France
America.
external
favorable
uncommonly
with
in
peasant community
necessary
Southern
Polish
would
which
conditions
a
exist in
life may
family
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
the
and
material
people
concrete
are
them
ditions
con-
to
ceive
con-
ments,
improve-
has
sciously
rely,and unconpreponderating importance to
he
can
always due
to
attitude
scientific
a
on
lack of theoretic
the part of the
the unavoidable
They are
meeting
actual
without
interruptionand
The
at
who
men
to
be
do
serious
the work.
of the necessity of
Social
once.
has
of
abilityor
consequence
situations
business
sociologyare
common-sense
life goes
controlled
at
on
every
the educator or
politician,
charity-worker,finds himself continually confronted
by
social problems which he must
new
solve,however imperfect
moment.
and
v-
of
provisionalhe knows
evolution does
not
man
or
his solutions
wait
for him.
to
He
be, for
must
the stream
have
imme-
V
METHODOLOGICAL
and
diate results,
it is
NOTE
merit
15
on
and endeavors
they can be reconciled,
well as he can
the social reality
before
as
to understand
such a
acting. Certainlysocial life is improved by even
is able to give;certainly
control as common-sense
sociology
for the ultimate balance
effort should be discouraged,
no
favorable.
But in social activity,
even
more
proves usually
the common-sense
method
is the
than in material activity,
wasteful method, and to replaceit graduallyby a
most
efficientone will be a good investment.
more
as far
objectivity,
as
no
doubt
be handled
issue from
it is the
techniqueand physicalscience.
future situations and
in stock
prepare
We
same
must
as
in material
be able to foresee
we
must
have
and objective
knowledge
largebody of secure
whether foreseen
capableof beingappliedto any situation,
that we must have an empirical J
or unexpected. This means
and exact-, social science ready for eventual application.
And such a science can
be constituted only if we treat it
and
end in itself,
not
to something else,
as
an
as
a means
if we give it time and opportunityto developalong all the
lines of investigation
if we do not see what
even
possible,
of one
be the eventual applications
another of its
or
may
V^
results. The example of physicalscience and its applications shew
of
economical
that the only practically
way
pendent
creatingan efficient techniqueis to create a science indea
of any
one
be
to
practically
applied. The contrary attitude,the refusal
recognize
any science that does not work to solve practical
problems,in
science and
a
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
curious
addition
the future
what
may
horizon.
applied; we
of
applications
do
do
know
not
what
know
not
We
the
both
shows
it is constituted
be the
of
inefficiency
analyzed above,
have
we
of mental
narrowness
that
leading to
practicewhich
what
are
to
and
they
future
of
arise demanding
problems may
attitude toward
solution.
The
justifiable
only practically
and disinterested help.^
science is absolute liberty
society and
Of
social
what
this does
course
not
that
mean
hand
technique,as
effort should
an
and
application,
field
if it
soon
be
can
technique should
new
actual
is constituted
social
; such
But, just as
none.
discovery is
it a practical
scientific
to
find for
as
be made
the
applied in some
particular
take the place of the old in
this field.
if no
As
can
of the
one
and
must
science must
greater the
interest
of
required. This demand
is as important for science
practicalapplicability
for
value
theoretical,
of the science.
be
appliedproves
experience,that it is
can
that
test
of
its method
assume
able to grasp
is
reallyexact'
a
in her
itself
but
practical,
science
it is
thereby that
applicabilityis
science must
the
ultimate
whose
reallybased
as
of the
results
upon
lems,
great varietyof prob-
a
"
that it is valid.
The
which
salutary responsibility
own
interest.
METHODOLOGICAL
If
attempt
we
determine
to
now
NOTE
of
that
is evident
in every
material
the
would
social practice,it
comparison freely,in
all its
of the
endeavors
complexity
actual
civilized
of rational practice.
science,a determined
other
its full
assumes
be
theory that
with
and
control
is sought in most
here, as
social
should
of situations,for it is the
But
what
of modern
societythat
17
significance
only
we
can
of
use
distinguishthe essential
the complex, the
the accidental, the simple from
from
And
fortunately social life
primary from the derived.
gives us favorable conditions for comparative studies,
in the coexistat the present stage of evolution,
ence
particularly
of
alike
certain
in
order
if
body
of civilized societies
number
fundamental
their
societies
fruitful.
should
we
like
societies,
differ
And
by
social
to
reconcile
no
own
this
is, ethnography
"
have
has
of
scientist to understand
own
which
been
done
up
both
us
have
we
to the
primitive societies
relation
help
cultural problems only to
their
attitudes
sejcondary,
though by
importance. Their
mediate; they can
and
civilized
interest
situations with
as
work
scientific sociological
history
but which
make
non-white
organizationand
own,
civilized societies,
the lines
"that
those
their
future.
with
contrast
exclude
means
our
experimentsand
our
from
Chinese, whose
profoundly from
as
In
the
in
differingsufficiently
general national spiritto
and
traditions,customs,
sufficiently
problems to make
cultural
comparison possible,and
comparison
to
the
the
actual
to
no
social
and
present
social
negligible,
practice is only
means
to_soJYe actuaL j
practitioner
degree that they help the
cultural life; they are auxiliary,
scientific value
the
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
studies.
and
understand
to
sphereof
of the main
progress
and
the
savage
we
civilized
our
knowle.dge_Qf
remains
always a basis of comparison,
present life,which
conceived
the past and the primitiveare
ogous
analwhether
as
must
use,
or
not,
consciously
with, or
as
and
less objective
The
the
more
of the
critical our
knowledge
subjectiveand unmethodical
past and the primitive;unable
is
to
unconsciouslybend
the civilized.
of the
present,
interpretation
our
see
limited character
and
our
the relative
which
we
live,
unfamiliar
phenomenon to the
social personality.A really
limitations of our own
objective
therefore
understanding of history and ethnography can
be expected only as a result of a methodical
knowledge of
we
every
that
the contrary
of the
common-sense
committed
"
point
to
be
by the observers
of their
own
of the fallacies
a
or
fallacyusually
of other
ties
socie-
litterateurs,
travelers,popular psychologists,
journalists,
In
Still
harmful
for the
METHODOLOGICAL
We
all more
are
or
less
to
attribute it
mainly
**
In
order
avoid
to
NOTE
guiltyof
to
Herbert
19
this
fault,but it pleasesus
Spencer.
there
interpretations
societies
We
can
study monographically whole concrete
with the total complexity of problems and situations which
their cultural
constitute
social
life; or
we
can
problems,followingthe problem
number
social groups
of concrete
group
with
regard
under
the
influence
the
to
of
and
in
on
special
certain limited
studying it
particularform
the
work
which
it
in every
assumes
conditions
prevailingin this
complex meaning which a
the
society,taking into account
cultural phenomenon has in a determined
cultural
concrete
In studying the society we
environment.
t
go from
in studying the
to the problem, and
whole
social context
problem we go from the problem to the whole social context.
is to start
And in both types of work the only safe method
with the assumption that we know
absolutelynothing about
the group
the problem we
to investigate
are
or
except such
materials
purely formal criteria as enable us to distinguish
belongingto our sphere of interest from those which do not
But
this attitude of indiscriminate
belong there./
tivity
receptoward
data should mark
only the first
any concrete
stage of investigation that of limitingthe field. As soon
become
as
we
acquainted with the materials we begin to
select them
with the help of criteria which involve certain
and
scientific hypotheses.
methodological generalizations
This must
be done, since the whole empiricalconcreteness
be introduced
into science,cannot
cannot
be described or
cally
explained. We have to limit ourselves to certain theoretiimportant data, but we must know how to distinguish
,
"
which
"
are
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
20
procedure
the
with
case
able
and
methods
become
is to
theory
exactly and
be
must
and
mature
more
conscious
with
them
apply
to
science
carefullydefined
of its
is the
precision,as
advanced
own
physical and
previous discussion,will
intrinsic criterion
and
secure
there
Now
| practice
two
fundamental
the
center
are
constituted
have
organizationand
culture upon
the first
is
problem
produce with
the
the
social
of the
the
social group
help
of the
individual
social
of
organization and
include
kinds
the
of data
that
1
the
Of
course
attempt,
the
kinds
concrete
by appealing
which
attitudes.
two
of
will be
so
to
desirable
the
of the
of
type
that it must
involved
namely,
in them
members
of
must
practicaltask
may
the
be
as
to
produce
or
"
the
both
as
the
subjective
social group
taken
include
existingattitudes,to
organized
technique
it is evident
really,
of data
the
produce, with
characteristics
the
group,
in the
the second
And
we
moral
become
we
culture P1
theory is to
both
shall
characteristics
shall
and
to
moral
practice,How
members
If social
and
constitutingthe
existingmental
Practically,
existingsocial organizationand
individuals
in
social
of
question,How
and
means
organizationand
dependence
problem
of the
problem
the individual.
expressedin
help of
of reflective social
Ji}^the
upon
(2^the problem
culture, and
only
which
practicalproblems
are
of the individual
dependence
the
"
our
science.
of attention
These
all times.
in
of
"
the criterion
an
and
"
correlated.
problems, as
establish educational
when
we
tions
institu-
have
many
kinds
of
consumption
the
the
determines
real
of individual
process
or
con
possibleactivityof
th
"
of the
to spend th
tool; the tendency of the spendthrift
coin;
and
understand
we
individual
to use
differen
activity.
sciousness which
the
refer to many
for it may
meanings,
By attitude
the
divinity;the
ing a
devotion
manifested
in the
cult of th
interest in
creating,
understanding,or appl)
scientifictheory and the ways of thinkingimpliedin ?"
allthese
"
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
22
are
attitudes.
The
"^
--.--
in
counterpart of the social value; activity,
is
the
bond
between
them.
By
whatever
its reference
lorn
activit
to
isolated by
in connection
attitude is a
other states
of the
psychological
process
with
to
some
social value.
first of
individual.
same
treated
taken
as
"
primarilymar
and
taken
first
Individual
ps
t
chology may later re-establish the connection between
psychologicalprocess and the objectiverealitywhich h
been
severed
by reflection;it may
study psychologic.
METHODOLOGICAL
conditioned
as
processes
world.
the
In
various
attitudes
social character.
the facts
by
same
NOTE
social
way
of
and
the
tive
objec-
later
nect
con-
determine
his
original(usuallyunconsciously
it is the
But
going on in
theory may
individual
an
23
toward
account,
we
attitudes
the
used for
the
something.
this fundamental
Taking
continue
may
to
use
which
terms
same
distinction of
psychological
processes,
for
standpointinto
different classes
individual
of
psychology has
common
"
constituti
conscious
life
exact
of its
applicationand
actual
It would
use.
its
be
methodologicalvaliditytested
therefore impractical
to attempt
establish in advance
the whole
when
that the
But
we
say
ir
t(
terminologyof attitudes.
tudes
data of social theory are atti-
embrace
the whole
of
matter
philologyand
science,etc.
in order
to
established
include the
object-
exact
more
culture and
aims.
own
This
limitation
naturallyfrom
or
of human
values
as
will
There
are
the
necessityof choosingbetween
fundamental
serve
numerous
as
data
basis
values
"
attitudes
correspondingto
quite
acters
char-
generalization:
every
attitude,
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
24
and
correspondingto
attitudes
numerous
therefore,we
we
which
attitudes
of its data
the contrary,
If,on
different actions
as
of attitudes
and
There
is therefore
no
of human
culture like
which
actions
from
are
the standpoint
in them
of giving to
possibility
a
its
methodical
as
tudes
atti-
tific
scien-
be subordinated
must
to
results
from
necessarily
values.
For
of aesthetic
or
is taken
itself in
economic
changes
objectivedata
study
theorician of
important and
it manifests
subordinated
are
sciences in the
a
"
language,art, science,economics,
of these
these
to
the contrary.
Now
such
essential
interested
are
attitudes
investigation
; either
or
we
importance in
same
itself upon
of human
them
treat
we
when
and
values
base
be considered
can
when
completely different
values.
always
purposes, and
by
or
political
are
generalizationmust
characters
as
are
gious
example, the generalconcepts of economic or relithat we have neglected the whole
values, this means
Scientific
is
be
may
which
for
.varietyof
"
to
that
means
values
variety of
have
this
solidarity,
of the attitude of
general concept
regard
and
in them
with
actions
different
compare
value; if,
every
that
art
to
values
the very
"
it
point
stand-
specialization
an
economist
into consideration
changes introduced
values, and
an
only
attitude
in
so
far
into the
is defined
sphere
exclusively
which
it acted
and
the
objective
results of this activity. But unless there is a specialclass
of cultural values which
the object-matter of any
not
are
other science,
and unless there are specialreasons
for assignupon
by
NOTE
METHODOLOGICAL
ing
be,
as
shall see,
we
phenomena
the
no
doubt
economics
be
theory
or
may
of
groups
for
special
should
or
and
literature,art
technique,are alreadymore
and,
respectivedisciplines
and
There
language and
that
point
stand-
same
such
morality should
object-matterof
shall
we
whether
doubts
some
religionor
as
included
reasons
to
the
duplicationof existingsciences.
fr useless
mean
attitudes
subordinate
and
take
latter cannot
the
presently
discuss
which
problem
"
25
stitute
con-
there is
science,
less adequately
while
needing perhaps
internal reforms, do not call for a supplementary
by sociologyor "folk-psychology"(Wundt).
treated by the
some
treatment
But
doubt
no
that
"
"
have an
lacking. Ethics,psychology,ethnology,sociology,
interest in this fieldand each has occupiedit in a fragmentary
But in ethics the study of attitudes
and unmethodical
way.
of
has been subordinated
to the problem of ideal norms
treated
behavior, not
conditions
valuable
be
worked
in the various
but
social
its work
is
out.
of
in itself,
and
under
gation
purely theoretic investiEthnology has contributed
sense
these
mainly descriptive.Of
in the exact
method
end
an
adequate method
no
can
as
we
the
found
races,
sociological
shall
speak presently.
we
have
indicated
datum
in the
above, the
sei.se
given to
attitude
is not
this term
by
covered
chological
psy-
individual
26
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
psychology,and
^\ ps
method
this is true
of research
entityand
isolates him
the individual
takes
which
from
his social
as
distinct
environment, whether
analysisthe content
by introspective
and form of his conscious processes, or in order to investigate
the organic facts accompanying these processes, or, finally,
his behavior as reaction to
in order to study experimentally
certain stimuli,finds necessarily
only psychical,
physical,or
connected
with
and indissolubly
facts essentially
biological
in order
to
determine
psychical,
physical,or generallybiological
such
reality. In order to reach scientificgeneralizations,
method
the assumption of the universal
work
must
a
on
and identityof human
nature
as far as expressed
permanence
in these facts; that is,its fundamental
be
concepts must
the individual
such
-
all
as
of them
beings,some
apply to all human
conscious
beings, and individual differences
as
to
reconstructed
of the
with
the
state
as
be
variations
sities,
background, due to varying intencombinations
of essentially
the same
fact is
Indeed, as every psychological
and
qualities,
these concepts
must
to
fundamental
same
universal
help of
even
processes.
of the individual
of these facts
as
fundamental
depends on
of such individual
the
the uniformity
reality,
and uniformity
permanence
realities. The
either
as
identical
essentially
which
must
are
limited to
be treated
into
elementary
that
can
be
in all conscious
certain number
of
presumably
they happen.
as
the
same
wherever
and
ever
when-
METHODOLOGICAL
find
numerous
studying conscious
have
their
monographs
listed
phenomena
which
in
source
of these conditions
as
stillbe
states
of individual
without
in
beings,but
with
to
common
are
supposed
general, but
not
are
vary
conditions,and which
same
mere
and
can
but
psychological,
as
nature"
"human
specialsocial conditions,which
in the
27
individual psychology.
psychologyis not exclusively
But
We
NOTE
in
the variation
all individuals
therefore
as
to
treated,not
self-sufficientdata
necessary
any
pations
occupolitical,
professional
groups, correspondingto special
and interests,
provoked by specialinfluences of a
activities and legal
social milieu,developed by educational
The
for
current
social from
"social
etc.
measures,
term
of social
conscious
life.
Indeed,
every
manifestation
of conscious
life,however
be treated as
can
simple or complex, generalor particular,
anattitude,because every one involves a tendency to action,
whether
this action is
physicalchanges
to
in the
of
mechanical-activity
ducing
promaterial world, or anjittempt
process
mental
social
which
ar.tivity
or
expression,
And
does not
even
mere
find
given moment
jsensualapperprocess,of
ception.
at the
can
be treated
28
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
may
"idea"
they
reasons
of such
phenomena
attitude when
constitute
artistic works
of
has
certain class
others;
festation
mani-
any
member
of the group
in connection
with
this group,
environment
and
as
relations
well
as
as
in social
scientific theories.
psychology
is
this
well
beliefs,technical products
religious
or
no
lifeof any
of the natural
data
the
study
social group,
given
the exclusion
to
meaning by
to
taken
monographs
such
and
"
or
personal
it undertakes
sphere of experienceof
the
sphere includes
economic
in
found
of the conscious
an
even
"
is
psychology,when
phenomena
prioriwhich
others
to
the
become
may
thus social
conscious
individuals
other
to
be communicated
can
which
And
accessible
which
content
some
as
and
fore,
If, there-
limit themselves
to
as, for
tion
beliefs,etc., the limitaoccupation,common
religious
be justified
by the social importance of these
may
phenomena or even
by only a particularinterest of the
of social
author, but it is not necessitated by the nature
the conscious phenompsychology,which can study among
ena
occurring within the given social group, not only such
as are
peculiarto this group as a whole, but also,on the one
hand, such
as
to all conscious
be
peculiarto
But
life of
of
a
individual
the
course
not
social group
have
hand, the
the
generalizing
the
psychology at
general purposes
one
to
be
common
of social
its
psychology assumes
as
task
data
in the conscious
importance for
same
given moment,
or
the purposes
even
of every
is to reduce
science in
as
far
as
may
for
On
describingand
possiblethe limit-
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
30
be found
can
between
them
sensual
for
of
possibility
^between
attitudes have
their
and
actual
an
the natural
remains
investigation
words, those
other
In
the
to
there is
as
co-ordination
or
for social
as
psychology,
task of individual
conscious
physicalworld
no
attitudes,the natural
interest
immediate
no
the
perceptionor
long
As
subordination
if,
"
within
of social conditions.
variation
the
cultural attitudes
the
and
can
ogy.
psychol-
phenomena
responding
cor-
introduced
be
into
social
not
"
but
"
values.
attitudes
the members
among
which
of
are
a
more
less
or
social group,
generally
have
real
enlarged in
directions if the
two
problems
concrete
of social
it. It may
include attitudes which
psychology demand
of the social group
are
particularto certain members
or
in the group
only on rare occasions,as soon as they
appear
social importance; thus, some
reason
a
acquire for some
personalsexual idiosyncrasywill interest social psychology
only
to
if it becomes
other members
of
hand,
social,but
for
objectof
of the group
manifest
as
to
the
imitation
or
if it
or
psychology may
themselves
with
physical,environment
of indignation
helps to
attitudes
as
more
an
On
standing
under-
an
other
the
be extended
regard, not
to
to
such
the
of the individual,
soon
as
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
vy
if it
problem
psychological
Jogy
or
thus
has
to
subjectiveside
usuallyascribed
"psychology in general."
of consciousness
evolved
perform
to
heretofore
have
science
of the
generalscience
we
psychology
have
to
during
under
proved
as
the
arts.
part of
to
claim to be the
It may
in
manifested
psychol-
and
culture,,
"
its
generalauxiliaryscience,
to all the specialsciences dealing with various spheres of
that social psychology
This does not mean
social values.
ever
can
supplant individual psychology; the methods and
is to render
function
standpointsof
not
for both
sciences
these two
are
to fulfilthe function
either of them
were
service,as
difference
of the term
use
by
permit
other,and, if it
of the
emphasize this
different to
too
be
distinct
"psychology"
advisable
even
to
terminology.
But
we
searches
sphere of interest of the various rethe attitudes prevailing
called sociology.Among
within a group
some
only in individual
express themselves
but
uniform
actions
multiform, isolated or combined
or
usually,
only in actions. But there are other attitudes
which, besides
though not always, the most generalones
in actions,find f\
like the first,
expressingthemselves directly,
and /
also an indirect manifestation
in more
less explicit
or
central
the
"
"
"
"
formal
of behavior
r.ules
tain,to regulate,and
by
to
which
make
the group
more
tends to main-
generaland
rules
"
customs
and
obligatorybeliefs
and
rituals,legal and
aims,
etc.
"
arouse
more
fre-
its members.
educational
a
twofold
/j"
\
32
interest.
We
demands
supposed
to
those who
existence
with
the
of
and
rule.
rule shows
But,
there
that
group
which
is
all
by
are
do not
if
even
some,
only
fullyharmonize
one
certain
the rule is
as
members
of the group
individual
an
individual,or
by
even
the rule,becomes
forms.
the attitudes
values
"
value
is
value.
byHieT
in reflection,
himself
to which
appreciationor depreciationis
In this way
attitudes
also
whom
individual
viewed
of
from
and
content^and a_certainmeaning
by another
group,
consciouslyrealized
to
the
on
isolated,attitudes which
Preciselyas far
binding by individual
with
tions
manifesta-
actions is shared
itself in these
manifest
uphold the
it demands
a
actions,as
actions,the attitude
of
certain kind
'action.
as
like
of
weak
them,
treat
may
disagreement
or
a
certain attitude
in various
attached
with
regard
prgvokedjpythem,
are
quiteanalogous to
to
other
any
etc.
economic, artistic,
scientific,
religious,
be many
various
the
There
correspondingto a rule or
action as objectsof individual reflection and appreciation,
and a certain attitude
such as, for example, the desire for
personalfreedom or the feelingof social righteousness may
bear positively
rules and actions,
or
negativelyupon many
vidual.
varying from group to group and from individual to indimay
attitudes
"
"
These
values
therefore, be
the
METHODOLOGICAL
-ith
f
a certain number
regard to their objectivesignificance
more
'
less connected
or
generallycalled
be
in
and
social
in
institutions found
organizationof
social
organizationas
values
to
as
is,attitudes
ing rules
such
far
for
of behavior
and
us
the
5
this fincommon
with
organization,is
social
draw
laence
human
life,from
)ressed
or
to
under
concerned
social attitudes
are
if the individual
these rules
to
nor
the
physicalconsequences
have, but
to
if he follows
or
breaks
his
con-
of his group
will
which
the rules.
there-
And
with
social group,
are
the individual
values
attitudes.
while
"
toward
all cultural
sociologycan
social rules
"
com
their fields
study only
one
to
ar
attitude
of the
values
in their relation
the,
and
this
quiteopposite,and though
individual
social group,
these
to
power
which
it
the values
alTtEeir
reality,
ground
mon
the
time
same
social
the
concrete
the
psychology: that
all their
is
general science
both
at
is so
for him
"ue
the
Dusness
But
thus
and
philology,
supposedlyexpressedin them;
ionalityof
ich their
or
psychology as
ich it studies
in his social
of
social
subjectiveside of culture.
his behavior
not
to
atti-
social institutions.
of social
theory
opposed
studying
specialcultural sciences;
and modionly as influencing
when
subordinate
must
we
constitutes
do in other
we
count
Sociology^as
And
/
totality
the
social group
which
systems
and
institutions,
this group.
social
des
harmonious
concrete
ic
at
NOTE
given
type of
individual
have
We
of interest
includingthe
there
manner
is
which
concern
and
rules,indeed, manifested
these
as
same
It includes
of the group
as
whole.
It is
laws, and
mores,
the
the
especially
members
the group
tural
cul-
constitutes
more
individual
member
each
which
field
In the
interest.
sociological
of
relations between
between
societies.
domain
certain
rules of behavior
active
most
within concrete
methodologicalcenter
those
that social
seen
attitudes found
and
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
34
group-
ideals and
the
which
constitute
organizationand
as
group
distinct cultural
entityand
mere
to control
attain
all individual
alone
not
activities,
directlyits fundamental
those
institutions. Thus
whicih
we
find
social
artistic
regulationsof economic, religious,
scientific,
of technique and speech,and the break of
activities,
even
these
effect of these
than
more
to
the
doubtful,they do
unity of the
the fundamental
exist has
which
must
we
regulationson
association which
cannot
And
group,
concede
very
ence
exist-
productivityis often
contribute as long as they last
cultural
while,on
has been
the
affecting
as
formed
the other
hand,
between
these
which
that
these
the close
rules and
the group
cultural evolution
secondary regula-
METHODOLOGICAL
are
these
above-determined
in the
which
35
actuallydisorganizethe group.
Preciselyas far
social rules concerning specialcultural activities
tions may
as
NOTE
bear
social relations
on
sociology. Of
it can
course
connected
way
with
the rules
be
extended beyond
sociologysjifl^lnbe
fundamental
social institutions,
and
how
investigationof
situation
varies from
to
group
period.
from
and
group
the
period to
part of every
some
the
cultural
etc.
economic, scientific,
artistic,
activity religious,
left outside of social regulation,
and another, perhaps even
"
"
is
economics
the ground
on
economic
or
religious
that
norms
in certain
considered
are
"
social groups
and
in
some
for
a part of social organization,
reallyare
there the respective
values have a content
which cannot
even
be completelyreduced to social rules of behavior, and their
be very small or
importance for social organizationmay
measure
even
even
and
fundamental
attempt
originand
we
at
other
periodsof
clearlywhen
we
social
undertake
evolution.
psychology
the
parative
com-
for
study of specialproblems in various societies,
problems naturallydivide themselves into two classes.
may
under
or
distinction between
sociologyappears
these
We
in other societies
none
The
"
to
explaincertain
tryingto
various
determine
social
investigatesexual
bashfulness
aesthetic
or
amateur
attitudes by tracingtheir
circumstances,as,
love
example, when
group-solidarity,
for
feelingof
showing off, the mystical emotion
Or we may
etc.
attitude,
attempt
or
or
the
to
give
36
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
explanationof
an
laws
their
various
under
appearance
try
to
subjectto
socio-psychological
as when
our
object-matteris marriage or family,
conditions,
tarism
criminal legislation
or
censorshipof scientific opinions,miliBut when
etc.
we
or parliamentarism,
study mono"
graphicallya
with
social group
concrete
and
separation of socio-psychological
thoroughgoing
sociological
problems,
for any
contains
attitudes and
body
concrete
of
material
both.
sequently
Con-
its first
particularly
two
is
limit
in particular,
but must
sociological
investigation
ourselves
to such
general methodological indications as
both.
concern
Later, in connection with problems treated
in subsequent volumes, more
cussions
specialmethodological disor
be necessary
may
place.
chief problems of
explanation. The
proper
The
causal
tion of data
If
must
and
attempt
to
way
becoming, must
understand
to
and
cannot
control
to
technique,it
the
process
avoid
of
there
succession
of
and
cause
of
of
represents
idea of social
processes
the
and
effect.
The
of social
totality
systematization
the connections
between
these
prioritrying to demonstrate
of causality
of application
of the principle
impossibility
processes.
the
problems of
systematiza-
are
and
determination
of which
science
modern
science wishes
is only one
in their
will be introduced
to conscious
arguments
human
or
should
halt social
38
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
And
happen again.
never
may
in
if social
only
it become
can
social
theory
basis
is realizable
social facts in
of their subordination
possibility
or
explicit
assumption was that
elements, a
two
or
individual
an
act
the
or
example
find the
one
act, and
social phenomenon.
social
and
theory
account
another
which
reality,
practice have
is the
tend
to
to
necessarv
soci
in
take
soci
physicaland
physicalphenor
of th
objectivenature
the
calculated
vidual
indi-
an
always
forgotten
depends exclusivelyon
enon
the
composed of
phenomenon
phenomenon,
one
sciously,
uncon-
Following uncritically
physicalsciences,which
determined
phenomenon which
of
social
implicit
is either
of the
sufficient condition
and
social
effect which
an
is
fact
sociaj.
is either
which
cause
The
laws.
to any
causes
in advance
excluded
which
way
and
causes,
of
of
possibility
the
foreseeingand
ceeds
suc-
the ground of tl
on
the effect of
social
phenomenc
depends in addition on the subjectivestandpointtaken b
toward
the individual or the group
this phenomenon an
be calculated only if we
can
know, not only the objectrv
*^S content
has
of the assumed
the
given moment
simple consideration
at
This
both
physicalcause,
but
an
attitude.
objectiveand
Otherwise
because
incalculable,
the
should
that
or
but
for
technician
theorist
like
cause,
have
social
shown
is compound,
and
shall have
to
be
must
subjectiveelement, a
socis
the
to
cannot
cause
beingi
conscious
given
value
simple
includ*
and
accidental
search in every
ai
am
par
METHODOLOGICAL
ticular
or
for the
case
in this way
and
of the group,
of
produces a
them;
various
If
cause
we
are
suppose
means
individual at
same
causes
social
and
of
"
of this causal
statement
our
that
necessary
"insufficient"
no
the
every
uniformly. The
And
such
a typicalexample.
for they are
quiteirrelevant,
are
once
which
"
then
be
exist here
as
individual members
influence him
not
of art is
work
absolute.
for there
can
given phenomenon
or
acting upon
it does
uniformities
the
the
other way.
more
when
even
moments
influence of
is the
to
In
not
in any
not
39
this particularindividual
why
reasons
particularsocietyreacted
this
one
NOTE
phenomenon
sufficient cause,
an
individual
dependence
action,
re-
has
whose
in
explainwhy
becomes
concrete
another
case
which, accordingto
scientific law.
work
of art
or
But
to
legalprescription
regard
without
law, for
to
individual
every
whose
reaction
is not
A,
absurdityby closingits
either
our
satisfied with
eyes
to
statements
the
problem
itself. It is
of causal influences
which
a
majority of cases"
flat self-contradiction,
for,if something is a cause, it must
the same
have by its very definition,
always and necessarily
otherwise it is not a cause
at all. Or it tries to analyze
effect,
hold
"on
true
phenomena
to
them
the
average," "in
actingupon
into
the
individuals and
"
individual reactions
thus
to
find
simple
PRIMARY-GROUP
40
ORGANIZATION
the
complexityof
in which
or
they
personality. Thus,
far
as
complexity of data,
the context
embodied
are
the
with
not
these
data
"
complexity of
the
as
which
on
social data
the
of
complex system
pictureof a talentless
uniform
reactions.
attitude
of anger
of social
and
And,
be
can
the individual
on
provoked by
while
phenomena,
side,the simple
indefinite
an
variety
the very
complicated attitude
usuallyonly in very definite
than
more
this.
Far from
obviatingthe problem
individual
variations,such uniformities
influences
as
For
be found
can
with
constitute
exceptionof
the
of reaction
problem
the
of
social
to
in themselves.
elementary reactions
social
to
deal
members
of
psychology has
If the
identical way
to
sociallytrained
of behavior
to
with
group
less
he meets
react
given
group
in
an
been
impose upon
solving the
than
ditions.
con-
the very
definitions and
problem
social
they have
of defining and
the
training,
do accept such
them, is no
in the
ways
which
of this social
members
certain
thus, because
react
certain
situations
practical
success
product of
predominant
member
every
the
are
act
in accordance
fact
opposite
the
"
the
METHODOLOGICAL
the members
is the
of this
cause
And
41
if
thus, even
social group
NOTE
cannot
react
we
in the
same
assume
to
way
alone
uniformityof environingconditions
in a physicalfact
because it is the particular
effect of certain
of the group who,
social rules actingupon the members
have accepted these rules,
because of certain predispositions,
as
"
omit the
we
"
.and
by
be
at
of different causes,
and
more
counterbalanced
moment
any
and
is in fact counterbalanced
frequentlywith
more
the
progress
of
civilization.
In
value
short,when
is of itself the
it is then
that
assumes
spcjaj_theory
certain social
cause
reaction,
to ask:
"But
"
change
I
appears
activityas
as
sense
existed before
of the
If
of the group.
of social
new
features.
we
changes, every
it is
Necessarilythis
ity
product of individual activvalue and in so far original
as it has not
a new
the importhis activity,
but in certain cases
tance
every
culable
itsincal-
character particularly
striking.We
inexplicable
therefore almost despairedof extending consistently
and
have
cause
as
organization
inexplicable,/!
particularlywhen
"original,"
presents many
point is one of degree,for
is in
social
PRIMARY-GROUP
42
the
ORGANIZATION
principleof causalityto
while it stillseems
to us
that
From
it isneither
changesbrought into
a Napoleon, a Marx,
change brought by
his relatives
The
s
work
or
of the
social
an
peasant who
starts
of small
creative process
into
his farm.
the
and
which
makes
certain
produce
new
the
The
may
be thus
few months
a
or
therefore the
and
an
is
more
generationsthan when
days, or that by dividing
cause
of
in
By
destroy its
by a proper
machine
we
can
in which
social change
social elements.
we
conceptionthat
elements
and
ganization
or-
equivalent
creative process
in social
change
of mechanical
but
are
idea that
is equivalentto
irrationality,
theory faces
against
ordinary man,
existing
conditions,
the
individual
lawsuit
increase
to
small
explaina
object
nature, importance,complexity,of the
accumulation
on
the Great,
in the
activity,
problems put and solved.
produced by a great man
combination
Charles
The
of
or
explainthe greatest
to
tendency to modify
toward
everyday
individual
than
land
piece of
by
Bismarck
rejectcertain existingvalues
values.
to
of his attitude
him
or
the
ever,
methodological standpoint,how-
buys
human
less difficultto
nor
"great men,"
do understand
we
average
the
more
the activities of
it is
must
performed;
include both
to
explainthe
action in different
simplest social change. For the same
social conditions produces quitedifferent results. It is true
stable the results of
that if social conditions are sufficiently
METHODOLOGICAL
certain individual
least in
actions
sufficient
NOTE
are
more
majority of
product,that the
againsta member
bonds
result of the
of his
him
between
judge'sactivityin
incarceration
and
this holds
know
of
case
allowed to
which
or
of
set
not
as
lawsuit
dissolution of
family
case
remain
But
all
stable.
In
will
be
idea of
not
family
suit
prevailin a peasant group, the lawprovoke moral indignation
; if the action upon
ceased
judge has
a
technical
peasant'sstartinga
to
this verdict
to pronounce
crime because
of
method
which
ceases
to
be
conditions
change of political
if convicted,will be
publicopinion,the offender,even
free.
certain
factory,the workman
finish his product; assuming that the
the
treated
will be
strike in the
has
solidarity
will
criminal
determinable,at
permit an approximate
this member,
only if social
true
to
familywill be
and
a
less
or
cases
We
calculation.
practical
activityof a factory-workman
43
permits
us
to
determine
only
of
problem
and
demands
as
from
group
action
effects in
have
may
granted.
Both
to group
and
have
indeed
certain societyand
its character
from
to
determined
at
completely-^different effects
other periods.
epoch
certain
in other
and
its
epoch.
and
degree
A
tain
cer-
calculable
period,but
societies and
will
at
PRIMARY-GROUP
44
And
thus
ORGANIZATION
social
absurd
in itself is the
of social
cause
it
effects,
tifically
scienity
activ-
then
must
ask:
"Why
certain action
"
The
fundamental
psychologyand
of both social
methodologicalprinciple
without which they
sociology the principle
scientific explanation is therefore the following
"
reach
never
^an
Qu^CCo
"wv\,V"t^^"W"^
the universe.
"
one:
The
another
cause
of a
social
or
combination
Or, in
The
or
of a
social
social and
value alone,but
is
never
alone,but always a
individual phenomenon.
an
terms:
value
of a
cause
phenomenon
individual phenomenon
exact
more
individual
or
attitude is
of an
or
always a
combination
never
attitude
an
attitude and
of an
value.1
It is only by the
of
application
the difficultieswith
remove
practicehave struggled. If
of
whole
group
know
we
"
the
group,
It may
to which
1
but
cause
of
are
we
call
phenomenon
a
as
value.
also that
social phenomenon
boER^alues
sequence
con-
the individual
(Durkheim).
attitudes,a fact
constitute
fact.
itself
course
phenomenon.
opposed
An
to
attitude
all members
much
be
may
of
an
a
individual,
criticism of
of social theory.
must
Of
in
But
and
if common
this influence
"social"
but it is individual,even
it to
in
or
appeared as
individual
one
we
know
we
be objected that
the
in
of the influence of
or
that we can
principle
which social theory and social
wish to explainthe appearwe
ance
attitude^" whether
new
this
cession
suc-
depends also
treated
a.
on
social
of individual psychology;
a
group,
when
we
oppose
46
PRIMARY-GROUP
in
their
One
shows
If the father's
of these
ORGANIZATION
tyranny is supposed
opposite attitudes,we
of these individuals
element
mon,
( ent
into the
enters
We
causes.
acter
char-
past in order
to
we
facts,but only a
compositionof
com-
differ-
two
simpletask
our
causes,
of these
which
of both
cause
if
But
cause
the whole
their whole
and
ment.
resent-
be the
to
know
must
difference of effect.
explainthe
revolt and
secret
them, if
find
can
materials
our
are
in certain persisting
attitudes of these individuals
sufficient,
expressed in
which acquiremore
words
as
similar
element
and
of the
actions.
we
the conclusion
is,in the
cause
form
We
certaintyas
more
thus reach
We
cases.
or
first case,
hypotheses
compare
that
the
many
the other
of
attitude
in the second
solidarity,
case, the individualistic
personal desires. We have
tendency to assert one's own
thus two completelydifferent facts,and we
do not need to
difference of effects is obviously exsearch farther.
The
plained
what
and is necessarily
by the difference of causes
familial
it is.
The
is the attitude
cause
of familial
solidarity
plusthe tyranny of the father;the cause
attitude of revolt is the tendency to self-assertion
of the
plus
As
the
another
the
take
tyranny
case
communities
there
"
work
Polish
of the
who
as
desire
hard
work
same
individual
during the
as
refuse
pretexts. We
should
do
they
as
much
certain
same
we
western
and
piece-work as
communities
they stay
the Polish
piece-workunder
be inclined
"
show
sible
pos-
can
of these
on
mass-phenomenon
for season-work
peasants when
season
day-work and
to
peasants from
Germany
go to
earnings,while peasants
the
father.
this time
example
uniformly a
and
of the
to
and
at
estates
the most
home
even
and
accept only
ridiculous
METHODOLOGICAL
of attitudes
differ
though they
in Poland
peasants in
the
that
intimidated
because
the
by
of
of
The
causes.
piece-work are
less
owners
The
less favorable
not
certainly
are
in
than
in fact both
the nature
to
as
conditions
the
that
peasants say
claim
47
to
favorable
NOTE
and
the peasants
are
in Poland
laborious
more
in
they find
whole
there.
To
differs. The
social environment
is not
that the
desire of
Germany,
Germany
real
own
in
than
their
on
despotism which
different ; the
are
ever,
environment, how-
of the attitudes.
The
pointis
peasant who goes to Germany is led there by the
economic
advance, and this attitude predominates
of the
during the
whole
conditions
definite
periodof
by piece-work.
home
preserves
work
as
on
an
account
on
to earn
On
being his
more
stays at
toward
old attitude
this attitude,under
"necessary evil,"and
the
the
of work
conditions
work.
estate, produces the unwillingnessto accept pieceboth
Here
attitude
value-idea
and
of the
components
"
cause
"
pre-existing
evidently the
and
differ,
effects
be different.
must
If
now
value, we
of
not
new
influence
work,
season-
an
know
individual
dependent on
But
unless
have
we
we
to
is
this value
that
or
explain the
number
of
we
take
know
also
that
into consideration
appearance
product of
of
the
individuals,and
the
social
activity
in
so
far
is the expresactivity
sion.
result is inexplicable
value (orcomplex of
this
this
48
PRIMARY-GROUP
values)which
of
was
activityand
the
ORGANIZATION
and
starting-point
which
has conditioned
problem
(The new
set
by
The
as
of
reality
only when
objectof the attitudes
can
of the
understand
and
the
effect of both
common
an
of
"
it enters
of the group,
this
effect,only if
when
"
social
we
as
of a mechanical
activity even
manufactured
thing acquiresits full
product
activity,such
much
as
value
pre-existing
the result
value
the
is socially
valued.
meaning, which
know
we
what
is
was
an
the
And/
essential part
the
component
of
the
the
cause,
effect
the
"
new
will be
direction?"
tutions
examples,the American social instiand interference,
to
try, by a continuous supervision
the
develop a strong marriage-group organizationamong
Polish immigrants who begin to show certain signsof decay
the relation between
of family life or among
whom
husband
To
and
take
some
wife and
standards
further
children
does
not
come
up
to
the American
results of this
being
of
constructive
rather destructive
activity
in
new
great
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
49
the
of the individuals
with
into
take
social coherence,are
constitute
scattered
In
new
conditions
we
shall
not
it.
changing
losingmost
but
as
yet, in
some
communities
institutions,
family institution.
graduallydissolve,and
in later volumes.
process
or
the
of their
of this coherence
these
that
these institutions
sudden
standing
misunder-
universal,and
thus
But
lution
the disso-
the American
it,a
activitymeets, without realizing
of social values which
are
completely strange to him,
which his activitydirectlyaffects without his knowing
social worker
and
and
important is
the most
study this
is
whole
brought from
which
The
devoid
entirely
and
vague
among
set
stillnot
measure,
have
whom
from
and character
life-history
they deal, but without
in their efforts.
progressingmuch
comes
whole
in his
ference
is concerned, any interfamilyorganization
social authorities
of external powers
or
political
mental
act dissolvingly
it,because it affects the fundaupon
As far
as
the
"
"
must
thus
the
natural
consequence
of the
well-intentioned but
insufficiently
enlightenedexternal activities. The effect is
tion
brought,not by these activities alone, but by the combinaof these activities and the pre-existing
peasant family
organization. Of course, if the family organization is
PRIMARY-GROUP
50
different
has
ORGANIZATION
if,for example,in
"
already taken
the
place of
of
trie
the total
of the
different attitude
marriage-group
large family the effect
the
protectiveand
attitude
the
given case
"
is different.
cause
the
for
if
Or,
hensible
peasant incompre-
social worker
court
or
is
officer
"
of the
component
"
is no
cause
longerthe
the attitude
"
as
expressedin
action
same.
interesting
example is the result of the national
persecutionof the Poles in Prussia,the aim of which was to
Folio whig all the efforts
destroy Polish national cohesion.
Another
which
the
powerful Prussian
Poles, national
and
elements
national
lower
as
cohesion
has
the national
problems
the
city classes.
The
"
the existence
and
could
in
very
Prussian
such
government
strengthof
to
of the
not
ized
real-
the communal
in
principle
certain
included
persecutionquite indifferent
majority of
economic, it contributed
bring againstthe
creased,
inlarge measure
organizationhas
before the
were
state
than
solidarity
ing
and by attacksociety,
classes,religiousand
the positiveefforts of
the
they wish
an
to
ideal
common
rational scheme
a
see
The
produced
plan
or
tendency
of the
of reformers
social institution
abolished,and then
would
to
late
formu-
perhaps
METHODOLOGICAL
lead
a
to a
of individual
sum
NOTE
51
if social lifewere
actions, every
of
one
regardfor tradition,every
exclusivelyin the psychologicalnature
afresh without
source
and
any
merely
them
starting
one
having its
of the individual
IJutas
wellsocial
in the
and
reformer.
and
well-directed
action of the
masses
pletely
perfectsocialistic organization,ignorescomthe influence of the whole existing
social organization
will co-operate with the revolutionaryattitudes of
which
in producing the new
and this,not
the masses
organization,
only because of the oppositionof those who will hold to the
scheme
of
condition
will thus be
Of
course
rules for
many
an
we
attitudes
not
practice. On
values,as
will continue
definingsituations,
integralpart
do
of those
many
assert
of the
of the
themselves
masses
causes
used
by
social
the contrary,
we
and
way
theory or
very
of formulating
reflective
frequentlyfind
it
man,
the
shopkeeper, and
the
use
politician
it very
PRIMARY-GROUP
52
and
ORGANIZATION
systematicdevelopment, while
been
used
the wrong
formula
has
very
to enforce
stopping to
their
generalor
at every
step we
taking into
our
upon
The
whose
what
try
to
intention
source
various
and
the
at
produce certain
the result of
chief
their dominant
are
try
we
without
attitudes
in
given moment;
efforts will
our
step
other individuals
prevailingattitudes
account
which
upon
sociology.{At every
law, ethics,and
already there
and
much
as
depend
as
persistence^
of this great
consequences
we
methodologicalmistake,
have
shown
characterized
relyingbesides
and
instrument
upon
for the
years
ago,
lible
physicalforce as a supposedlyinfalproduction of social uniformityand
standpointwhich
only if
justifiable
universallyuniform
a
would
human
and
be
and
scientifically
technically
attitudes were
absolutelyand
social conditions absolutelyand
universallystable.
A
development
would
of
the
necessarilylead
PRIMARY-GROUP
54
be assumed
ORGANIZATION
be permanent
to
and
prove
less
complex
than
if only we
its facts
proper
methods.
of complexityis due
prepossession
treatingthe social reality. If it
The
of
social world
has
be treated
will not
the natural
determine
and
in this
And
necessary.
by
expressionor a product
of the psychological,
of
nature
or
physiological,
biological
human
beings,then, of course, it appears as incomparably
more
complex than the natural world, because to the already
to
inexhaustiblycomplex
of nature
is added
numerous
and
various
an
conscious
human
various human
if
But
ways.
as
organism
social group
as
part
there
in
beingsinteracting
are
the most
we
naturalistic
prepossessions,
simply as a pluralityof
ing,
data, causallyinterconnected in a process of becomspecific
the questionof complexity is no more
for social
baffling
any
theory, and
even
may
prove
it is for
science.
"""1
The
difficulties if
When
we
our
have
certain cause,
follow.
found
that
But
of
is
determin^.
acjequajrely
only one
example, that
that
assume
cause
further need is
to
For
when
determined
we
know
when
that
when
effect,
the attitude A
plus the
dependence has
employed.
have
of
special
any
explainapparent exceptions.
this need of explanation,
which is the stumbling-block
theory that has defined its facts inadequately,becomes,
the
on
actuallypresent
been
the formulation
this
The
not
facts have
physical
expectedeffect C
does
not
the proper
a
we
have
cause
assumed,
value B is the
cause
appear,
certain
this
method
cause
can
for
of
either that
METHODOLOGICAL
we
of C,
assuming that
or
action of
some
first case
the
our
in
NOTE
other
-f-Y
second
A +B
X-\-B
the
cause
by
X-\- Y.
or
the
In the
of correcting
possibility
it permits
case
the
was
interfered with
was
or
exceptiongives us
in the
error;
cause
55
extend
to
us
our
ing
knowledge by findinga new causal connection,by determinthe partly or totallyunknown
A-\-Y or X-\-B or
cause
which
X-\-Y
has
A -\-B and
case
of the
becomes
interfered with
brought
the action
effect D
complex
of
known
our
C-\-Z, instead
law
law.
This
Suppose
the
we
social
is
value
B, another
value
ne^v value
are
nowhere
an
is the effect.
If the
there is
whenever
or
appears,
by
an
attitude
and
A+B
causes
E,
D-\-E
values involved
of course,
one
activitydirected
else,because
or
then,
and
attitude
only in
found
of
logical
validity.
laws concerning
find in the present work some
life of Polish peasants showing that whenever
attitude A and the influence of a
pre-existing
there
not
application,
of their
some
are
"
the laws
components
tudes
the atti-
peculiarto
A-\-B
"
and
D-\-E=F
will be
laws applicable
particular
only to the Polish peasant society,
but within these limits as objectively
valid as others which
ity
social theory may
to humaneventuallyfind of applicability
them
in general. We
extend
cannot
beyond these
limits and
do
not
need
them.
to extend
are
the
not
causes
societies.
Then
peculiarto
the
+B
can
=
the situation
and
the values
and
peasant society,
Polish
and
But
also in other
be found
C and
D-\-E
F, based
on
56
PRIMARY-GROUP
facts discovered
But
other
the
these
values
societies until
character
of
be
produce the
since
and
F.
and
laws
our
are
same
know
cannot
we
hi
not
or
investigatedthese societies,
have
we
they
that in other
found
D-\-E
And
quite a
whether
sure
have
we
and
A-\-B
causes
cannot
we
societies until
respectiveeffects
whether
Polish
among
different meaning.
societies the
ORGANIZATION
remain
must
until then
termined;
unde-
whether
lutely
definitely
they are absovalid though applicableonly to the Polish peasants
only hypotheticallyvalid although applicableto all
cannot
we
or
say
societies.
The
problem
methodology,
of laws
mechanism
Let
important
The
do
we
we
in these illustrations
use
is to
purpose
take
us
second
described
as
thoroughly social
of
quantification
does not
determine
of facts
only
second
system
tendency
are
found
we
to
subsumed
advance
can
"
even
volumes
if
the
of this work.
to
social fact;
advance, and
the formula
individualistic
generallyamong
assume
obtain
we
nomic
eco-
thus
The
expresses
as
such
the formula
the
this attitude
is the
empiricalfacts
our
same
"
tendency
facts
of
constructs
that
familial system
system.
We
organization
This succession
economic
nomic
eco-
individualistic system
an
we
out
by
the values.
any
of the
character
qualitative
and
social values,succeeded
a
already
hi the introduction
find there,first,
a system of familial economic
with
are
insightinto
give an
as
to
that the
of the research.
with
crete
con-
stillhypotheses,others
are
of
one
two
reallyassert
not
course
of them
some
fictions.
mere
the most
we
examples. Of
supposed laws which
established ;
being
to
being
localities,
METHODOLOGICAL
it is
law
applicableonly
NOTE
57
to
to all
or
societies
such
familial economic
a
depends on whether
organizationassociated with a tendency to advance results
always and everywhere in an individualistic system. We
that if
further determine
may
but
instead
attitude
in
power
for
"
the
"
economic
These
for
"
other
political
concentrate
will
be
different
hereditaryestate.
"
Or
for
we
"
individualism
formation
another
advance
acts
tendency to economic
for example, a fullydeveloped
system
different
upon
of
system
advance
if the
find that
may
result
the
family
feudal
desire to
the
example,
the
example,
we
"
example,
the
to
different social
constitution
of
in turn
become
trusts.
the bases
of social
tendency
but
no
to
in
advance
formation
tends to advance
Polish peasant
of the individualistic
as
a'
whole.
has been
In this
hindered
family group,
the family
system
case
by
There
"
we
some
must
suppose
factors which
may
very
in all the
members,
in families of
as
peasant nobilitywho
the
tendency
economic
without
range
advance
individualism.
we
have
to
particularlaw
could
if
our
law
it.
But
even
was
too
And
drop
by
be
system of
produce a mixed
of
quantification
will
organization,with
these tests
suppose
to
then
not
we
general,that
these concepts
discovered
does
values
"
for
more
stand
may
but
all
still
within the
limited and
example, that
the
58
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of "work
system
tendency
for
living," under
advance, becomes
to
the
influence
of
system
of the
"work
for
wages."
another
As
type of example
select
we
of
common
if science
the assumptions
way
could be verified,
modified,complemented,
sense
rejected,so
or
in what
to indicate
try
particularcase
assumptions are
are
uncritically
make
to
as
objectivelyvalid.
them
For,
is
another
claims
to
her money
various
times.
After
some
of
witness
who
be
law
such
might be
(2) an
where
law
if
individual
nobody
with
lias determined
It is
supposed that
It is the formal
that
is important.
say,
"The
bearing
on
witness
the
and
explainedcausally.
attitude
true
how
which,
put
sworn
reasons
the necessary
attitude
we
admit
few
or
of method.
statement
There
and
is
(3) a
lacking;
is
in connection
testimony,and
produce
both
may
are
element
to
Whether
often
ined.
exam-
be determined;
second
problem
of this statement,
the
the
knows
nobody
$, still to
here
But
course,
we
attitude
testimony.
true
goes
exception."1 But
no
are
has
for
to pay.
The witnesses
bring witnesses.
which we
assumption of legalpractice,
she
years
Both
court.
First
to
at
such
"
therefore,of
attitude.
an
whatever
it is"
exceptions, whether
many
truth," has
general statement
limitation
are
not
we
the slightest
and
groundless
"
limitation
cannot
be
METHODOLOGICAL
automaticallywhen
appears
in the
if not
in many,
it
case
the
defense,but
lying.
false.
explanation
if
knew
we
what
testimony, determine
influences
have
simply to
use
the
supposition
is
We
there
or
But,
of
could, of
for true
what
the
were
knowing it,
not
tion,
generaliza-
common-sense
In
were
plaintiff,
is necessary
not
other
some
of the
possible?
it was
why.
its action.
hindered
that
Not
attitude
why
Naturally
What
course,
is taken.
of the witnesses
some
59
of cases,
majority
proved mainly
our
the oath
if it proves
false,and
proves
we
NOTE
as:
are
"
be converted
law;
tertium
"
to
produce
lie.
attitudes,and
we
because
they bring
are
the suit is
honesty or
only problem
in
altruism
is
"
court
are
the lawsuit
"
explainedby
influences
lawsuit
or
the
essence
of
most
lie
certain preexisting
in
case
the
considerations
fightwhere
any
Here
Once
weight,and
we
the
have, indeed,
if
changing either
Thus,
testimonies
was
logical
a socioverified,
sufficiently
attitude result
and a radical fighting
Apparent exceptions will then be
attitude.
act
hand,
fightingattitude.
longerof
no
the
become,
false testimonies.
started
was
to be beaten.
not
that may
law
into
the other
on
acting upon
preciselythe
started,it becomes
of
formula
this
again
factors
discussing. The
example
have
must
which
And,
say
we
quid
in order
cannot
we
cause
can
into
real.
the
for
the
But
the
would
woman
without
in
case,
the
was
true,
plaintiff
ctaim preceded the
probably
as
have
not
long
as
the
60
PRIMARY-GROUP
suit
were
accepted as
been
considered
precedingthe
binding, and
the worst
suit was,
in
false claim
solidarity
would
possibleoffense. The
short : law permittingthe
of money
of communal
started considerations
not
was
ORGANIZATION
refused
have
situation
recovery
creditor's
feeling
of being wronged and
desire of redress
legalcomplaint.
for the
There
was
no
cause
making a false claim possible,
for the peasant, can
be here only a means
law, subjectively
to
pay
"
"
of redress,not
of redress
only attitude
solidarity.
It would
lead
us
too
far if we
by legalpracticein
made
mention
other.
one
absurd
the
without
money
have
it in
is the
communal
invested
The
claim
it at
wrong
way,
offset
not
by
not
and
the desire
the
feelingof
but
we
treated
had
loaned
of the
good
this
that
plaintiff
determined
any
since he does
of illicitwrong,
means
it sufficiently
to use
master
as
she
interest,while
interest and
in
more
she
secure
could
way.
sufficient to determine
to
add
as
many
the effect.
new
It then
of
generalizations
becomes
the
same
sary
neces-
type
62
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of
discover.
may
We
remember
therefore
must
that there
is
less risk in
in the
be extended
The
all societies.
over
ideal
social
of
/\theticscience,is
of
theory, as
other
every
nomo-
facts as possibleby
interpretas many
that is,not only to explaincausally
few laws as possible,
as
societies at particular
the life of particular
periods,but to
these particular
laws to general laws applicable
subordinate
the historical
to all societies at all times
takinginto account
evolution of mankind
which
data
continuallybrings new
to
"
and
addition
social
thus forces
facts and
new
to
already discovered.
those
such cannot
theoryas
method, but
search
to
us
test
for
But
its results
new
the
laws
in
fact that
by the laboratory
the
logicalperfectionof
its abstract analysisand synthesis,makes
the problem of
control of the validityof its generalizationsparticularly
important. The insufficient realization of the character
rely entirelyon
must
of this control
works
sociological
between
have
nomothetic
social
'
chief
science
above
science and
be
must
the
fulfilling
realityor
evolution.
This
reach
to
outline
tions.
themselves
in
common
domain
their
whole
essence,
which
of
problem
upon
hence
it embraces
the
unique process of
becomes
particularly
testingthe generaliza-
variety,not
and
determine
the
distinction
the
to
attempts
when
we
social
theory as
from
clearlydistinguished
any
of social
marked
in the
why so many
mediary
compositions,inter-
reason
of
character
philosophy and
mentioned
philosophy of
essence
bear
the
of neither.
demands
We
been
has
the
empiricalfacts
lying
their under-
upon
every
new
discovery
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
63
immediately,either by corroboratingit
it.
And,
scientific laws
as
facts
concern
by
to
the
law
happenings in
new
be
must
taken
into
by invalidating
or
which
the future
to
the domain
consideration
repeat
as
well
embraced
as
either
essential criterion
the
thus
of
social
science
as
contradict
it,forcingus either
it by other
no
placein
rejectit or
to
to
ment
supple-
social
experimentalfailure,and
helped them
to
to pass
the modern
from
natural
thus
the
naturalis
philosophic,
the mediaeval
science.
The
experiment has
of
use
follow their
unapproachable essences
and
meanings
they properly
where
different
tance
impor-
"
ultimate
test of social
throughout the
theory,as
we
have
;cs
emphasized
applicationin
and
practice,
thus
its
64
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
of the
physicalsciences are
in industry,
but
application
the
is made
also
ultimatelytested by
their
basis of
the
laboratoryexperiments.
The
difference between
experiment and applicationis
twofold:
(i)yfheproblems themselves usually differ in
complexity./The experiment by which we test a scientific
in view of the specialtheoretic
law is artificially
simplified
problem, whereas in applying scientific results to attain a
practicalpurpose we have a much more
complex situation
the use of several scientific laws
to deal with, necessitating
and the calculation of their interference.
This is a question
shall deal presently. (2)^0.laboratory
with which
we
value
experiments the questionof the immediate'practical
failure is essentially
of success
excluded for the sake of
or
their theoretical value.
Whether
the chemist in trying a
combination will spoilhis materials and have to buy
new
will be worth
combination
a new
supply,whether the new
test
more
less money
or
standpointof
even
will be
science
valuable
more
more
the elements
of
chemist
success
asked
soap
in
and
risk the
used,
from
are
the
completelyirrelevant questions;and
than
on
practicewe
have
or
failure in view*
to
direct the
factoryshould
test
destruction
the trail of
new
law
success
an
scientificresults in
value
than
once
on
law.
But
in
the
essentially
applying
practical
It is unthinkable
that
kind of
production of a new
his theory by direct application
of
hundred
thousand
dollars
of
experiments
the
are
question of
the
men;
the
bearing of
his
"experiments"
affected
by
them.
are
He
exclude
on
the
is therefore
METHODOLOGICAL
seldom
or
in riskinga
justified
never
testinghis theory. Of
not
as
but
scientist,
applicationof
of harm
the
take
can
risks,
that
is,he is
harm
if there
to those
whom
on
practicalrisk involved in
the specialtheoretic risk
idea, not
an
and
practicalman;
of bringing some
he operates.
every
of benefit than
chances
rriore
as
65
he does
course
risk
the
in taking
justified
are
NOTE
involved
it in
he
fact,and
the social
mere
can
secure
at
practitioner
generalizations
hand
to
over
least
approximately
as those of physicalscience,
as applicable
only if he uses the
check
of contradiction
by new
experience. This means
that besides using only such generalizations
be
as
can
contradicted
by
experienceshe
new
themselves
experiencesimpose
search
must
for
form
probabilityhas
to
to
corroborate
may
fullytested
search
those
must
him
institute
not
wait
hypothesisand
search
first of
has
scientist
of
amount
give it some
all for such experiences
-as
to
until he
tillnew
by accident, but
systematicmethod
of observation.
in order
them,
on
must
be
considered
made
subsequently a systematic
for such experiences
contradict it,and proved
as may
contradictions
to be only seeming, explicable
by the
interference
of definite factors.
Assuming
and
now
that
goes
on
social
theory
discovering new
what
which
factorily
satiscan
be
of this
on
social
66
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
in order
already existingattitudes
attitudes,and
attitudes
what
to
should
produce certain
be developed
new
with
regard
to
nature
which
or
in the nature
of the human
mind
would
ing
essentially
prevent social practicefrom attaintrial
that of indusas
degree of efficiency
graduallythe same
practice. The only obstacles are of a subjectivekind.
There
indeed, be
some
regarded
as
meritorious,the standards
to
cease
be
by
of merit
matter
is asked
and
to
anything done
which
be
to
be
is
the results
Social
astonishinglylow.
appreciated are
must
social
results in order
make
are
must,
appreciationof
meritorious
activityas
alone.
traditional
is, first,the
There
practice
treated
as
of his
sure
hi practice,
before trying to apply them
it
generalizations
of merely good will are
is at least strange that persons
and irresponsibly
permittedto try out on societyindefinitely
their vague
and perhaps sentimental ideas.
second
obstacle to the development of a perfect
The
social practice is the well-known
unwillingnessof the
common-sense
to
man
technique. Against
weapon
"
success.
this
This
common
sense
of the
man
that
laughed at
and
is what
of
scientific
one
the
history of industrial
is perhaps not a singlecase
where
to
any
practitioner.It
control
There
techniqueshows.
the first applicationof science
by
the
accept
practiceheld
provoke the opposition
is still within
with
field of
his
the memory
common-sense
citychap
could teach
of
methods
him
any-
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
$7
than skeptical
about the
thingabout farming, and was more
to the growing of
applicationof the results of soil-analysis
The fear of new
things is still strong even
crops.
among
cultivated
that
he
persons,
will meet
hostilityof
common
and
at
almost
sense
to
has to expect
every
science.
He
it and
only accept
of his
superiority
can
it as a demand
the
to show
interpret
methods
by their results.
which social practice
But the most
important difficulty
has to overcome
before reaching a level of efficiency
parable
comlies in the difficulty
of
to that of industrial practice
applying scientific generalizations.The laws of science are
abstract,while the practicalsituations are concrete, and
it requiresa specialintellectual activityto find what
are
the practical
questionswhich a given law may help to solve,
or
what
are
which
may
be used
to
solve
scientist and
the
irrational
and
often
unreasonable
traditional
rules.
And
test.
We
cannot
enter
social
indications
"
of what
into account
which
every
Whatever
of individual
68
PRIMARY-GROUP
attitudes
aim
we
of social institutions
or
never
modify
always
ORGANIZATION
in
"
attain this
trying to
which
want
we
to
use
or
to
isolated and
but
passivelywaiting for our activity,
in active practical
embodied
which have
situations,
been
formed
independently of us and with which our
activityhas to comply.
The
the
individual
the
or
has
group
with
regardto which
appreciated. Every
and
activity
its results
solution of
situation.
in
deal
to
is planned and
activity
concrete
activity is the
this
situation involves
The
of
process
three kinds
(i) The
of data:
"
which
at the
conscious
attitudes
pre-existing
the given moment
at
more
or
(3)The
less clear
conditions
have
pluralityof
hi
combined
tion
of
these
becomes
with
attitudes
and
expresses
itself
these cases,
whose
In
reflex and
and
way
is
and
a
are
which
upon
his
as
instinctive
soon
ness
and conscious-
an
indefinite
definite action
one
can
and
selected,interpreted,
if a certain
that
so
subordinates
certain value
as
will,for in given
attitudes
reached,
and
unreflectively
that
of the
act
any
conditions
determined
attitude
influence
the conditions
given set of
and
possible,
predominant
and
the group
/And
actions is
actual
an
conceptionof
only if these
appear
or
preliminaryto
and
the
directlyor indirectly
the group.
or
(2) The
of the individual
of the attitudes.
is a necessary
individual
of the
status
behavior.
affect
given moment
one
the
imposes
leads at
it appears
systematiza-
once
others.
It
itself immediately
to
excludes
of them
action, or
the others
70
PRIMARY-GROUP
components
by
the
reflective schemes
ORGANIZATION
whole
which
set
of values, attitudes,and
When
of
in
new
cases
social institution
chief element
becomes
an
activity
denced
situation,and this is most
clearlyeviwhere
the activitybrings a change of a
the
whose unsatisfactory
was
functioning
of the firstsituation.
parative
analyzeby a cominto elementary
study the whole process of activity
therefore ignorethe varietyof concrete
facts,and it must
situations in order to be able to find laws of causal dependence
of abstractlyisolated attitudes or values on
other
attitudes and values,the task of techniqueis tf^proyide
"hj^
means
of
situation
rational control
to
of concrete
situations.
The
predominant values
determine
the
or
situation
the
must
find what
predominant
more
than
are
attitudes
others, and
the
which
then
the
And,
if in
given
case
we
know
influences to
METHODOLOGICAL
modification
NOTE
71
want
we
is,either
That
,
fault is then
The
avoid.
"
undesirable
more
the
of
kffl^tance
with
various
change,our
will produce
or
one
wished
we
technical
our
have
we
to
knowledge.
determiningthe
factors,or
produce
activity,
the
failed in
have
we
than
to
relative
failed to
with
which, interfering
causes
evolution
The
modifications
we
can
and
hope
put
of
developments
new
and
technique,and
of social
of social
theory will
in permanent
theory, and
than
we
this
touch
with
requiresa
both
must
therefore
social
far-goingspecialization
more
actuallyfind.
But, however
techniquemay
tinually
con-
within
useful scientificgeneralizations
continual
necessary
Indeed, the
presupposes
form
"
or
the group
"
limits
more
above
is treated
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
72
passiveobjectof
situations for
plans and
becomes
him, from
and
and
both
from
indeed,
And,
the
as
moral
the
and
with
the
our
this method
situations
unexpected from
by the individual's
influenced
more
and
new
change
we
applicationof
difficult
more
complex, more
more
the
But
that
in accordance
to case,
case
intentions.
more
activityand
our
grow
to
case
case,
reflection.
own
the
hedonistic
activityof
stimulations
the individual
from
is controlled
mechanicallyby
ualistic
individ-
and
control
of the
exercised
istic
correspondsto the type of activitycharacterhigher conscious organism,where the control is
from
within
by
the
selective mechanism
of the
While, in the
early tribal,communal,
and
in the
to a large extent
kinship,and religious
groups,
historic state, the society itse\fprovided a rigoristic
and
set of definitions in the form of "customs"
or
particularistic
system.
nervous
libertyof
the individual
to
to
is associated
advance
make
his
own
with
the
definitions.
which
which
have
cannot
assumed
avoid
response
to
the
class of stimulations
And apparently we
societyis able to apply to him.
do find this disposition.Every individual
has a vast
varietyof wishes which can be satisfied onlyby his incorpora-
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
73
I.
tion in
we
(i) the
enumerate:
may
his
society. Among
general patterns
desire for
new
of wishes
experience,for
recognition,
including,
example, sexual response and generalsocial appreciation,
secured by devices ranging from the display of ornament
of worth
the demonstration
to
through scientific
to
conform
vided
it is
to
an
any
to accept anyM
definition,
expressionof
the
"Pro~
publicwill o^jJH
Bne
limited group.
a
appreciationof even
To^fekea Jmgle
mother
example from the present, to be a bastai^Mfrthe
of a bastard has been regarded heretof ojfl^
anything but
desirable,but
we
have
at
this
nations
l^omenand
un'rnj"
girlsand
hu"ands
ft
at
the
of
that
momenj^fcrts
is offiJ[Hp
impregnatingits
one
evd^frried
front. VwiflP
true
women
whose
(which
we
do
PRIMARY-GROUP
74
assume) we
not
have
ORGANIZATION
definition and
new
evaluation
new
of motherhood
are
tractable
so
possibleto provoke
not
highestdegree of
us
assumed,
we
physicsand
securing the
say,
the
of
problem
possiblein view
control
have
we
same
shall have
we
as
of the nature
of
materials.
our
As
to
pretend to
basis.
establish social
It is clear from
workers
in any sense
evidentlycannot
scientific
theory on a definitely
precedingdiscussion that many
and
from
much
the
the
time
will be needed
traditional
body
of
attempt
Our
whole
Polish
limited
even
materials,
to reach
some
task
selves
our-
thinking,develop a
working method, and reach
generalizations.Our
is the
preparation of a certain
if we occasionally
go beyond it and
generalizations.
free
we
of
ways
before
society,motivated
such
incidoptaUUlteons,
at
societyin
the
selection of the
first
by
somewhat
as
the
changes, for
modern
has
attitudes
reconstruBB|
possible,and
sociological
form
he
to
oflife.
^H
ifB
He
"|heir
BK^V
METHODOLOGICAL
advanced
the
upon
of modern
been
invited
construction
new
way
attitudes
by
the
upper
of Polish
NOTE
make
75
to
classes to
national
collaborate in the
life,and
hi certain
lines!
his
These
classes themselves
particularsociological
importance in view of
the conditions in which Polish societyhas lived during the
last century. As a societywithout a state,divided among
three states and constantlyhampered in all its efforts to
and develop a distinct and unique cultural life,
preserve
it faced a dilemma
either to disappearor to create such
substitutes for a state organizationas would
enable it to
resist the destructive action of the oppressingstates; or,
of a state.
to exist without
the framework
more
generally,
in
These substitutes were
created,and they are interesting
sified
intentwo
respects. Fiist,they show, in an exceptionally
and to a large extent
isolated form, the action of
certain factors of social unity which exist in every society
a
"
but
in normal
conditions
are
subordinated
to
the
state
for in
accounted
organization and seldom
sufficiently
reflection. Secondly, the lack of permanence
sociological
of every social institution and the insecurity
of every social
from
value in general,resulting
the destructive tendencies
of the dominatingforeignstates,bringwith them a necessity
of developingand keeping constantlyalive*all the activities
needed to reconstruct
again and again every value that had
been destroyed. The whole mechanism
of social creation is
particularly
transparent and easy to undertheref"j"|here
in generalthe role of fruman attitudes in social
76
PRIMARY-GROUP
lifebecomes
much
ORGANIZATION
evident
than
in
societynot living
under the same
strain,but able to relyto a largeextent upon
the inherited formal organization
for the preservation
of its
culture and unity.
We
which
only
givesthe
in
least
the
inductive
possibleplace for
method
the
selection
materials
proceed
in the most
used.
cautious
But
even
way
form
materials,and
is concrete
has been
ments.
arbitrarystate-
in
any
The
discrimination
to
this work
in
use
more
some
here
necessary
have
we
tried
letters
volumes
have
needed
constitutingthe first two
little selection,
as
relatively
particularly
they are arranged
in family series. Our task has been limited to the exclusion
of such letters from
among
the whole
collection
as
contained
as
In later volumes
the conclusions
the selection
of the
can
be
more
precedingvolumes
severe,
can
as
be used
for
guidance.
The
analysisof the attitudes and characters given in
letters and in introductions to particular
to particular
notes
in the
series contains nothing not
contained
essentially
materials
themselves; its task is only to isolate single
attitudes,to show their analogiesand dependences, and to
interpretthem in relation to the social background upon
Our
which
acquaintance with the Polish
they appear.
societysimply helps us in noting data and relations which
diately
would
perhaps not be noticed so easilyby one not imme-
78
PRIMARY-GROUP
undertaken
it here, is often
played by
of
ORGANIZATION
particularclass
and
group
to
enough
of
to
what
sufficient indications
indications
in
phenomena
in
other
the
taking
societies
as
role is
phenomena
in this way
give us
show
without
exist between
can
then
use
corresponding kinds of
objects of comparative
research.
of
way
The
1.
ualization
forms
of individualization
useful
or
that
sociallyharmful?
organization that allow
individualism
We
have
be
can
What
for
are
the
far is individWhat
considered
the forms
greatest
the
are
socially
of social
of
amount
been
led to
the
suppositionsthat, generally
new
character
or less constructive
depends on its more
that is,upon
it does reallylead to a
the questionwhether
organizationand whether the latter makes the social
influences;
capable of resistingdisintegrating
and that, finally,
an
organizationbased upon a conscious
is the most
ami
co-operationin view of a common
compatible
more
group
individualism.
with
their
and
as
applicationto
the American
2
and
The
middle
Points
would
verification of these
concrete
constitute
suppositions
such a society
problems of
work.
a grateful
social
1
The
and
and upper
following are
classes of Polish
more
directlyconnected
societywhich
do not
appear
with
materials
in the present
on
the
work.
METHODOLOGICAL
individual
attitudes
and
NOTE
79
various
upon
forms
of
social
organization.
The
Polish
attitudes much
individual
to hinder
be very
help
his
be very
activityin
any
inefficient because
him.
under
may
The
these
social conditions.
efficient because
there is little
line he selects,
but he may
there is little to
push
conditions
also
him
efficiency
depends, not
individuals
than upon
more
to
or
activities
is
that constitute
the group,
but also
the
on
more
less
"
"
unavoidable
manifestation
individual,and
how
inborn
of
far is it due
them
social
is skilful and
factors
"
steady and
familial
community, religionand
motives,
etc.
And
to social conditions
a
theory
there
are
influence
draws
into
solidarity,social
magic, economic
in his recent
Delinquent,Dr. William
tendencies
Healy
book
touches
on
the
with
no
of
?
regard to
incorrigible
exercised
upon
play all of
opinion of
and
The
the
the
the
intellectual
Individual
problem
on
the
8o
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
side
same
wonders
in
what
that individual
during his
attitudes
following remark:
"Frequently one
might have been accomplished with this or
if he had received a more
adequate discipline
the
childhood."
in connection
By
with
investigationof abnormal
our
normal
attitudes
instead
of
treatingthem
social
attitude
organization.There is hardly any human
which, if properly controlled and directed,could not be
used in a socially
Of course
there must
productive way.
difference of efficiency
between
always remain a quantitative
individuals,often a very far-goingone, but we can see no
for a permanent
reason
qualitativedifference between
antisocial actions.
And
this
and
from
sociallynormal
standpointthe questionof the antisocial individual assumes
but
no
longerthe form of the rightof societyto protection,
that of the right of the antisocial individual to be made
useful.
division and
problem. The modern
occupational
and continually
organization of labor brings an enormous
growing quantitativeprevalenceof occupationswhich are
almost
completely devoid of stimulation and therefore
The
4.
"
This
happinessprofoundly,and,
to
fact
if
sarily
neces-
only for
labor is among
most
"
METHODOLOGICAL
NOTE
81
of the evil,but
generalcauses
It is
remedy.
organizationof
modern
labor is based
on
of
eventual
an
emphasized that
almost
an
absolute
interests
more
exactly, on the
prevalence of economic
tendency to produce or acquirethe highestpossibleamount
"
of
values
economic
universal
actually so
themselves
express
others
"
either
"
point to
these
and
in
be
because
predominant or
social organizationmore
of
and
men
organization as
necessarilyby economic
exclusivelyfrom
modification
conditioned
factors
a
of the economic
and
because
change of the
by moral or religious
expects
social
are
they
easilythan
moralist complains
investigated.The
of the materialization
interests
considers
the whole
fundamentally and
ment
expects an improve-
possiblehistorically
necessary
organizationitself. From the
serious
sociological
viewpoint the problem looks much more
less
and objectivethan the moralist conceives it,but much
limited
and
determined
determinist.
human
modified
The
attitudes
by
in the nature
an
of
than
economic
among
it appears
interests
others,and
are
every
to
the
only
economic
one
attitude
class of
can
be
in the economic
an
82
PRIMARY-GROUP
where
the
it
was
itself rather
than
Since
attitude
we
ORGANIZATION
every
tends
influence
to
in the work
from
returns
that
"
the work.
social institutions,
may
organizationand
occupational
gradually replace the present organization
may
of economic
demands
productivity. In other
interests
based
economic
in the
is not
on
on
5. The
artistic work.
become
may
relation
of the
sexes.
the many
Among
"
problems
of fundamental
to
us
fallingunder this head two seem
the second
importance,the first mainly socio-psychological,
mainly sociological:(i) In the relation between the sexes
how
can
with
the
reciprocalresponse be obtained
minimum
of interference with personalinterests ?
is the generalsocial efficiency
of a group affected by
(2)How
the various
We
A
do
not
number
of
maximum
of
this
of
our
general character
materials.
of
matters
among
character,while
woman
arise in connection
society. In
and
definite theories.
point any
concrete
interesting
later volumes
concrete
at
man
with
the
study
of
find
we
reciprocal
response
sexes
equallydependent on
of
are
at the
same
this response
is secured
marked
leads
at
the cost
among
to a
of
the
be
There
does
In this
not
seem
to
as
yet any
throw
METHODOLOGICAL
an
classes of modern
both
and
man
society. The
difference between
situations
two
83
interesting
lightupon
these
NOTE
begin almost
woman
the peasants
simultaneouslyto
are
in
far
so
the
as
of
difficulty
tion
solu-
is concerned.
With
regard
woman
attain
can
Polish
our
efficiency,
conditions
that,under
tend to show
of the
social
to
in which
materials
the activities
objectiveimportance more
an
or
less
limits the
which
the
"home
to
woman
peasant
labor based
seems
to
upon
aptitude of
and
successful.
and
point at
one
be
at
between
of social
of
women
far
as
along
which
has
a
woman
been
division
of
is concerned, there
sexes
a
tion
certain differentia-
shows
with
a
the
particular
organizationand
various, and
changing individualities.
abilityof
woman
the
line
present in accordance
efficiency.The
mediation
permanence
As
differences of the
of tasks would
of social
The
societyis particularly
development and co-operation;and
be at least
demands
children."
class of Polish
efficient is economic
preciselyin this
wide
particularly
and
the
concrete,
And, whether
this
conditions,it could
for
from
it is
the
misadaptationsof
organization,and
to
avoid
individual
attitudes
to
social
of human
84
PRIMARY-GROUP
which
energy
with
contrasts
ORGANIZATION
deplorablyin
so
efficient use
increasingly
our
of natural
6. The
problem
"
we
hardly make
can
any
are
among
the
society
energies.
regard to this
positivesuggestions.
modern
our
fundamental
sexes
It
conditions
of human
of making it and
of spoilingit.
happiness,in the sense
But the strikingpoint is that, aside from abstract philosophical
discussion and some
popularpsychological
analysis,
been seriously
studied
the problem of happinesshas never
the consince the epoch of Greek hedonism, and of course
clusions
if they were
reached
more
by the Greeks, even
scientific than they reallyare, could hardly.be applied to
the present tune, with its completely changed social conditions.
Has this problem been so much
neglectedbecause
of its difficulty
or
because, under the influence of certain
in Christianity,
tendencies
immanent
happiness is still*^"
less sinful,and pain
half -instinctively
or
regarded as more
i
as
meritorious
have
things of real significance
about
that may
However
been
said up
if we
happiness,particularly
material
enormous
that
has
been
compare
collected
to
no
the present
with
them
and
the
merable
the innu-
cerning
important ideas that have been expressed conunhappiness. Moreover, we believe that the problem
merits a very particular
consideration,both from the
theoretical and from the practical
point of view, and that
the sociological
method
outlined
above
gives the most
reliable way of studyingit.
and
(nationalities)
problem of the fightof races
7. The
"
Bohemians,
Ruthenians,
Russians, Lithuanians
"
having
86
oldest
practice.
that
would
by
and
cultures
only
as
that
fittest,so
tribunal"?
brought
about
by
cultural
there,
Or
no
are
the
impossible
overcome,
its
bring
to
profiting by
them.
stopped,
the
cultures,
be
that
such
of
their
it.
the
ultimate
the
systematic
in
the
main
in
ideal
be
all
Or
is
possible?
for
not
note
the
imitating
cultures
the
could
of
and
world
this
and
by
it is
problem,
is
of
various
in
.the-eniy
*~
ever
What-
exemplified
work,
be
differences, but
estimation.
and
to
possible perfection,
and
races
being
simply try
sociological study
of
the
technique
cultures
others, but
solution
body
will prove
system?
of historical
this
-of
subordinating
should
greatest
value
survival
social
national
nation
fight of
between
perfect organization of
of
of
possible, will
organization
an
unique
of
would
happiness
fight
perfect
destruction
outlined
as
beginnings
solve
the
that
of the
and
one
the
the
rational
reciprocal acquaintance
may
evident
to
is
the
ity
abnormal-
any
history
such
every
the
case
by
not
law
the
and
experiences
recognition
growing
to
the
this
In
of
differentiation
system
own
of
forms
many
society, and,
result
conditions
contrary,
tion
organizaand
the greatest
world's
conscious
of
tendencies,
must
to
there
Perhaps
differences'
the
on
exclude
organization
finally"the
historical
the
modifying
as
between
individualism
human
such
one
form
perfect
would
expression
an
world's
by
all
automatically,
come
the
widest
border
the
on
highest efficiencywith
and
one
the
of
use
the
if
And,
one
cohesion, that
making
harmonize
Is there
unify
social
strongest
the
lying
sociological problem,
theory and
it
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
"MU~V^
its
way
INTRODUCTION
TO
THE
Polish
The
of the
sense
word, is
law-relatives
the
fourth
the
in
with
family
familial
be
cannot
it includes
the
living
group
completely lacking;
the
the
is
practicallythe
whoever
whether
"
many
persons
locality,but
these
have
Heraldic
considerations
nobility
and
granted
various
in
looser
than
the
type.
We
shall
continuity
that
the
familial
in
not
"
of
the
have
the
earlier
these
real familial
speak again
to
the
idea
importance
be
or
the
on
the
and
of ancestral
of this idea
partly
organization itself,
87
from
live in
one
family
life.
were
the
social
is not
only
of
different
organization in
class-problem.
basis of familial
land; but
is derived
names,
peasants
the
economic
We
son.
times, but
of this type of
to
the peasant
connection, but
certain
of
family
family
considerations
class-distinctions
cult
dead
name
villages where
upon
seems
same
religious,
place among
some
it is
The
with
little influence
certain
with
Finally,there
because
religiousattention
connected
privilegesin
based
connection
same
legends
especiallyif
an
genealogicaltree
connection
conceptions,
formation.
is
member
be
indispensable to
are
ancestors
dead
sense,
life.
economic
or
usually
"
children,may
law-relationship and
mythical, heraldic,
larger
the blood-
limit
two
represented by
and
narrower
their
These
marriage-group,
of the
understanding
because
pair
primary
variable
family
the married
and
the
certain
The
II
including all
"marriage-group."
family-group
The
in
social group
to
up
I AND
FAMILY
family,
degree.
including only
termed
PEASANT
peasant
and
VOLUMES
we
partly
communal
shall
see
from
the
life.
"-"'
88
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
In
the
short,the idea of
unity of
common
origindoes
not
determine
the concrete
but
unity of
the group does determine how far the common
originwill be
traced.
Common
descent determines,indeed, the unity of
the group, but only by virtue of associational ties established
within each new
generation. And if we find examples in
for keeping or
which common
originis invoked as a reason
a connection,it is a sign that the primitive
establishing
unity
is in decay, while the sentiments
correspondingwith this
unity still persist in certain individuals who attempt to
reconstruct
consciouslythe former state of things and use
the idea of community of originas an argument, just as it
has been used as an explanationin the theories of familyand
for the same
because
it is the simplest rational
reason
"
scheme
simple an
But,
as
we
explanation.
of both husband
these
nuclei
nor
with
and wife.
But
it must
be
kept in
mind
that
selves
equally consistent within themequallyimportant with regard to their connection
others
are
neither
given moment,
evolving (in a normal
at
any
and
that
they
are
not
family)toward greater
consistency and greater importance. The nucleus only
of marriage,for
begins to constitute itself at the moment
static,but
then
than
those
unitingeach
husband
of them
and
to the
wife
are
less close
correspondingnuclei
INTRODUCTION
circle may
be
drawn
includingall
marriage-groupmay
any
89
the relatives
both
on
degree. Abstractly
speaking,
be thus
selected
as
of
center
course
real than
more
behave
others, as
is shown
by
they
degree may
the
from
the latter
the
assumed
one
parents
by
alive.
are
couple grows
adopted by
the
community,
long at
so
when
least
as
the
the married
and is
old,its standpoint becomes dominant
But
the community.
at the same
time the
husband
fundamental
familial
it cannot
be converted
relationshipnor
otherwise
it manifests
to, and
in control
by
other
to
exerted
member
one
But
cible;
irredu-
and
personal relation
It may
familial
assistance rendered
in
over,
member
representingthe
between
be termed
itselfboth
any
kinds
group
of the group
as
whole.
economic,
religious,
totallydifferent from territorial,
national solidarity,
though evidentlythese are additional
It is
or
reduced
is
into any
isolated individuals.
and
solidarity,
any
connection
limits
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
go
bonds
shall see
promoting familial solidarity,and we
presentlythat any dissolution of them certainlyexerts a
the
family. And
dissolvinginfluence upon
again, the
the degree of assistance
and
familial solidarityand
of
control involved
should
the personal
not
depend upon
character
the kind
of
the
members, but
only upon
and
between
or
of
degree
their
members
two
friendship.
In this lightall the
that
is,as they
would
of the
family,become
relation of husband
The
the united
and
and husband
families,
were
no
form,
integrat
progressivedis-
perfectlyplain.
wife is controlled
and wife
both
individuals
not
are
by
or
less
norm
representingthe dignity of
and
group
of respect from
wife
to
care
fidelity,
member
of
that
group.
The
husband
comfort
includes
and
obedience,
health; from
not lettingthe
fidelity,
wife do hired work if it is not indispensable.In general,
wife ought to do anything which could
neither husband
nor
lower the social standing of the other,since this would lead
to a lowering of the social standing of the other's family.
of respect,
Affection is not explicitly
included in the norm
As to sexual love, it is a purely personal
but is desirable.
matter, is not and ought not to be socialized in any form;
husband
as
exactlyto
the
or
to
is viewed
with
with
disgustand
is morally condemned.
in
marriage
INTRODUCTION
familial assistance
The
to
91
the young
married
people is
of the
given in
character
manifest
form
the
and
of the institution,
if
we
sense
this character
is still more
in the full
not
It remains
couple.
part
of the
this
understanding on
relative community
an
the
assume
form
to
The
property.
dowry simply
of
members
extent
some
is another
of
couple, composed
must
of
point
of
ones,
only an addition
a beginning of a
The
of
new
some
new
the
one
an
or
this
must
married
different
assistance
because
two
of
proof
families,
the other of
individualization,
familial ties
to
the old
nucleus.
is also determined
The
parents
are
whole, backed
case
it is more
of
privileged
representatives
by
every
other member
of the
because
than this.
the group
as
authority,but
also
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
92
the part of
representativeof the
group.
of the parents
hand, the responsibility
is very
clear in every
On
the
other
to
of undue
"
grow
up
the
economic
parents
family controls
and
matters
are
the attitude
in the
problem
of the
of
parents in
marriage.
their children
as
The
well
they can, simply because they are not full and exclusive
but rather managers
of their inherited property.
proprietors
This property has been constituted mainly by the father's
and mother's dowries,which are stillparts of the respective
familial properties,
and the rest of the family retains a right
if the fortune has been earned individually
Even
of control.
by the father,the traditional familial form appliesto it more
less. Finally,
rather than a proprietor,
or
being a manager
his son
the
the father naturallyhas to retire when
(usually
able than he to manage
the main bulk
oldest)becomes more
as
retiringis
in the familial organization,and
rooted
the
therefore
opinionof the familial group obligesthe old people to retire
if they hesitate.
the matter
In
of marriage the
even
parents, while usuallyselectingtheir child's partner, must
take into consideration,not only the child's will,but also
the opinion of other members
of the family. The
sideration
conof the child's will results,
not from a respect for
of
the
property
"
the
farm.
The
custom
of
importance
not
group,
any
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
94
freedom
from
generalcontrol
of the group
or
of
of its members.
the
As
parents
proportionto
their
duty of assistance
Helping in
obliged to
are
children
assist the
in
housework
and
turning over
the
family money
but the duty of keeping and increasing
earned is not assistance,
Assistance may
the familial fortune.
begin indeed at
the second stage (theboy doing man's work), but then it is
expresslystated
that
of
given sum
personalexpenses
a
is destined
to
in this
it is difficult to determine
the
case
cover
or
primitivefamilial organization
tion of relations.
communism
not
In
to
money,
example,
for
we
have
still
certain individualiza-
in economic
and
matters
differentiated.
sufficiently
But
familial assistance
the
are
differentiation
is
stage, when
fundamental
attitude; and
In the last
retired,assistance becomes
it is
now
the
consciouslymoral
opinion of the familial
a
group.
In
all the
relations between
the children
and
acts.
individual
merits
or
The
it cannot
behavior
by
the
sociallysanctioned
parents toward
not
children
itself in
determined
no
parents and
of
be
bers,
family mempreferences. The only
as
termined
either side,of any behavior not deat least,on
justification
by the familial situation is a preceding break of
of the members
in question.
the familial principleby one
INTRODUCTION
Thus,
the
95
parents usuallypreferone
child
the
to
familial
who
for
oldest
others,but
superiority.
some
in Central
son
in the mountainous
son
who
districts of
home
at
stays
is most
reason
while
likelyto
others
raise
by his
family. And,
are
solidarity,
for
treatinga child
than
worse
others
for
with
them
familial
a
marriage in old
his wife
assimilating
new
instead of
assimilated
The
different form
between
which
solidarity
and
age
to his
in such
against the
way
family,he
own
are
unite
(or widow)
widower
alive the
are
brothers
closer
than
because
sisters,
and
of the
the
between
As
tracts
con-
that,
becomes
between
neither relation is
assumes
In
the
is rather
children
brothers
merely personal,and
long as
children
parents and
connection
in
organization,
therefore,
sisters
parents.
between
solidarity
the children
way
of
in extreme
even,
to hers.
relation
parents
only if
example, if a
and
same
their parents
for
spirit,
the
and
normal
is
and
the
familial
if the
and
sisters becomes
parents
are
constituted
dead,
much
any
the
relation between
brothers
then
remains.
by the marriage-group,does
Thus
not
the
nucleus,
dissolve after
96
PRIMARY-GROUP
the death
group
of the married
it resists
It is true
as
ORGANIZATION
as
that the
within
were
it.
This
familial
the
organizationis not
patriarchal,or else the patriarchalorganization would
dissolve and assimilate this parentlessgroup.
And
this
of
phenomenon cannot be interpretedas a signof solidarity
the brothers and sisters
the young
againstthe old,for among
attitude of authority,and in this case,
the older assume
an
is
one
proof
more
of the
during the life of the parents, any member
all the members
older generationhas a right of control over
as
well
as
generation.
These
general principlesof control
within the narrower
marriage-group and
of the younger
and
of
within
assistance
the
larger
also between
account
immediate
nearness
any
wherever
relatives,
two
is assumed
which
found, an
normally
leads
to
friendship.
In
this connection
it is noticeable
lived from
of social
that
pride are
only secondarilyindividual.
time immemorial
for three
or
four
hi
When
primitive
primarily
family
in the same
when
locality,
or
generationsare known
a
INTRODUCTION
remembered,
97
individual
every
as
at the
time
same
himself
no
individual
can
rise
so
or
fall as
to
the familial
from
As
the
to
it
based
be
of
state
thingsin
which
some
for relatives.
where
localities,
This
does not
the term
tion,
connec-
tion
organiza-
the
of
familial
upon
can
would
personalrelations
no
of
friends outside
in the terminology
"friend"
is reserved
that
personalfriendship
to the realityof the
or
even
acquaintance is necessary
the contrary, when
familial connection.
On
a
personal
relation is thought to be the condition of active solidarity,
have a signof the disintegration
of familial life.
we
An
interesting
point in the familial organizationis the
mean
"/
Generally speaking,the woman
has the familial group-feelings
much
less developed than
the man
and tends unconsciouslyto substitute for them,
wherever possible,
uality
personalfeelings,
adapted to the individof the family members.
She wants
her husband
for herself and is often jealousof his family;
more
exclusively
she has less consideration for the importance of the familial
and more
as
a whole
sympathy with individual needs
group
attitude
of the
of its members;
children
without
chooses
her
woman.
she
often
regard for
friends
more
divides
her
their value
under
to
love
the
the influence
among
her
family; she
of personal
98
PRIMARY-GROUP
factors.
But
this is
ideal is nowhere
no
only
certainlyexert
The
the
familial
the other
on
hand
of the
less,
group-feelings.Neverthefamily these traits of the woman
disintegratinginfluence,both
isolate smaller
in the process
degree;
of familial
in the evolution
to
of
matter
perfectlyrealized,and
is devoid
woman
ORGANIZATION
by helping
by assisting
family members
and
groups
of individualization.
organizationhere sketched
familial life,
but actuallywe
is the
generaltraditional
basis of
find it hardly anywhere
in its full force.
The familial life as given in the present
materials is undergoing a profound disintegration
along
certain lines and
main
tendencies
isolation of the
are:
disintegration
personalindividualization.
Although
sometimes
processes
interact,they
therefore
however,
form
to
common
disintegrationof
follow each
also go
may
better
some
The
of this
marriage-group,and
these
under
the
sometimes
independently,and
on
consider
other and
it is
them
these may
be treated
first of all.
of the Polish
traditional form
The
peasant family
can
agricultural
community, settled
and
at least for four or five generationsin the same
locality
nationality,
admitting no important changes of class,religion,
or
an
profession. As
soon
disintegrationis imminent.
individual
which
enters
into
must
brought
life.
Emigration
Germany
such
many
scatters
into
the
or
broken.
social
Polish
family.
The
changes
from
or
last
the
that in
later the
fifty
years
same
appear,
marriage-group or
community different
family lives,and sooner
be weakened
have
The
changes
old bonds
these
as
thing results
to
from
INTRODUCTION
the
99
of
progressiveproletairization
farmers'
obliges many
country, which
the
inhabitants of the
and
sons
daughters
to
go
service
this,peasants
middle
to
or
may
class within
new
middle
or
at least lower
almost
generation,thus effecting
an
one
rest
of the
indeed
very
family. Changes of
rare, but, whenever
take
new
of
important: the facility
adaptationand the scale of adaptation. For example, the
man
adaptationof a peasant moving to a Polish cityas a workis relatively
easy, but its scale is small, while by
emigratingto America or by risingin the social hierarchy
he confronts a more
difficult problem of adaptation,but
scale is incomparably wider.
the possible
The
effect of these differences on
family life is felt
forms of familial
independentlyof the nature of the new
organizationwhich the individual (or the marriage-group)
may
Two
find in his
seldom
goes
so
pointsare
here
environment.
new
far
as
to
imitate
new
of
new
external world.
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
ioo
If this process
individual
is difficult or
marriage-groupwill
or
unsuccessful,the isolated
have
strong tendency to
will
particularly
appreciatethe
familial solidarity
through which, in spiteof its imperfections,
the strugglefor existence is facilitated,
though in a
return
limited
We
way.
is
solidarity
does not
tend
a
be
to
certain
attitude
Europe,
burden
workmen
standard
of
The
We
find
America
Russian
even
this
and
army,
and
in America, in Western
of
process
adaptation is
easy
but
limited
the individual
can
"
that
attain
but
narrow
workmen
hi
"
There
is stillthe
not
strong
so
family
even
the
and
feelings
South
and
familial
of familial relations.
few unsuccessful
If the
certain minimal
marriage-groupsin
in many
because
revival of familial
idealization
way,
difficultadaptationwill therefore
or
conscious
Siberia,among
among
rather
unsuccessful
limited
fall below
to
while it becomes
life,
an
help mainly
allow
result of
in
say
conditions
as
longingfor
to
make
unbearable.
the
The
of life,
but
marriage-groupis
of rules,valuations,and
sentiments
of the old
community
PRIMARY-GROUP
102
experienceand
ORGANIZATION
his native
and thereby
village,
his social role is naturally
enlarged. Formerly the individual
counted
of a family; now
he counts
mainly as member
by
than formerly. The
himself,and still more
family ceases
to
be
new
all.
at
necessary
because
to
money
the individual
It
gets
is not
needed
alone.
on
for assistance,
It is not
friends
satisfied among
be
can
needed
for
these tendencies
and
companions.
similarityof attitudes
experienceand a
the young
create
a
generation
feelingof solidarity
among
as
against the old generation,without regard to family
community
connections.
no
of
The
longer coincide,but
each
cross
other.
Externally this
stage is easilyobservable
in Polish
have
districts which
old
an
and
emigration. Young
home, but
girlfrom
The
the
emigrant to joinhis
at the
the home
familial
change
feelingsdo
changes.
on
the
attitude
is
with
no
regard
with
but at the
to
other
an
curious, sometimes
very
time
itselfin
members
active
an
put forward
of
dependence
far-going,sometimes
the
and
group,
expression. The
under
profound
not
new
of the
the
disappearance of this
of familial solidarity
the
same
manifest
demands
superiority
member
or
of their manifestation
obligatory character
to
boy
disappear entirely;
attitude
longer an
family-group,and
disappearsalso ;
importance tends
the
undergoes is
the character
But
There
the
indeed
not
the individual
drawing
return
or
the street.
to
which
time
same
hi America
group
toward
this
result is
whimsical,
singlefamily
the claim
which
traditional
this
familial
INTRODUCTION
103
organization. This
interest
generosityis usually completely disfrom the economic
point of view; no return is
an
expected. It is essentially
expressionof personality,
a
satisfaction
at
and
personal
ties of
only toward persons whom
the giver,sometimes
toward friends who
belong to
even
strengthensit
Any allusion
in
personal affection
is shown
It
vanity.
of
once
to
and
the
family. Pity is
sometimes
is
which
sufficient in itself.
even
obligationoffends
motive
it.
Often
it is
displayed
On
of
individualization
and
at which
unequal rate
the
modification
the process
of
traditional
leads often
placein different familymembers
of both the familial and the personallife.
to disintegration
in the relations of parents and
This is seen
particularly
attitudes takes
children
his
familyin
Poland
questionsabout
and family at home.
possible;he lives in
no
writes:
He
hours.
and I will
not
even
the
sense
and
He
that
has
"Dear
ask
send home
and
as
as
no
much
new
"Dear
much."
as
firstraises
at
to
his parents
works
the
I send you
Parents:
can
longest
roubles,
300
earn."
He
does
social behavior.
established
too
of his duties
leaves
boy
and
But
no
if in the
individualistic
Parents:
inhibition.
attitudes
I will send
(See in this
of
course
money;
connection
But-
series.)
kowski
But
the
children
courts
you
the
America, he
plans to
it involves
desires,he writes:
you
to
cheapestway
he
only
comes
the nature
the
When
emigration.
and
always send
It is unreflective
time
in
it appears
as
"
"
one
comes
most
complete
break
between
parents and
PRIMARY-GROUP
104
America.
to
added
to
brought with
children
The
it in America
of familial
ORGANIZATION
acquirethe
do not
and
perhaps the
This
parents.
definite
most
has
tic
individualis-
various
is economic
one
or
and
complete
family
traditional attitude
but
solidarity,
frequentlyresults
the
"
expressions,
the demand
complete an
child.
and
brutalityof
the
child
and
views
"
mutual
The
ridicule of the
of the parents
"
and
become
almost
of
means
will
and
swear
a
reform, but
away
same
situation
peasant is unable
by
social
means
of their
there is not
we
and resorts
of vengeance;
call her
girl,
the
elsewhere
difficultieswith his
to the courts
as
pure
The
as
when
they
"whore
ground
slightest
shall note
adjusthis
to
incredible.
juvenilecourt, not
instrument
an
the character
"thief,"when
It is the
as
the
to
ridicule of
old-country habits
speech
and
"
for it.
the
neighbors
expression
A
enmity, and with a total disregardof rightor wrong.
was
case
recentlybrought before the juvenile court in
Chicago which illustrates typicallyhow completely the
be unable to occupy
father may
any other standpointthan
and was
that of familial solidarity.The girlhad left home
the streets.
When
on
appealed to by the court for suggestions
and co-operation,
the father always repliedin terms
of the girl she had not been bringing her
of the wages
when
And
it appeared that he could not
earnings home.
completely control her in this respect, he said: "Do what
of
"
you
pleasewith
The
but
the
her.
last type of
She
ain't
adaptation
"
"
no
use
to me."
requiringmuch change,
is typicallyrepresentedby
peasant and is always conone
INTRODUCTION
with
nected
brings also
intellectual
an
the
105
development.
This
'
adaptation
Individualization
is the natural
result of
risingabove the
primitivegroup and becoming practically
independent of
it. But at the same
time, unlike the preceding type, this
form
of adaptation leads to qualitativechanges in the
concept of the family. -Indeed, the individual rises,not
only above the family,but also above the community, and
of the traditional
drops most
in this
elements, and
other
the
level those
Christian
elements
traditional
power
from
Christian
only
The
in peasant
the church
reflection wished
power
morality.
that which
higher cultural
traditions which
of Christian
their influence
higherlevel
conscious
constituted
they
stock, and
popular
and
tion.^
type of adapta-
this
on
embodied
were
different
essentially
the
meets
content
common
traditions,but
he
universal
more
constitute the
hand
respect
it
to
life
was
well
as
be.
as
Their
on
of intellectual
peasant risingabove
his class
undergo
double
evolution:
they are
"
"
"
"
it includes husband
sisttrs.
The
Its nucleus
husband
or
has,for
moral obligations
toward his own
example,particular
parents,
and brothers,but not toward
the family of his wife.
sisters,
The
moral
obligationstoward
the
members
of the
latter
io6
PRIMARY-GROUP
do
differ from
not
consistencyof
social
upon
those
toward
this moral
family does
of the individual
friends
acquaintances,
obligations.And the
not depend any longer
the moral development
any
familial
particularly
not
are
ORGANIZATION
or
"
and
however, we
reality,
and incompleteforms, and
consideration when
examining
radical expression.
find innumerable
In
,we must
k
"
diary
interme-
concrete
materials.1
MARRIAGE
Polish peasant
The
as
many
1
The
our
definition
firstof all,
the use of familial names
family. We must distinguish,
relative
relative
and about a
to strangers. In the latter case
speaking to a
of the
proper
the
term
when
family,both usages
those used
terms, i.e.,
proper
strangers, are
closer degree of
relationship.When
are
possible.
when
one
one
is speaking about
is speaking about
relative to
of three kinds:
a) Terms
which
define
step-
b) Terms
any
relation of
or
law-relation of descent.
which
a
define
essentially
dziadek
("brother-in-law"),
that of the correspondas
ing
("paternaluncle"). Their originalmeaning is the same
also
of
but
remoter
to
are
they
degrees
English terms,
relationship.
applied
is required,
If exactness
they are defined by special
adjectives,but habitually,
up
INTRODUCTION
and
The
changing.
of constitution
process
is therefore
nuclei
of these
the
at
the
and
essential
time
same
evolution
phenomenon
there
culminate
other
marriage many
107
and
life,
of
in
we
must
the
Marriage from
i.
familial system of
"
of the young
marriagefor every member
generation. The
and changes brought by
family is a dynamic organization,
birth, growth, marriage, and death have nothing of the
incidental or unexpected,but are included as normal in the
organizationitself,
continuallyaccounted for and foreseen,
and the whole
practicallife of the family is adapted to
of
well
as
who
A person
them.
as
provokes
old
an
in
the
does not
man
does
to
attitude
time,
certain age,
of unfavorable
stopped in
have
certain
die at
not
family-group an
within
marry
the midst
of
to
and
movement,
required. Thus,
adjectivesare
degree is stryjeczny,
wujeczny, or ciotecznybrat ("brother through
the paternal uncle,maternal uncle,or aunt"), or simply brctt;a father's paternal
cousin of second
uncle is stryjecznydziadek
dziadek,and
way,
terms
A wife's
is necessary,
(ofthe
same
or
husband's
the
relative may
are
are
even
often substituted
for the
same
the terms
"brother"
and
of
indicatinglaw-relationship
specialterms
degree.
which
are
merely class-names.
and "law-relative."
Of these there
They
exactly. The
intelligentclasses sometimes
this
(Polonized,
kuzyn),bjjf
not
in the
where law-relationship
is indicated by particular
generation),
not only all the qualifications
omitted, but
c) Terms
more
be determined
"of my
wife" or "of my husband."
But if no particular
this qualification
is also omitted, except for collateral
paternaluncle"), or simply
"sister"
any
on.
the addition
with
exactness
members
so
("grandfatherthrough
the peasant.
custom
has reached
as
are
never
where
are
only two:
krewny
used in addressing
the
French
word
cousin
class,
io8
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
and
in
his
a
corresponding attitude is
early childhood
adopted by the family and a place for him is provided
beforehand.
His eventual marriage will then provoke the
the bachelorship of
unfavorable
astonishment
same
as
others.
The
strong
as
moral
or
person
so
the
not
by the omission
religious
duty, and with the
cases
than
parents do
themselves
economic
through
the
latter,and
not
their child
we
if
even
in many
see
they
of
marriage (estrangement
and they persuade the child to
losses),
question
limitation
of
only
the
choice
match
It is better to make
The
limitation
The
of
traditional
influence upon
than
a
bad
the
the
disappearswhen
better
foresee bad
this
from
and
of the
results for
the
child,or
even
marry
(see
strong social
and
of this
partner.
But
parents have
factor
the second
marriage;
is prescribedin this case
conduct
by
except that marriage is viewed
certainty
arranged.
be
at
marry
exert
all.
any
line of
determined
no
the
this
even
no
to
ceases
demnation.
con-
principleis
one
familial
even
contrary behavior
proposed will
marriage than not to
the
the
interest. The
against their own
Sekowski
series)incurs immediate
that
no
the
marriage of
and
more
marrying is not so
of some
elementary
growing complexity
more
frequentwhere
is
condemnation
binds
are
unmarried
remains
standard
more
to
that incurred
of social conditions
a
attached
condemnation
the familial
organization
unfavorably after a
certain age.
The
but
interest
on
future of the
the
is neither
child,but
situation
This
to
tyranny
married,
nor
self-
nor
logical
consequence
be
The
of the individual's
individual
is
relatives.
between
This
the
form
in
one
acquaintance and
a
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
no
matchmaking is intermediary
is personal
the starting-point
of
which
in which
the other
the connection
with
certain
later.
fession
family is sought first through the sivaty (promatchmaker) and personal acquaintance comes
the starting-point
In this intermediary form
is the
relatives of the
friendshipwith
that
the
time
character,and
at
those relatives
belong is worth
this leads
same
the second
to
us
or
the
is supposed
girl. It
partner resembles
future
the
boy
his relatives in
that the
which
family to
with.
being connected
But
marriage.
b)
The
for
candidate
family,which
familial group
The
therefore
to
with
the
assumes
the
the
of
ancient
residence
etc.
alliance;at the
same
by riskinga refusal
match
and
of
occupation,numerousness
in the
the best
by acceptingat
thereby showing too great
or
once
even
eagerness.
locality,
possible
dignity
the
best
Thence
such
proof of
individual
to an
possibilities
open
high standing of the family. Thence also
range
the
institutions
as
of
that of the
matchmaker, whose
task is
INTRODUCTION
ceremonial
the
shorten
to
of
in
choosing without
apparently
The relative
loweringthe dignityof the families involved.
freedom
given to the individuals themselves,the apparent
individual
yieldingto
the desire
the process
shorten
to
from
responsibility
formal
traditional
of
the
of selection
the
to
group
its
cases
many
swaty is embodied
The
marriage.
love, has in
in
source
the
by shifting
individual.
In
the
maker,
accompanied by the matchvisits the families with which his family has judged
it desirable to be allied,
and only among
these can he select
is received by the parents of the girl,
who first
a girl. He
learn
everythingabout
select
c)
only among
particularsituation
children
with
assimilation
but
individual,
assimilated.
widow's
or
is very
part of
At
the
widower's
such
and his
her
or
caused
or
longer an
no
strange marriage-group,has
time
the
or
be
connection
to be
with
the
incomplete,because
the
some
claims.
the
of
disintegration
of course,
of
But
marriage.
various forms.
stillapply the
the famlHal
widow
by
the
in matters
assume
when
mesalliance.
With
come,
age
encour-
marriageis thus
be
then
family will
Therefore
some
family and
because
difficult,
same
be
his
is created
from
family of
must
and
or
suitor
widower
Here
him
to call further
him
man,
young
same
With
man
this liberation
itself may
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
H2
family would
habits
apply
"
resemble
the
select
whose
person
whose
character
own
and
family, a
perhaps from
the same
etc.
Therefore,for example, immigrants
locality,
in America
individualization has only begun always
whose
boys or girlsfresh from the old country, if
try to marry
native village.
possiblefrom their own
person
A
a
second
individualization
degree of
reasoned
more
selection of such
to possess
mate
comes
manifests
as
qualities
in view
itself in
the individual
of his
own
personal
his eventual
he desires from
feelingof
his
partner and
when
the
you,
in
of
it is none
content:
of your
this person,
not
business."
future
mate
control,and
every
permits
some
of
discussion, some
familial
influence of tradition,
in the love-marriage
of
possibility
control is rejecteda
some
between
the
individuals
whose
social determinism
differs most
"
2.
Marriage from
territorial
the
standpointof other
social groups:
(community), national,religious,professional.
"
INTRODUCTION
The
claims
which
has
community
marriage corroborate
of
in matters
the
113
the individual
upon
those of the
family-group
that every individual (excepta future priest)
to the extent
if he is not hindered by a physicalor
is requiredto marry,
intellectual defect.
The community demands
from its
an
members
steadiness
but
interior harmony;
this steadiness
unmarried
only
man
life which
of
peasant
individual
can
for its
acquire
his
after
woman
or
is necessary
remain
singleperson, as we know, cannot
with his family,for the latter is organizedin
indefinitely
He
view of the marriage of all of its members.
cannot
farm
cannot
occupationalactivityalone
carry on normal
be either only a hired laborer,
he can
or keep a small shop
character.
"
"
livingwith
sphere
strangers,
or
servant.
narrower
In
both
cases
than
that
the
of
All
to economize.
provide for, no reason
these features of singlelife tend to develop either a spirit
of revelry,vagabondage, and pauperism, or an
egotistic
both opposed
isolation within a circle of personalinterests
has
nobody
to
"
to
the fundamental
set of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
H4
members:
after
higher social standing to its married
marriage they are addressed as "you" instead of "thou,"
in the
they begin to play an active part in the commune,
individuals have
parish,in associations,etc. Unmarried
a
certain
and
kind
of social
standing
prospective matches,
as
this
but
members
kind
of families
of
standing
couples
with
age.
In
from
the claims
of the
First of all,an
families,but
national, or
differences of
Let
us
claims
individual
normally to
religiousgroups.
standpoint.
not
another
or
takes a
locality,
his religion.For
less
these
family, and
case
who, by marriage,passes
or
of
unpleasant,but
two
at
once
dictory.
contra-
to
two
territorial,
professional,
This
of
into
belong
can
be
even
may
different
are
groups
leads
member
of
important
to
different group
social group
"
moves
to
ity
changes his nationalprofession,
be more
the family such a fact may
of the divergenceof
only on account
new
INTRODUCTION
attitudes
which
individual
thus
who
has
arises between
passed into
lost; he
necessarily
115
remain
may
its members;
another
but
social group
(ifthere
are
is
the
not
other factors
no
of the family.
a
real,solidarymember
disintegration)
On the contrary, for a territorial,
professional,
national,or
religiousgroup such an individual is lost,and, since no
of
group
likes to
which
involves
condemnation.
This
passinginto
when
Formerly,
the
communities
the
professional
group
was
traces
group,
differences
of
of
very
social
renounces
At
and
custom
professionswere
marriage outside
condemned
customs, traditions,
"
and
exogamy
particularly
strong
another
tradition between
many
is
of
incurs
group
condemnation
if the individual,by
ideals.
into another
passage
kind
every
much
community or
strongly;we find
a
present
of
change
change
incurs a relatively
locality
slightcondemnation; a
of group
(as,for example, when a peasant
professionally
girlmarries a handworker) is only ridiculed;but a change
of
religionis
nationalityor
the
offense,
latter
is influenced
by
the national
and
even
the
still an
crime.
largersocial
religious
groups
almost
unpardonable
And, of course, the family
it belongs;
to which
group
usuallyrequirethat the
individual,even
The
side of the
keep
the familial
solidarity.
is
other
to
of the
new
case
member.
not
exist.
But
the
The
n6
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
and
the
it the social
to
community
largedoes
into
But
particular
relation with another
fact of receiving
by the mere
group
little for the other group's
from it,and it cares
a member
standing. Therefore the family may occasionally
acquiesce
in the fact that its member
marries a girlwho
will be
if the family of this girlhas a
assimilated with difficulty,
of
particularly
high social standing is very rich,instructed,
influential. The benefit of being connected
or
good origin,
be greater than the displeasure
with such a family may
of
member.
But
for the community
having an unadaptable new
overshadow
the only point
those reasons
cannot
for it,namely, how
will the new
member
be
which counts
the nature
of
assimilated ? This depends, of course, upon
and traditions which
he brought with him,
social customs
and the more
they differ from those which prevailin the
at
enter
not
any
"
given
group
This
exogamy.
jealousyof
the
parents and
to
lack the
upon
the
greater is the
the
is
condemnation
the
social condemnation
usuallystrengthenedby
marriageablemembers
relatives.
The
of
of the group,
member
exogamous
is
their
judged
is rather
mixed,
as
when
person
of
different
of respect between
husband
and
in
n8
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
constituted
social
certain
well
as
as
economic
an
this remains
difference;and
extent
married
cases
couple own
this problem
from
both
farm.
solved
be
can
families.
true
only by
these
Usually
the
of the
land
in most
contribution
contributions
are
so
because
than money
means
more
girlmoney,
of his
his wife's land loses some
and a husband
on
settling
dignityas head of the marriage-group,and is usuallylooked
down
The
practice of
peasant
undivided
farm
to
one
paying
have
must
other farmers.
by
upon
children
who
and
below
is,as far
size
of the farm
family.
his wife.
he
purpose
The
father
means
The
head
life upon
continued
son
even
his
of
one
if the
even
son
the
same
and
wife would
conditions
farm
his work
wants
scale.
divided
were
to
poor
parents, and is
Sale, division,or
farm,
would
hardly be able
the family of the
of the
In
gaging
mort-
without
never
to
be
short, it is
rich.
at least to marry
farm
The
the
on
ruin.
means
tion;
limited by tradipossible,
by law. The sale of the
their life.
by
duty
as
even
possibleduring
very
the
obligationof
the
certain
is avoided
But
leave
character
familial
has then
in cash from
of the
son,
largedowry
the half-sacred
never
is to
is seldom
farm
inheritance
The
same
is true
INTRODUCTION
119
who
sons
are
in the settlement.
of
course
takinga dowry.
For
There
are
rich farmer
cases
when
there is
is free to marry
without
money.
no
of
necessityof
a sufficiently
But
as
the
dowry
has not
poverty.
social and economic
reasons
obligea
Exactly the same
a
boy with property.
dowry to marry
girlwho has some
sufficient to buy a farm and thus to
The dowry is seldom
keep the social level which the girlhad in her family; and
if it should be large enough, the girl's
family will
even
seldom allow her to marry
a poor
boy, because it would be
considered a proof that the girlhad no suitors of a higher
social standing,and therefore that she had some
personal
defect.
to this generalrule,but they
exceptions
admit of special
explanations. A boy or girlwho is already
declassed or whose
to the
family did not belong originally
class of farmers
of handicraft)is not socially
(or masters
obligedto marry with dowry. It is customary for the young
or goods enough to furnish the house,
coupleto have money
and both families are obligedto help them as far as possible.
is still strong; but since property
The familial solidarity
which has not the form of an independent business does not
determine
the social standingof the family as does land or
master-workman's
a
position,the consideration of dowry
plays a quite subordinate role in the selection of a mate.
A boy who
has money
enough to furnish the house may
There
are
many
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
120
her
may
marry
in either
rather
some
real
owning classes,not
actual
an
money
inequality
is often raised,it is
remnant
of the
case.
is no
personal
imitation
an
social
economic
or
problem.
in
that is,one
marriage for money,
a partner with
girlselects intentionally
boy or
always
In
which
real
the
incurs
of
case
establish his
social condemnation
craftsman
shop the
own
who
needs
poor
fortune,
some
'
least ridicule.
at
or
in order
dowry
to
is very
condemnation
slight. He
the dowry, but
capitalin the
of
members
marries
in any
rich
latter consider
it is stillworse
And
climbing.
the
girl. He
cannot
rich
the
use
so
of
is
In the two
latter
are
or
marriage which
she could
is
most
is most
of money
there
he
have
or
her
is almost
family and
made
the
cases
fact that in
older,
much
stain,etc.,
better choice.
evidentlymade
clearlyconsidered
personaldisadvantageson
no
of
cityworkman
dowry productively
is
since otherwise
kind
worst
if the unskilled
line of handicraft,and
condemnation
it the
abnormal.
if
certainlyconcluded
incurs condemnation
against the
from
this
INTRODUCTION
also.
reason
121
relation
of the
side
one
on
or
both.
on
economic
From
sufficient economic
going is normally a
no
capitalis needed.
If there
are
tion,
contribu-
children from
the
complicated,for
marriage, the situation is more
family of their parent has an interest in them and in
in view
maintenance
of their social position,especially
the
the eventual
lot
first
children
of these children
therefore
it is much
But
widow's
that of
basis
maid
of social,and
would
be
There
difficult to
more
or
bachelor, a claim
lower
much
of this kind
also of
therefore
second
dowry is
marriage.
get.
marriage-valueis
is
double
on
than
the
economic, equality
on
the
one
hand
and
the process
old
by
social
intermarriageis
more
classes
and
new
of economic
are
more
riage,
mar-
by
substitution of
the other
side of
of the economic
evolution
and
class-hierarchy
The
The
of
unjustified.
influenced
on
in
required even
widower's
or
marriage.
must
sometimes
the second
from
the
class-organization,
individualization.
becoming
mingled
frequent.
At
the
and
same
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
122
time
criteria of social
new
or
good birth
or
each other.
work
loses its
to
and
and
point
stand-
that of property;
normal
more
hi social
such
mating
opinion and
more
more
At
become
the
individual
from
the pressure
Polish
advance
of the Polish
that
increases.
.
would
the economic
be
remember
must
that
classes the
small,as compared
hi
set
the
of
possibility
even
with
that
and quiteinsignificant
in comparison
citylife,
the end
it started,and
as
conditions
life. On
the
contrary, there
are
of retrogression
the population
as
possibilities
Thus
a married
couple does well if it succeeds
keeping to
with
We
is very
of American
numerous
which
upon
of the
munity.
family and comof showing a real
possibility
economic
with
depends
environment.
the
by
in
with
set
off-
or
sociallydepreciativecharacter, etc.
and
marriagesare more
is put
other social superiority
the property brought by the
more
by instruction
sphereitselfthe
compete
Thus
becomes
place of
of
equilibration
old advantages
be offset
the economic
begins
an
possible. The
may
Within
of income
hired
them, and
along with
advantages becomes
of fortune
in
superiorityappear
the
economic
it is natural
as
high a standard
a
luxury for which
parents would
standard
for them
to
of life with
try
to
start
possible.Disinterestedness
the
children
as
well
as
the
pay.
INTRODUCTION
123
The sexual
Marriage from the sexual point of mew.
aside from
necessityof sexual satisfaction,
factor,as a mere
the questionof individualized love, must
play of course
an
important role as a motive of marriage in general,although
4.
"
of sexual
want
for
reason
determine
difficult to
it is somewhat
satisfaction
is
to
what
extent
consciouslyconceived
songs
the
as
and
marriageas
development
hi view.
have
There
is
social institution.
most
are
favorable
Indeed,
to
their
all,mediately or immediately,marriage
of sexual
stock
information
and
tudes
atti-
how
All the
this
have
the sexual
entertainments
aim.
side of this
An
which
are
not
interestingfact
preliminaryintercourse
sions
sociallycontrolled. No indecent allubetween
allowed in a private conversation
are
ever
but any indecent allusion can be made publicly,
boy and girl,
in the form of a song or joke,at a gatheringwhere young
is institutional and
are
present.
faction
only form in which sexual satisbe obtained.
Illegalrelations before marriage
can
of any particular
because
relatively
rare, not so much
moral
self-restraint as,
control,reinforced
by
once
the
more,
control
because
of the familial
of social
opinion and
exerted in view
before
the
of the future
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
124
boy,
the
Therefore
the
the
idea
The
relation to
se, without
per
any
frequent.
for the
reason
course
inter-
primitive peasant
main
of sexual
organizationof life.
prohibitionof sexual
before
with
relation,thus avoiding the familial control and trifling
the social sanction
This
ceremonies.
of the whole
in this
in form
neglectof
After
to
the
community.
almost
pletely
commarriage sexual intercourse ceases
be a social problem; it is intentionally
ignoredby
in
society. Conjugal infidelity
to
social consciousness,is
belonging to
the
same
seldom
conditions
is not
spoken of,and, if
it occurs,
is unconditionallycondemned, equally in man
But
the legalsexual relation between
and woman.
even
and wife is the object of a very far-goingdiscretion.
man
It is never
mentioned
when
is talkingabout marriage;
one
in private conversation
even
by the married couple itself,
In a
sexual allusions are scrupulouslyavoided.
or
letters,
where
few cases
find them
we
they are accompanied by
if the whole
sexual question were
as
apologies. It seems
felt,not so much as impure, as incongruous with the normal
and
sociallysanctioned conjugal relation,which, for the
assumed
exist; it is very
normal
even
fundamentally
type
as
other
familial relation,
relations
between
126
are
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
known
from
obstacle
to
childhood
rapid
which
"
infatuation
is evidentlyan
but
"
important
indecision, careful
into account,
selecting,taking of all possibilities
are
tional
tradi-
in familial considerations,
but
attitudes,originating
by
of love.
transferred to matters
the limitations of
speech mentioned
above; expressions
of love
therefore,there
sex
more
certain number
pleasing,and
less
or
of the
of
one
by
The
After
and
of the other
sexually
are
made
under
the
all these
reasons
the decision
settles
the two
reason
each
other
than
have
else.
anyone
particularlyafter marriage,
and
engagement,
is then
one
others
among
person
all of them
for various
family, or
fall away
one
possibilities
the one remaining.
upon
of persons
choice
ultimate
acceptable. The
influence
are
is attained,but
exclusiveness
The
love is actuallythe
We
call it the
sexual
illegal
intercourse before
if
beginning of individualization,
favorable.
Thus,
and
Germany,
for from
intercourse
meet
and
the
among
even
to
among
are
seven
it exists at
external
the
very
conditions
are
season-emigrantsto
wandering season-laborers on
young
isolated from
to ten
months
privately,almost
then marry
marriage.
after
50
have
cent
coming home,
munities
com-
the opportunity
have
or
even
sexual
send
INTRODUCTION
to
money
their
publicationof
priestduring
their banns.
127
the
Here
asking
season,
the
for
the
"liking"grows
into sexual love,thanks to the actual sexual intercourse,
and
become
the young
strong enough to cause
people to
may
themselves
the whole
take upon
for their
responsibility
marriage, though usually the permission of the parents
before
the priest is asked
is obtained
to
publish the
mere
banns.
The
normal, because
does
not
break
other hand
find it
form
second
it
the
requiresno
traditional
it shows
exceptionalconditions
sexual morality; but on
higherstage of
particularlyoften
in America, but
individualization.
of selection and
to
find another
This
whom
way
of
important evolution
possibleonly when
motives
have
"likes"
and
mance.
repeats the perfor-
the
all the
traditional
and
the
is no
possibilities,
boy or girldesires to
many
The
attitudes.
familial,social,or
hesitation among
maintained.
he
We
proposal
personal
boy tries
the
complicated
offhand
an
and
also in Polish
of all the
courtshipto
more
very
It
is
economic
indecision,the
longerartificially
in general,
marry
all social pressure,
impulse to
start
Finally,the
when
this
"liking,"
the
"romantic"
influence
of
love, in which
the
sexual
element
is neither
128
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
in the
as
stifled,
crude
form,
exalted
from
and
traditional
the exclusiveness
idealized,and
institutional
before
intercourse
in sexual
as
conditions,nor
from
nor
reasons
in its
marriage, but
results neither
ideas connected
complexity of feelingsand
given
with
the
rich
given
person.
CLASS-SYSTEM
THE
In
of
SOCIETY
societythere is a general
of the old
social distinctions,
a breaking down
revaluation
POLISH
IN
of Polish
This
one.
hierarchyand an establishment of a new
is going on
more
rapidly hi certain parts of the
process
country (itis the slowest in Galicia),but everywhere it
social
exerts
the lower
includes
the
generationin particular.
The old class-organization
presents
partlyparallelsocial hierarchies
that of the town
population. The
"
second
The
two
independent and
fundamental, the
additional.
highestrank
dominating
the
second
as
well) was
completely
occupied by a few
families of great
pendence
nobility. At the time of Poland's indethey occupied the highestofficialposts, kept their
After Poland's partition
etc.
own
armies, directed politics,
influence disappeared. At present fortune,
their political
title (therewere
tradition,and in most cases
no
recognized
titles in
Poland
Lithuanian
and
before
Ruthenian
the
partition,except
princes)are
for
few
all that
distinguish
the nobility.
forty
from
the
or
only by
INTRODUCTION
tradition.1
Then
classified into
the
coirfe
129
farmers, formerly
peasant
peasants (almostcompletelyfree,but
crown
no
of peasant families
the lowest
between
the distinction
on
noble
and
the
continuous,and
highestpeasant
social.
not
political,
families
the
But
position
exactly determined; risingand
was
of each
family was
very
within
possible,but very seldom
fallingwere
a
single
far as
the social organizationstill
as
generation. And
is true at present.
the same
persists,
On the other hand, the town
population was also hierarchized,mainly upon the basis of fortune,secondarily
upon
culture
birth.
that of
and
The highestplace was
occupied
in every largetown
by some
wealthy trades-families;then
the intellectual workers
came
petty merchants
and
unskilled
and
were
positionof
the
Politically
administration,
town
those of the
old and
'"Peasant
the
rich
nobility" is
the
nobilityin general;socially
bourgeoisfamilies ranked with that
class found
only
in Poland
called in Polish
and
almost
Usually
one
full
political
rights,and
several
serfs
villages.They
in the
they were
dates back
mainly
the descendants
low economic
to
were
economic
same
the fourteenth
of warriors
and
endowed
social level
as
division of land.
They
duchy
(unifiedwith
of Mazovia
numbers
of them
Ruthenia.
At
were
and
name
the end
as
of the
condition
and
with
land
consequence
are
as
of the
as
the peasants.
fifteenth centuries.
of their numerical
of Poland
in
were
sank
in the
no
origin
usually
their
to
increase and
the
ancient
1525-27); thence
in,Lithuania
against 300,000.
even
they had
Their
They
still particularly
numerous
the kingdom
nobility.
villageand
whole
nobility 40x3,000
"
coats-of-arms
occupied
quite independent economically,but
same
large
and
the middle
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
130
of the middle
fact, with
general,was
As
both
nobility. Outside of
rare
exceptions,outside
and
hierarchies,
of Polish
in
social life in
the Jew.
early as
of the
end
the
system, and
to
eighteenth century
gradual dissolution
of dissolution
the process
reached
many
of this
the
lower
"
The
Constitution
thirtyor fortyyears ago.
of May 3" (1791)gave political
rightsto the bourgeoisie,
but the later loss of independencemade all political
privileges
illusory.The process of personaland economic liberation
classes
some
carried
on
in 1864.
noble
before
the
second
partitionand
by privateinitiative and legalacts, was completed
The development of industry,the ruin of many
peasants, begun
of the
families
revolution
after each
through confiscation
crisis caused
agricultural
by foreign
and
on,
be
may
in the following
stated
way.
First,there
permit
of
certain
isolation
strong class-consciousness
is at the
common
are
time
same
interests.
consciousness
"
strong
with
factors which
The
mainly
are
the
ditions
con-
development
that is,wherever
social group
and
the
the class
real intercourse
keep
territorial
and
vicinityand
anybody from
into a higher
lower
class.
class,and
But
these
they
do
scattered
not
try
groups
to
get
have
INTRODUCTION
themselves
131
the
country
to
brings with
it.
economic
The
expressedin
form
sponding
corre-
these groups
is
are
of the
the management,
individual.
In
in the
not
this form
complete ownership,
of economic
organization
subsist as a real social group because through
the class can
it territorial vicinityand identityof occupation can
be
preserved through a series of generations,and classif it has no longer any real
consciousness
can
persisteven
basis in the political
organization. Under these conditions,
if an
individual
fortune
as
are
is unable
to maintain
family
it may
be
unwilling to help, or the individual may
the
reason
unwillingto accept any control,if for some
attitude of solidarity
is weakened
the strain is too great.
or
And
be
the
economic
preservation of
the
changes
of the
old forms
of property
cases
ruin,or
to
facilitate the
last century
more
make
and
the
more
of
political
independence
of any
adequate social
modernization
of the
ancient
Thus
handiwork, and commerce.
agriculture,
in which the familycannot
the individual from
save
quent.
where the whole familyis ruined, are very freeven
is finally
the modernization
of economy
And when
in
attained,it usuallyproves
that
greater individualization
PRIMARY-GROUP'
132
of
is
property
weakened,
ORGANIZATION
the individual
and
familial
required,the
solidarityis
is left more
thus
less to his
or
own
resources.
But
proprietoris declassed.
relations
on
interest with
work
maintain
cannot
equality;he
in search of
work; he
class,and, above
his
must
to
ceases
be
usuallyleave
loses community
all,he
has
do
to
his
of
hired
he becomes
"
economic
hired work.
property and
own
He
basis of
territorial group
class-groupwho
of the
member
any
shown
by
analysisof
our
occasion
The
of
this,as is
is threefold:
attitudes,
the economic
development of industry,meant
almost always "service,"includingpersonaldependence of
the employee on the employer; (2)hired work in whatever
form
has the character
of compulsory work
as
opposed to
free
before the
(3) hired
work;
work, and
organization. (Of
not
on
wages,
The
group
must
work
bears
is
individual
more
course
be
complete in the
stillkeeps the attitudes
The
individual
and
personal connection
second, sometimes
attitudes
with
in the
first generation.
of his class-
its members.
In
plays a
Even
are
pendent
inde-
no
in the
than
completely
questionof
role.
this way,
during the
fiftyyears,
last century
has
there
of those who
lost
have
and
been
particularly
continually
class,derived
from
complicatedhierarchy.
while
these
hundred
hung about
years
ago
some
outclassed
subordinate
But
individuals
the
position,
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
134
which
the
to do this was
helped the intellectual aristocracy
loss of political
independence and the subsequent efforts
to keep the Polish culture in spiteof political
oppression.
Every intellectual achievement
appeared in this lightas
later the capitalbearing a general national value. When
istic
class grew
the standard
in power,
of the
and
aristocracy,
a
marked
it had
to
accept, more
intellectual class
new
it stillhesitates between
inclination toward
or
or
less,either
with
givesit
the intellectual,
not
the
over
over
superiority
the intellectualand it is easier to satisfy
birth,aristocracy,
istic standard than that of birth.
Thus, the new
hierarchy
time the intellectual
gains in extension,while at the same
criterion becomes
And
complicated by that of wealth.
an
additional
to
the lowest
strata
of
society.
of the bureaucrats.
In
The
this
new
hierarchywe
highest class
can
is constituted
distinguishfour
by
those
classes.
who, besides
and
(university)
an
indispen-
INTRODUCTION
135
in
particular
superiority
line wealth, talent,very
good birth, high political,
any
bureaucratic, or social position. The middle class the
essential part of this hierarchy is composed of professionals:
higher technicians,
professors,
lawyers,physicians,
some
"
"
"
of middle
tradesmen
literary
men,
fortune,higheremployees.
of good
University instruction and a certain minimum
this
manners
are, generallyspeaking,the criteria delimiting
class from
the lower
important
for
the usual
his
class.
medium
through
which
class,and he
the
In
city the
middle
class and
rise to the
now
may
do
not
positioncorresponds,in fact,somewhat
the lower
between
one
it is
connection, because
in the present
us
The
own
this.
to
middle
or
class is
middle
lower
one
the workman
keepers,
composed of shopgovernmental officials,
remember
must
we
positionitselfas
the
and
the average
that
of
man
if
even
the middle
and
bad
clerk
and
an
filling
On
inferior
who
manners,
and
does
position,
the other
the middle-class
belongs to
is received
men
level.
higher social
in circles which
are
so
much
this
occupy
the
requires
it,and
tion,
higherinstrucnot
fall below
manners
to rise to
a
good birth,good
class.
mill-owners,etc.
Thus
niveau
rich man
relatively
it may
happen that
than his employer
by
city the lower middle class is connected
gradationswith the working class and in the
imperceptible
In
the
manor
136
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
smaller
the
retains its
lower
the
social level.
education
still
dress,are
occupation,money,
important r61e. The criteria
man
definitelyfrom the lower
of
While
in
of the
that
the
though
illiteracy,
workman
are
contrary does
not
hold
special
good; that is,an occupation requiringsome
above the
skill or readingand writingdoes not place a man
working class.
Of
all kinds
course
of
pauperism
vice declass
and
man
definitely,
put him outside of both the old and the new
have
hierarchy. Beggars, tramps, criminals,prostitutes,
holds true of
The
same
no
place in the class-hierarchy.
Jews, except those who
Polish servants
Poland
the
in
are
Polonized,and
Jewish houses.
officials and
the
army
to some
In Russian
extent
and
outside
are
of
German
of Polish
social life.
This
system
than
we
sometimes
become
of social distinctions
have
here
almost
in
the
old, because
even
more
plicated
com-
the
former
they
stimulate
the
described
is
INTRODUCTION
137
which
and, in general,all the qualities
assure
influence
an
upon
contrary, in the
the
On
individual
social
new
(or marriage-group)
can
the
organizationan
rise alone
and
rapidly.
He
is
belonging to it,and, if he is clever enough, this showingthe rise itself is here essentially
off helps him to rise. And
facilitated by the fact that
a passinginto the higher class,
the criteria are so complicated that the territorial or professional
groups
in this
have
organization
the
not
importance
of real
and
that no
have
the
can
class-groups,
groups
which the old groups possessed
and impenetrability
stability
before the dropping of the familial principle. The factors
of climbing are
here instruction,
economic
development
rather as an
increase of income
than as an acquisition
of
and,
property wit, tact, a certain refinement of manners,
in general,qualities
which assure, not the influence upon
a
givensocial environment, but the adaptationto a new social
"
"
breaking of
It is easy
familial
above
one's
class
own
solidarity.
to understand
how
this new,
individualistic
fluid,
of social
possibilities
be attractive to the members
of a society
progress, must
in which the questionof social standingand class-distinction
always played an exceptionallyimportant role. It has
to rise and enough
enough of democracy to permit anyone
of aristocracy
the rise real. Particularly
to make
among
class-hierarchy,
opening so
many
be felt
more
and
more,
as
with
138
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of the
growing proletarization
of rising within
the
the possibility
country inhabitants
peasant community is closed for a largepart of the young
generation.
Since passinginto the new
organizationand risingwithin
land and
dismembering of
the
it involve
far-goingmodification
arises
there
between
struggle,
have
we
an
new
examples
numerous
and
estrangement,
in
traditional
of the
tudes,
atti-
sometimes
and of this
generations,
this and
the following
volumes.
very
characteristic.
down
aristocracy
upon
the
to
of the traditional
the
is
class-hierarchy
new
based, as
are
and
generalprinciples,
same
each
understand
members
other's attitudes.
to
This
the
we
highest
have
seen,
this extent
they
understanding is
tity
close between
particularly
country classes,where an idenof occupation creates
universe of discourse;
a common
the town
and country
but it is not lackingeither between
than
this,
And, more
population,wherever
they meet.
is
the Jew, although outside of the Polish society,
even
exclude
groups
are
understood
them.
But
question.
are
And
of any
class to be true
for
upon
it makes
of relations between
antagonisms
member
the
concerned, whenever
ground of antagonistic
possible a curious
the
individuals
wherever
class-
shorter
or
to incorporate
spirit,
fullyall the traditional
the
those which
class,includingeven
are
attitudes of the
basis
of class-
INTRODUCTION
139
antagonisms. Thus,
the peasant
sense
the noble
wants
unconcerned
just,livingluxuriously,
about
be
to
humane
and
but
money,
understand.
do
On
not
understand
at
all the
new
of the old
class-groups
There
men.
is
no
class-
there is a
cases
antagonism; on the contrary, in many
of interests which may
be even
acknowledged. In
solidarity
of the
spiteof this,individual relations between members
old and the new
hierarchycan hardly ever be very close,
except, of
course,
stillkeeps
some
in
so
far
attitudes
as
member
of
social class
new
or
member
of
modernized.
is it
Nor
class-group becomes
of different occupations. A professional
merely a matter
who buys an estate, a cityworker who buys a peasant farm,
can
hardly ever become quite intimate with any of the old
for example,
inhabitants.
All this manifests itselfcuriously,
some
old
j-
middle
the new
to
christened,
Jew, belonging essentially
fr
class,buy an estate and he will feel incomparably more
isolated from the Polish nobilityand the Polish peasant
\
than
some
town.
littleold
crass
Jewish merchant
from
the
boring
neigh-
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
140
shall
We
in
see
manifestations
national
of
later volumes
our
class-evolution
the
to
which
communal
and
ENVIRONMENT
Outside
two
in
important
life.
SOCIAL
The
and
many
family his
of the
distinct and
organizationin
social milieu
can
be divided
into
and social
(i)a political
does not play an active role and
and (2) a community
a member;
dissociated parts:
which
of which
he does not
of which
he is
an
he
feel
active member,
but
which
is constituted
of groups
whose internal unity is due
by a certain number
merely to actual social intercourse and to an identityof
This
attitudes.
originalpeasant
constitution
becomes
evolution
an
of
dissociation is
organized
active member,
of social lifewhich
essential feature
an
of the
progressiveremoval,
of
groups
is the main
which
the
the
peasant
characteristic of the
shall
"
life
activelyin political
Polish
up
this
to the
participation,
except
hi
equivalentof
societydeveloped some
shall see later,but
as we
an
independentstate-organization,
Poland is the peasant a fullyactive element
only in German
while in Russian Poland he is only on
of this organization,
the way to it. And since in Russian Poland political
rights
of the country.
The
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
142
known
the
the situation;when
oppressivemeasures
benefactors.
and
The
the mystery
or
they
with
themselves
show
unlimited
its leaders
which
peasant'simaginationmake him
absurd
hopes or give way sometimes
as
For
God.
a
unknown
Therefore
motives
in the state
surrounded
are
to
the
state
in
absurd
most
besides
an
plans,exactlyas
viewed
as
the
are
and
to
peasant's
sphere of
is
if the leaders
even
the
ascribed
power
the
fears.
know
combination
self-contradictory
of
unlimited
it is with
by
an
impersonal regularity,
us
understand
loyaltydisappears. The
a
at
the
same
time in what
The
as
placed higher and higher,until finally,
Poland,
the
ways
is conceived
source
this
with
of evil is
often in Russian
being practically
parallel
unlimited
The
with, and similar to, Satan.
possibilities
included in the state become
of
fundamentally possibilities
as
a
evil; the good comes
only incidentally,
consequence
of an imperfectrealization of the evil,due to the fact that
the
lower
tsar
in
personalities
Their
human.
human
it is stillweakness, but
as
the
character
weakness
to
the motives
of
accessibility
accepting bribes),and sometimes
Then
comes
the second
step
"
state-hierarchyare more
acquiresa positivevalue;
from
in evil,resulting
an
ordinary interest (as in
to good feelings.
even
the
development
of
half-
INTRODUCTION
etc.
people,"of "the proletariat,"
typicalpsychologicalpath of revolution in the
states, of "the
of other
is the
This
143
lower classes.
other
The
is that
way
of
progressivegrowth
of the
Poland.
in German
Besides
of which
organizedsocial
other
are
the
groups
and
commune
the
parish.
In both
able
use
to
commune
his
in
was
the formal
he
was
side of
administration,and
also in
extent
the peasants
they give.
priests,
many
of the
of the idea
to the
present.
not
all-powerful,
priestwas
form, and
can
up
hardly get
It is not
so
only
to the
an
much
in
in many
communes
parish,the
As to the
fact, but
to
of the money
dishonestyon
the
great
parishes
present in many
account
knew
which
part of the
as the expresreallydisinterested,
sion
of patriarchal
principle
government, the influence
that any control would be harmful to the priest's
of whom
are
authority. The
commune
The
within
these limits.
libertyeven
fact governed by the secretary,who
and
pointsin the
in
particularly
Russian
Poland.
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
144
same
and
the external
Jewish
world, and
2.
social
The
the
important in
of
even
organizationsof
economic
phenomena
neighboring town.
rapidand is particularly
its psychological
consequences.
environment
to
which
the
is
peasant
does
not
as
rule
give
birth
to
common
the
in
activities,
by
particularkind of
mob
is perpetuated
must
we
psychologicaldeposit. To this environment
add the neighboringtown, a part of whose inhabitants the
and the
mainly through business relations,
peasant knows
inhabitants he
whose
neighboringparishesand communes,
as
fairs
"the
social
at
sense.
latter
the
and
in the
sense
in the
topographicand
we
shall
the
use
term
"community."
Of
course
facilities of
intercourse,but
us
to
social
determine
there
is
community widens
and
the frequency
always
the individual
of
criterion which
opinion about
with
or
the
as
the
social
enables
far
as
the
family reaches.
INTRODUCTION
Social
which
145
factor which
and
above
all the
holds
the
munity
com-
particularities
of the
community, individuals,
or
with each other,and it is the only indispensable
Occasionallythere may arise a local interest
smaller groups
factor.
which
provokes some
usuallyof an economic
more
common,
or
less organized,
action,
this
But
facultyof common
that the old community has alreadyrisen to a
action shows
of the marked
level,and is again one
new
points of the
nature.
of
the
peasant.
The
peasant
for centuries
independent of common
action and lacked any organization,
even
a transitory
one.
in which social opinionholds the community
The manner
togetheris easilyanalyzed. Any extraordinaryoccurrence
community
becomes
for
the members
this is
certain
of the
that
he
each
shares
the
attitude is shared
the
three
by the rest
originalelements
focus
the
community,
developed,and
conscious
time
of attention1 of all
an
member
of the
general attitude
of the community.
of
or
mechanism
the
is
community
that
These
his
are
social
of
opinion:
the
directlyproportional
of relatively
number
important phenomena occurring
ciently
In the community the number
of phenomena suffiimportant to occupy the social opinionis,of course,
to the size of the group
to the
in it.
much
more
parish more
group
limited
limited
the number
than
in the
than
in the
increases with
and
parish or commune,
village. But in
any
When,
association
an
village
agricultural
in the
has
for
given
sphere
example, in
bought
a new
some
machine,
146
or
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
exceptionally
largeamount
an
learns of it and
community
talks about
it.
awakening
of national
and
"
those which
interests
have
or
which
arouse
the
the
particularly
of the
the
community,
are
But
relation with
some
the members
prevailingamong
have
to
seem
introduction
"
attitudes
of these
that it
developed with
are
new
phenomena,
opinionloses a character
primitiveconditions
possessedeminently hi more
its reliability.
In a primary group, with steadycomponents,
with a form
of life relatively
simple and changing very
its members,
between
slowly, with a close connection
mistakes in the perceptionor interpretation
of an interesting
vated
fact are relatively
rare, and gossipis usuallyas well moti"
it
as
the
can
sphere of
be.
The
his normal
peasant is
keen
observer
within
is there
condition
of
those
who
hear
it know
enough
to
be
able.
probableand the improbAnd deliberately
false gossipincurs a strong censure
and criticism are
of social opinion. Of course
interpretation
the standpointof tradition,and nothing can
exerted from
false traditional beliefs;
resultingfrom
prevent errors
of magic are
classical example. From
accusations
our
a
of the peasant's
point of view, therefore,many expressions
between
to distinguish
critical,
the
INTRODUCTION
147
opinionare partlyfalse.
But
when
But
kind
appears
of
phenomenon
in
focus
the
and
new
hitherto unknown
of
Observation
old-,
becomes
incomplete,
is
the fact distorted by old mental
habits; interpretation
there is
and real criticism impossible,because
hazardous
no
ready criterion of the probable and improbable. And
fact occurs, and the gossip originates
if such a new
particularly
outside of the community, the disorientation of
circulate
social opinion is complete. Aiiy absurdity may
this is due, not only
and be generally
accepted^ Of course
and
of tracingthe gossipto its source
to the impossibility
but also to the generalmental
of verification,
the difficulty
mechanismjtailsat
attitude
of the
conditions,faces
once.
peasant who,
the world
as
outside
once
unlimited
an
of his normal
sphere of
culable
incal-
possibilities.2
We have spoken of an identityof attitudes,
developedby
of a community with regard to the socially
the members
interesting
phenomenon. In fact,this identityifla. npresf nnrial opinionnnrl it brrom^s
more
pprfprt
social opinion is
when
whichj:hisexerts
the
individual.
communities
with
on
formed, in view
once
the
mist, and
legend was
Parand
in 1910-12,
nobody knew
Were
But
up
of the pressure
in many
to
for this
it not
eastern
that time
was
isolated
covered
seeing the
and settle. Or
the mist and told them to come
misery of Polish peasants, dispelled
the earth came
of
and
When
the mist was
a variant:
raised,all the kings
emperors
togetherand drew lots to decide who should take the new land. Three times they
drew, and
Mary,
2
gave
won.
Then
of
instigation
Theoretic and
Esthetic Interests.
the
Virgin
148
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
appreciationcould hardly be
attained as often as it is,in view of the frequentdivergence
of individual and familial interests in a given case.
The
main factor in establishing
this uniformityand in enforcing
it in spite of individual disagreement is tradition.
The
attitude to be taken with regard to any phenomenon of a
and an individual
definite class is predeterminedby tradition,
unanimity
pressure,
who
took
tradition
of social
different attitude
and
in this character
would
would
be
rebel
himself
against
become
included
are
in
in any
of
of traditional
quitenew or because
the community throw
the
a
new
new
interests which
lightupon
have
arisen
old classes of
PRIMARY-GROUP
150
permits the
toward
ORGANIZATION
communication
of the event
and
of the attitude
influence as
printed word has the same
the expressedopinion of the group, because it is implicitly
assumed
to be the expressionof social opinion. There
are
certainlyessential differences between the meeting and the
it,and
with
paper
the
regard to
the mechanism
by
and
through the
enters
study in
if
of the Polish
function
the
take
we
mediate
the individual
paper
it in connection
well
as
as
the
second,
the
world.
which
paper,
opinion
and
in the
the external
popular
can
social
the individual
is immediate
group
which
we
munity
com-
But
shall
be
clearlyunderstood only
the social opinion of the
with
community.
The
nature
individual
of all,it
rather
from
the
of the influence
is its
who
seems
cause
of it;
no
This would
of
the focus
even
of
if this
complicated. First
peasant in generalit is
public attention,apart
cause
value
personal
is indifferent from
element
in
it.
The
if
and
tional
recognizethe tradiexcitement
of departure to
of
contains certainlysome
displayof grief,even
vehement
the
public attention
admiration, it stillbringsa pleasantexcitement.
explainto a great extent, for example, the usual
standpoint
involves
be
opinion upon
rather
pleasant to
the
object is
of social
we
militaryservice or to America
with
of return
this pleasure; still more
the excitement
But
certainly this
anticipationof public admiration.
pleasure never
goes so far as to neutralize the feelingof
it
shame
at being the object of intense public blame, as
city criminals. On the contrary, the
negativeinfluence of publicblame in criminal matters
goes
of the
far that suspicionof crime, just or unjust,is one
so
of suicide. Another
most
intenselyfelt
important causes
sometimes
does
in
publicdisgraceis that
which
the declassing
INTRODUCTION
which
to
151
this misconduct
consists,not
in actual
sexual
brought
But
if
intercourse
as
for itself.
this actual
Behind
opinion
there
unconscious
belief in
an
machinery
of the
action
public
profound,
some
perhaps still remain
in
vestigesof forgotten motives,consisting
immediate, useful or harmful influence of
may
But
which
of this
would
of
clearlyrequirethe
use
we
have
no
the
the
data
tion.
magical explana-
PRIMARY-GROUP
152
The
is
ORGANIZATION
influence of social
only
side of the
one
opinionupon
question; we
consideration
community.
Here
singleindividual
must
smaller
problem
the
the
is more
also take
into
within
the
group
complicated.
The
the
the
every
member
feels affected
by
"
enforced
from
without
"
is manifested
in the
tendency
of
group.
It is
blame
is
usually the
group
condition
itself. The
the group
of the
opinion of
for
responsible
internal
involvingsocial
the environment
solidarityof
the environment
its members
even
the
often makes
if there is feeble
have
the whole
either
to
group
interfere with
is sometimes
vice becomes
without
make
taken, and
discrimination.
the
So
guilty members
they
or
The
latter
be that
are, for
to
the
example,
INTRODUCTION
for
villagesnotorious
153
theft, drinking,card-playing,etc.
in such
also
cases
passive
village,without
discrimination.
In
this way
they get
in their
the
efficient
most
shame
vice.
the
arms
But
it,namely, exclusion.
upon
members
against the
In
some
who
cases
bring
this is
less successfully,
but then the group
or
attempted, more
organizesitself temporarilyin view of this particularend.
with
It is possiblefor the individual to disclaim solidarity
ill-famed unorganized group
an
by leaving it, but this
again does not happen frequently,because the individual,
feels less strongly the
supported by his narrower
group,
blame
is blamed
in
members.
We
the
for the
newspapers
find it,also,in
acts
of
some
of its
different form,
somewhat
the
isolated community
on
intellectually
national
solidarityis
ethnographical limits of Poland
for example,in German
awakened
by the blame of foreigners,
when
in
some
Poland.
The
in the eyes
of the
claims to this
the group
acquiressolidarity
is,of
solidarity,
course,
found
only in
own
matters
PRIMARY-GROUP
154
ORGANIZATION
group.
is the
well-known
local,national,
pride.
which
have
We
is possible
also in
an
recognitionon*
wants
its
of
of
members,
the
social prominent
mechanism
of
this
distinguish
organizedgroup but
to
familial,
ism,
mechandoes
not
does
of social
the individual
As
opinion?
we
free himself
have
from
the influence
the Polish
already noted,
more
of the
make
social blame
in order
make
the
for
contrast
some
tune
and
to
stronger; he may
praise if it comes
spoilshis effect. In
social
and
to prepare
before
this way
extent
some
aiming
at
encourage
to
be dissatisfied with
even
his
them
own
chosen
his ambition
moment
itselfteaches
INTRODUCTION
him
extent
disregardto some
public opinion and helps
a
particularpleasure in the contrast between his
to
find
to
own
appreciationof
social
value and
These
day
astonish
Back
will
when
he will show
come
community.
features make
psychological
of
member
his real
when
usuallycomes
some
whose
group
or
less
that of the
from
group
and
above
the
cityor
to
recent
is formed
once
But
it goes
traditional
in
easier.
community,
In
those
tion.
taking this direc"enlightened" peasants
are
the further
social workers
The
also among
on
group.
small circle of
This
much
the
traditions.
disregardthe
to
his
by
America.
stay within
who
and
community
is facilitated
process
to
opinion.
the
which
of liberation,
a
erroneous
movement
in the
becomes
country
stand
under-
this
influence
the smallest
even
one.
When
printwith
feel strong
some
group
enough
popular papers
of the adherents
to
have
of
some
one
another
and
of their bearers.
to communicate
by letters or by
outside of his community in order to
the prevailing
opinion. Some
oppose
therefore organized loose associations
movement,
who
communicate
with
of
in the cases
through the paper.
But, even
almost perfectliberation from the pressure of the immediate
an
environment, there is a latent hope that some
day
the community will acknowledge the value of the new
ideas
At
present
the peasant
is
of
unorganized social environment
itself undergoing a profound evolution,in
the
156
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
connection
with
modification
-publicopinion,are
changing
individual
the
traditional
the
class-
the interests
constitution,the criteria,
hierarchy./The
of
of
influence
the
to
rapidly,and
very
the
this
of
tion
reac-
changing
either weakened
environment, without being necessarily
in connection
strengthened, is changing qualitatively,
the formation
of
of
or
with
social classes./
new
LIFE1
ECONOMIC
Polish
the
Among
stages of economic
mental
attitudes
in which
values
are
yet subordinated
dominant
to
with
three
coexisting
accompanying
their
of the old
stillto
familyeconomy,
largeextent qualitative,
of quantity,and the
the idea
is the interest in
attitude
not
of economic
make
values
fortune
to
or
and
which
economic
moral
point of
values and
view.
form
in concrete
lower
stage may
groups
it
are
In addition
by
of the Kingdom
Materyaly
have
wloscianina.
are
seldom
subordinated
are
of
to
the
individuals;some
of
at
to
been
the Russian
used
Minister
on
season-emigration
AgriculturalAssociation
of Agriculture,some
data
Franciszek
sprawie wioscianskiej;
important monograph
influences,in
external
of Poland
the followingworks
attitudes
operation,
co-
of the authors
one
under
yet realized.
not
to
or
persiston
social individualism
corresponding tendency
To
increase
developingmainly
made
find
we
development
(i)the survival
economic
not
to
peasants
and
village),
Bujak, Zmiqca
Limanowa;
from
Grabski,
(a particularly
Jan Slomka,
Pamietniki
158
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
owner
property plays up
there has
to
by
about
Russian
Poland, has
therefore
forms, and
questionswithout
is
matter
innumerable, often
the
The
scene.
with
modern
also
legal
usingthe legalscheme
once
absurd,
been- the
incommensurable
categoriesare
legal side of
land, of which
lawsuits
the
secondary role,although
a
far-goingadaptation to legal
serfdom.
The
of this
difficulty
the present
necessarilybeen
adaptation
therefore
that
all,or, when
at
court
or
the
only before
even
the notary,
the
new
would
or
the
when
be
to
mixed.
standpointsare
But
not
the two
overestimated.
It
land
upon
to
seems
property ought
have
been
rather
land property
perhaps they
are
are.
found
among
the
of the peasant
higher classes,although
more
system of serfdom
has
forms
life whose
of economic
characteristics
simply adapted
itself to
ultimate
The
pre-existing
originis
lost in the
past.
Land
temporary
essential
Who
manager.
provided he
manages
son,
to
of the
not
be the father,the
the son-in-law.
it is therefore
We
have
family to
if
seen
marry
member
of
INTRODUCTION
wish
he
159
live with
his brother
sister,
working as much as he is able,not working if he is not able,
but in any case gettinghis livingand nothing but his living.
of work entitles him to anything like wages, no
No amount
diminish his rightto be supported on
to work
can
inability
not
to
marry,
grown-up
the
have
the
they
go
own,
because
own
it
"
its natural
from
branches
due
was
to
Of
to
absolutelysevered.
Its existence
localities under
some
farm
badly,
absolutelyto
the
lord
pretedas
if the
economic
share
in the
character
of members
social
The
right to
obligationto
farm
The
do
It
was
the
upon
nearness
be
If
never
well manifested
very
his
serf managed
else,but
a
gave
an
farm;
of the
be
cient
suffi-
any
be inter-
not
association holding a
they
only
share
group,
and
common
no
essentially
family have
supported by
contribute
should
the
social
this result
from
the group
and
their
of the group.
to the existence
claims
economic
with
on
world.
regard to it
property, but
to
the
group.
that the
only with the greatest difficulty
accepted that the land left after the death
therefore
idea could
was
the
rightsand
not
depend
upon
only weakened,
of the farm
of the
is the material
expressionof
the connection
give it to someone
possiblerelative who
familywere
members
their social
is
collateral
better management.
The
property.
on,
their
not
could
familial character
This
is
the
extent
serfdom.
the nearest
guaranty of
if,later
earn
course
some
the connection
in
they
was
they gave for this money
the family-farmand diverted
with
they
money
destination.
family lose
of the
which
the work
from
away
outside,the
work
to
their
not
same
rightto live
obligationto work
They have
or
The
can
160
PRIMARY-GROUP
of the head
of the
other kinds of
and
be divided
eventuallyto
The
ORGANIZATION
first form
of
providingseparatelyfor
of the
the
family,other than
a payment
certainly
was
them.
among
who
one
in cash
of the
to
was
the members
farm-stock,made
or
during
the member
family
managing
This is not the acknowledgment of their rights
the farm.
to the farm, but simply an
expressionof familial solidarity,
individualistic form is necessitated by modern
a help,whose
With
conditions.
economic
"
the progress
of individualism
find the first sign
principlebegins to yield,and we
sometimes
almost purely nominal
the old
in the
rather
of the
of the head
the death
the
new
to
rightsof the
acknowledges some
such, begin to increase,but they
the
share
when
in
after
seldom
are
rare
the
member
the
cases
divided
all means
And
to
become
never
the
land.
itself is divided
of the
head
to
of the
mortgaging
benefit of other
course,
The
it
we
see
the
usuallymost of them
older generationendeavoring
nominally
heirs.
above
and
curious
over
the whole
area
Most
over
of
son,
for the
becomes, of
do with
nothing to
has
gem
strata-
to one
its value
practically
impossible.
of the farm
indivisibility
disseminated
equal to
Finally
(usuallyonly
family)it is
the land
among
off."
farm
other heirs
holds
who
death
premature
"paid
by
of
and
alreadythe principal
heir
as
his brothers
to
pay
sisters.
after
has
manager,
shares which
of the
farms
hundred
of
the
are
them,
villageneighborhood.
the
or
exchange of
the
modern
INTRODUCTION
of
integration
do
to have
effect
dissolving
the social unity of the farm.
not
Nevertheless,
every
is equally adapted to playing the part of familial
upon
farm
"
farm
property.
not
this
is devoid
farm
new
is
quitenaturallyassociated
often
with
even
associations.
land may
new
generations of the
many
of such
lose,and the
land may
seem
which
upon
same
farms
161
But
while
the
old
the function
assume,
remains
principleof indivisibility
if the object to which it is appliedis not the
in force even
This explainshow
the idea of familial
before.
same
as
property has been kept up in spite of colonization and
emigrationfrom provinceto province,and is stillexertingits
the
of familial property;
influence
The
value
a
even
among
land
being
the material
"
whole
the Russian
the
of the existence of
government
colonized
communism
standpointof
Land
the
an
of
individual
should
never
or
only
who
had
that
of the social
essence
cease
comparison
of land from
mean
Polish
it is evident
objectsof personaluse
to
may
point
the stand-
something
more
or
from
the
member
of
property.
be mortgaged, except
family. Mortgaging
institution
the
latter would
value
be deduced
can
factory workmen,
were
less like
as
prevailing
principle
peasants, almost
there
group
ing
Siberia,constitut-
the communistic
Russian
colonists attracted
accordingto
villages
among
economic
an
fact.
No land communism
When
than
of land property
other characters
"
social rather
condition
this fundamental
from
to
government,
stranger, and
not
to
to
particularly
only involves
the danger
62
of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
it
Mortgaged land is no
matters
lends money
is
paid
payment
back
land
on
in from
with
conditions
The
the interest
knows
this very
on
which
the state
favorable.
particularly
forty to sixtyyears, and
any
average
per
cent
the
to 3 per
investment.
soon
the mortgage.
debt
yearly
cent
The
as
bank
The
are
interest is from
than
on
less
peasant
he has any
A
private
if the interest is higher and no
even
mortgage is preferred,
partialpayments possible. The peasant prefersabove all
at high interest and for a short term.
a personaldebt, even
And this again results from the social character of the land ;
a
mortgaged property becomes
purely economic
category
and loses its whole symbolicalvalue.
The situation is here
analogous to that which we find in every profanation;the
profaned object passes into a different class and loses its
exceptionalcharacter of sanctity.
Finally,land property is evidentlythe main condition
of- the social standing of the family. Without
land, the
but it cannot
act
family can stillkeep its internal solidarity,
it ceases
as a unit with regard to the rest of the community;
Its members
become
to count
as
a social power.
socially
and
often
economically dependent upon
strangers, and
to
about the country or abroad; the family ceases
scatter
its young
play any part in the affairs of the commune,
in matters
of
generationcan hardly be taken into account
marriage,it cannot
give large ceremonial receptions,etc.
The greater the amount
of land, the greater the possibility
of social expression. Of course
all this graduallychanges on
the higherlevels of economic
development.
money
INTRODUCTION
has
Land
also
163
exceptionalvalue
an
from
other
pointsof
magical rites
as
"
an
"
"
is,so
farm-
to
of the farm.
manager
hold the
who
House
furniture
the
is the
is owned
by those
they hold it.
valuable
Even
home-made,
piecesof clothing,particularly
often passing from
generation to generation,are owned
really,but only temporarily. Things bought or made by
the individual
function
the
himself
of this class
function
of land
no
requiresindividual
of the family to
ownership,and the rightof every member
own
depends upon this fundamental
something individually
aim and is determined
by the positionwhich he occupiesin
the group.
The
head
of the family owns
the farm-stock
existence
of the
group,
wherever
this
because
this is necessary
and
and
the
he
his wife
are
To
no
what
member
who
stays
which
marry
distributed
which
and establish
are
they give
home
clothes;
"
necessary,
at
member
as
he needs to live
those who
he needs
farm,
of these
general distributors
giveeveryone
he has
To
to
are
of the
not
the
household
only to
goods
live personally,
of householders
"
besides
64
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
clothes,some
house
and
furniture,some
bed
and
particularpositionof
unmarried
without
any
married
who
member
household
are
is
regulatedby
the
same
to
his needs, as
far
as
in the
of
the
other member
can
into
things
himself,taking
spare
Thus,
account.
an
the
marrying one.
primitivelyonly dividingthis
or
he
both
has
or
member
every
any
farm-stock
sense
no
others
principle:to
result from
those needs
his function
insufficient.
For
from
according
everyone
He
does not
at first even
his
of
but
capital,
for
think
he
simplykeeps it at home.
mediaeval
principleof no
other
of
property has
of
kinds
making
an
of
immediate
property.
produce;
the
And ifhe lends it privately,
interest prevails,
at most, as
or
money
products is taken
for the service. Even
interest on privateloans from
now
into the
Putting money
peasant to peasant is very low.
bank comes
stilllater,
and, last of all,usingit on enterprises.
Being a provisionalsubstitute for other kinds of property,
tion.
is individualized accordingto its source
and destinamoney
A sum
received from selling
is qualitatively
a
cow
we
shall
see
later,a reward
different from
sum
in money
received
as
or
dowry,
and
both
are
dif-
66
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
determined
prefersto
borrow
rather than
needs
that
very
stage of evolution
of the
property which
temporarily,
difficult conditions,
sum.
of
exclusivelythe measure
family or the individual.
view
little money
under
it,even
touch
this
At
and
end,
property,
economic
the
income,
not
situation
is
of the
be so,
evidentlyit must
situation is socially
important only in
standing which it gives and since it is
And
the
expresses
life.
valued
largerbut badly managed farm is therefore more
if their real
than a well-managed but smaller one, even
economic
values are inversely
proportional. And there is a
toward
curiouslymixed attitude of envy and commiseration
town
employees who have an income much
people or manor
largerthan the peasant, but no property.
itself which we use here is origiThe concept of income
nally
strange to the peasant. We can apply this category to
the yearlyproductsof the farm, but we must
remember
that
the peasant does not apply it. The products of the farm
A
destined
evaluated
quantitatively.
Their destination is simply to give a livingto the familyand
to keep farming going on
And the original
nothing more.
wheat
and
system of farming (one-third whiter crops, i.e.,
one-third summer
barley,oats, potatoes,
rye;
crops, i.e.,
low level of agriwith an average
etc.; one- third fallow),
cultura
to sell from
a
practice,
reallydoes not leave much
farm of the average
size of ten to thirtyacres.
Below
ten
acres
a farm
giveshardly enough to feed the family and the
are
not
to
"
stock;
and
sellhis
until the
think
earn
some
money
in the
he must
or
harvest.
new
rather
products.
There
And
to
rich neighbor
get
living
if his situation is
increasinghis
are
outside
stock
also in this
case
than
good, he will
of sellingany
greater claims
to
be
INTRODUCTION
satisfied
servants
members
of the
"
helped, guests
should
which
be
to
family
167
fed, old
parents
collateral
or
be
supported, neighbors to be
be received.
For, unlike the property
to
never
to
outside
pass
of
the
family,the
farm
income
poor
Its
etc.
is to
essence
support human
waste
sellit is not
sin,almost
animal
or
here
we
life. To
crime.
may
To
find in the
conviction
remains
using what
quitefair.
There
is another
way
of
of the
real
in the
consider,as
have
of the
member
family,to
without
regard
goods
the
to
assume
are
not
attitude
forests
of the
belonging
property
common
raw
simply
or commune
village
source
can
as
from
draw
not
the property of
which
every
materials which
attitude
the farm
also
toward
an
evolution
the natural
of
property.
In this
products of
the farm
agricultural
progress of the Polish peasant
slow up to twenty or thirtyyears ago.
There were
was
so
sufficient motives
to increase
the productivityof the
no
land.
The standard
of livingsimply adapted itself to the
natural income, and the question of increasingthe farm
explainswhy
the
to
secondary character
seen,
are
he needs in addition
his
the
of
The
pastures and
They
same.
sense
we
is property.
toward
the
They
anyone.
which
68
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
equipment
was
studies,harder
complicatedsystem
the slowness
where
case
there
"
could
for
resources
at
allowed
solve the
to
began
the
of the
international
and
change,
to
of income
sources
situations.
new
the development
large cities,
of national
when
"
first additional
peasant found
him
strong enough
conditions
general
the
be
sufficient to
not
no
we
And
of the progress.
was
were
When
of farming, etc.
the motive
income
farm
more
clingingto
at
work,
justifyagricultura
trouble in running a
If we take the passive
shall hardly wonder
preciselyin the only
to
The
the
which
of the
growth
of communication,
means
commerce,
him
gave
the
developed,found
much
very
interest which
sudden
Polish
hired
was
hen
season-work,
also in
and
The
as
had
to
in the
work
finally
supply
same
way
in
natural
obligedthe
this could
which
only
the
higher classes
in the
of
income
neighborhood,
in Germany,
in America.
accounted
not
was
to
such
cover
that money
property suppliedthe
of property.
new
tojbepaid
first
to
of additional
source
of this income
use
were
at
in the
more
first
expenses
it awakened
the main
society. But
markets, thanks
new
Taxes
increased
it
of
living
deficiency
and
had
in cash, whereas
formerlypaid mainly
they were
The
"procTucts.
multiplicationof the family
of new
land, and
possible,
purchase,whenever
be
done
interest had
to
be
paid
in cash.
the
of the younger
New
needs
arose
generation,needs of
city products, city pleasures,learning; individualization
among
members
usuallyonly by contractingdebts, on
INTRODUCTION
169
stage of evolution.
But
in this evolution
even
of economic
held
values
earned, had
the
principleof qualification
of money,
ditional
adgood. Every sum
particularend and could be used
on
pass from
the
largeenough
was
sum
If
latter.
sum
actual
some
to
need
felt
was
explanationof
remains
his characteristic
Traditionallyall
fuel,were
clothing,
land, and
there
on
them.
the money
Even
spend
more
because
is not
in
than
worse
of
more
comes
for the
of
needs
an
immigrant.
of food, shelter,
natural
products of the
aversion
to spending
natural
living. In
products were
localities where
of this kind
expenses
has to be
acquired.
extraordinaryexpenses,
directlyfrom
use
even
have
sold,
they find
on
regard to
his
feature
We
traditional and
than
some
used for
the
for their
money
with
in
to
of the standard
market
of
stinginess
when
increase
to
misfortune.
is still an
and
was
increase of income
easy
as
addition
necessityof spending it
elementary
satisfied by the
an
aside
the
not
was
the
marked
set
once
here the
money
make
particular
way
on
was
sum
the country.
of money
which
And
the
In the
inhibition
same
livingexpenses
way
even
if he
particularly
when
he has a plan
PRIMARY-GROUP
170
ORGANIZATION
compel
can
the
him
to
The
lifeis wages.
But
of earningor borrowing
impossibility
his living.
on
spend this sum
known
to
Primarilythere seems
equivalent of the work done,
one.
is rather
There
a
living. The
employer, is assimilated
evidentlyinferior to that of
is not
principle
be
no
of
an
of the
economic
an
his
managers
the distributor
property and
employer'sfamily
become
may
idea of
the modern
his
to
exchange of values.
the collaborator to
a collaboration,
entitling
servant
or
employee, by co-operatingwith
his
is the manager
at
that
to
in the
of other
fact that
themselves.
There
these
can
of the
members
members
also be other
reasons
and
can
as
such
no
the element
be obviated, and
never
element of
employee's work includes also always some
different from collaboration,
and
personalservice essentially
involvinga real personalinferiority.But in this case also
the
employee
the
degree that
is assimilated
to
the
employer'sfamily to
collaboration.
To
the
be sure,
this assimilation
acquiredonly through
manifestation
The
work
is that the
given in
board
natural
and
long lifein
of this attitude
salaryof
the servant
products. The
determined
common.
or
was
toward
dependent
always originally
singleservant
undetermined
amount
received
of
his
clothing;
INTRODUCTION
the married
in
171
had
lodging,fuel,grain (called
a field for potatoes, the permissionto keep one
ordynaryd),
in short, everything included in the
two
etc.
or
cows,
economic
tion
evolupeasant idea of living. Later on the same
which obligedthe peasant farmer to seek for an additional
income obligedthe employer to pay a littlemoney
to
is considered as only
his employee. But
that this money
be
addition, an equivalentfor products which cannot
an
servant
manors
"
furnished,is shown
amount
servants
to manor
10
of
cent
per
the
even
keeps a
based
Originally
servant
farm.
of
servant
by
A
worked
on
with
who
has
do
day-work
custom
cheap hands
largechildren
made
for
obligatory
lightwork.
therefore
must
his
for
posylka
productsbesides
the
that of occasional
by
the
farm
and
manor
an
additional
dailypay,
in the
servant
livinginstead
As
of
receives
natural
same
parobek,the
receives his living
as
way
the
in cash.
old
small addition
for the
the
in
remuneration
which
manor
largerchildren
was
need
the
the manorial
on
no
to
paid
only
products. Another
seasonor
day-work
by which
custom
him, the
who
manor-owners,
servant
manor
the hired
family,is the
boy or girlto
the average
on
in natural
wages
modification,parallelwith
of the farmer's
now
in cash
wages
excludes
any
idea
and
any
into property, of
consequence
of the
economizing
principleof a
never
can
regular wage, the servant
become
member
an
owner,
except by inheritance from some
of his family,or incidentally
by marriage. The problem of
solved on the familial principle.A
livingin old age was
disabled worker was
to be supportedby his own
family,or,
a
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
172
if he had
served
in
connected
with
the
one
an
sociallyobligedto support him until his death
tion
obligawhich was
always respected.
of this state of things
Another
interesting
consequence
the type of moral regulationof the relation between
was
"
'
employer
and
identical
on
attitude
The
employee.
in
both sides,
spiteof
requiredwas
tially
essen-
the difference of
positions
"goodness,"
"
employer
regulationdid
between
work
touch
not
which
shows
for his
"just"
even
or
proportion
the
when
now,
"just"
he
pay,
well for
cares
the intention
of the
of the
is not
why
reasons
taken
long
tradition of
craftmanship and
into account
And
master
of
matter
employees.
One
wages
who
master
all the
at
remuneration.
and
peasant speaks of
means
The
to be
had
of his
and
work.
certainlythe
While
among
work
and
attitude
of
handworkers
negatively,
fundamentally interested, positively or
orated
principallyin the process of work.
Many factors collabFirst of all,the comto develop this attitude.
pulsory
could hardly
work
under
the system of serfdom
awaken
any
his work
whether
"
of
negativeone,
was
What
efficient or
compulsory
of course,
work
because
not
On
evoked
of the
care
the
strong
hardship
PRIMARY-GROUP
174
good.
We
influence
the
is
solve
cannot
of work
process
assumed
has
Christian
of the
it.
The
ceremonies
God"
which
religiouscharacter
or
questionof more
littleimportance.
work
to
fulfilledthe
has
and magical
religious
requires,he "leaves the rest
tradition
waits
and
the
problem, whether
this importance only under
ideology or whether there
the
fundamental
and
working steadily,
regard
here
primitive and
more
belongingto
to
ORGANIZATION
of
efficiency
results
whose
immediate
are
counts, and
an
different from
very
hired
When
enters
motive
new
attitude
work
is not
begins
"
that
changed.
the
laborer,even
paid.
of work
Even
when
it is
of work
allows it"
"
to
of wages.
the
But
for the
not
employee, the
considers
essential
the servant
that
city handworker.
develop, there gradually
factoryworkman,
it
here
even
if God
that of
has very
carpenter's,
"
But
"will hold
thing made
the
attitude
work.
the
different with
much
so
work
attitude is somewhat
The
weaver's
blacksmith's,spinner's,
is not
results to come;
at
as
himself
hired
be
to
remuneration
eagerlyaccepted,
home
than
abroad.
absurd
most
stress
its external
process
on
explainsalso
motives
The
put
of
are
main
the process
the
factors
rather than
importance which
conditions
have
for
the kind
the
on
its
of work
peasant.
The
with this
displeasureconnected
firststage more
important than the profits.
of pleasureare freedom, variety,facility,
pleasure and
at the
of work
INTRODUCTION
175
"
case
the
the
appreciationof
new
and
Up
the
to
pass
to
those which
various members
of
relation
all of them
of
an
are
in
the
use,
is
of
way
now
relations between
relations
These
concepts
purely economic
of
one
between
solidarity
same
We
giving,
crediting,
renting,exchanging,
of reducing these
no
possibility
modifications
occasional
economic
the followingseven
limited number
more
these.
belongs to
peasant community.
"
determine
be classed under
may
we
concern
employment
the
even
developed
present
which
attitudes
work
as
but
categories,
fundamental
relation
the members
of
all the
relations
"
munity,
com-
between
of
when
the value of the
symbolicalgift,
moral.
The real giftbetween
objectis essentially
strangers
be only an
can
object of consumption, belonging to the
material
value,from
category of income,
not
to that of
property, because, as
we
ical
family. A symbolgiftis usuallya religiousobject (medal, cross, image,
sometimes
wafer, scapular,etc.),
an
objectof adornment, a
have
said,property
cannot
go out
of the
76
triflemade
by
but
not
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
its material
diminish
increase
the person
himself,etc.
value
the stock of
the wealth
is
It is in itself property,
that it
insignificant
property of the giverand does
so
of the receiver.
which
Its moral
value
does
not
sists
con-
it
symbolizesand which
constitute its meaning. Now, the common
meaning of all
the symbolicalgiftsis that they establish between
the giver
and the receiver a spiritual
bond, analogous to the familial
because they formallybear the character of
bond, precisely
giftsreserved for the familial relation; the receiver is
conventionallyincorporatedinto the giver'sfamily. In
the case
of a religious
or
magical object the latter has still
another meaning in itselfwhich heightensthe moral importance
of the gift; the bond
between
the giver and
the
receiver is sanctified,
to speak. By gradationsof the
so
material value of the gift and of the sanctitywhich
it
imparts to the relation between the giver and the receiver
we
pass
from
conventional
to
the
to
girlwhom
he intends
to marry
ceremonial
familial occasions
"
and
member
even
on
of the
"
secondary
ones,
such
as
the
arrival of
of
the head
of the
INTRODUCTION
family. By invitingmembers
177
offering
food the
offered,and
people invited, the treatment
the whole community
meeting lasts. Theoretically,
of
the number
the
the time
be a
must
ought to be invited,and the treatment
real,not a symbolicalgift;that is,every guest ought to be
reallyfed for a certain time, a day, two, three,originally
often more.
The motive of showing off,
usingthe ceremonial
has cerentertainment
tainly
as a signof the standingof the family,
of the
But
on
iclp. The
livingfor
that
with
its solidarity
idea
was
to
of the attitude
consequence
manifestation
of those occasions
some
manifest
to
as
the
solidarity.
community had also
familyby
the family
the
assist
of
in
real,effective
procuring a
for a new
or
(at christening)
larriage-group(at the wedding). Every person invited
had to offer something for the child or the new
couple. At
in money,
but we
have vestiges
"resent
the giftsare made
showing that,at least in the case of marriage,they were made
farm products food, fuel,linen,cloth,etc.
The family
in
lelpedthe new
couple mainly, though not exclusively,
the community helped it to get a
latters of property;
not
That
those giftswere
livingduring the first months.
intended as a reciprocity
for the entertainment
times
(as somehas degenerated)
the case now, when the custom
seems
a
member
new
"
is
proved by
when
:casions,
it death
or
was
no
no
giftswere
offered
betrothal,for instance.
on
other
family
"
178
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
The
of
In
the
use
among
accepts them
from
of the
stranger acknowledges thereby the class-superiority
latter.
ized,
ritualCloselyconnected with the gift,although never
is lendingof mobile property (propertyof the second
This is a form of help quite
class)for a temporary use.
the person
borrowed
it gets
or, in other
income,
some
indirect,then
borrowed
product
to
barn,
and
or
to
in order to go
cart
The
the
on
lead to
borrowed
instruments
productive,and
service.
the person
repairthe house,
horse
is added
moment
new
the
borrowed
cart
no
in order
used
owner
remuneration
in
living
who
part of the
horse
instruments
visit,
of
and
borrowed
hired
should
grows
work,
are
considered
the
importance
of
INTRODUCTION
179
results obtained
the
importance
of the
distinction is not
is clear.
The
object should
the
of
deterioration
made
good.
The
very
of
act
be
increase of the
The
the
primitiveattitude
same,
property.
adds
certain sum,
social
toward
money-lending is exactly
first only the equivalentof
in paying the money
back
is at
since money
mobile
a
of this person.
resources
debtor
The
not
as
but
interest,
solidarity
proportionateto
of
Up
interest,the
of
reciprocation
subjectiveimportance
the
as
the present,
to
custom
after the
even
is sometimes
observed
thanks
successful,
particularly
to the money
borrowed, he will add a free gift to the
toward
determined
the
interest,as a sign of benevolence
has
been
creditor.
of
quite different principleprevailsin the matter
is the basis of the
Land
the first object of rent
rent.
existence of the family; therefore,when
it is rented, it
ought to bring income, that is,it ought to enable the family
But
"
"
to
live,as
of rent
when
And, indeed,
we
form
consider
can
strength or because
The
the
ance
primitiveis in perfectaccordwith this principle.Usually a farmer who has enough
cannot
equipment rents the land of another who
farm
which
it is cultivated.
productsare
tenant
and
owner
he cannot
then
is
he has not
buy
divided.
already an
or
keep
In this way
the necessary
the
equipment.
the relation of
exchange of services,but
i8o
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
it is
which
of the land
the
was
in the temporary
As
of the
absence
to the rent
for
cultivate.
cannot
owner
of widows
as
and
rule
only
owner.
an
buildings,
evolution
have
to
seems
originally
Temporary lodging in a house was
equivalentto any giftof thingswhich serve for living. It
involved in hospitality
and was
was
always only occasional
occurred.
strangers,since almost
among
everyone
lent
or
by
on
the
But
someone's
barn
to
house
same
as
principle
same
at the
that
his crops
is,the
time
any
mobile
person
remunerated
barn
who
the
In short,there
by givinghim a part of these crops.
was
no
renting,but lending of buildings,and this was
for the buildingsbelonged to the class of
perfectlylogical,
Later
mobile, manufactured
property, as against land.
there developed the class of komorniks, that is,people
on
had no
who
houses and lived from day labor, lodging in
other people'shouses, and the principleof remuneration,
extended
to
applying originallyto farm buildings,was
taneously
simuland rooms
houses
permanently used. There was
of regulation
of the remuneration, about
a process
which we
shall speak later. Finally,in some
cases, when
of
rented together with land, the principle
buildingswere
owner
land
rent
to
seems
although this
last
have
phase
been
partly extended
is uncertain.
to
them,
82
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
sacrifice
that
is the
creditor himself.
it will be
Money
it is most
when
time
is often lent
needed
the condition
on
other
the
by
that
it,and
the
Night and
highly
Sunday work is valued by the worker exceptionally
because of the sacrifice which it involves;but the same
man
when he appliesto it the principle
do it disinterestedly
may
and is asked for it as for a help. In selling
of solidarity
or
exchanging some
object the peasant adds to its economic
value which the objecthas for him on
value the subjective
of personal or familial associations.
And
account
many
other illustrations
of
But
course
can
be found.
when
into economic
moment.
the
once
attitude
egotistic
is introduced
to
be
The principle
of equivaby social considerations.
lence
requiresthat natural products lent for livingshall be
time without
interest,but it
given back at a determined
may
be modified
condition
and
the payment
less equal and
in two
the creditor
of the
ways.
was
debtor
debt; but
the debt
If the
if their conditions
contracted
in
is in
to
are
bad
postpone
more
or
periodof scarcity
INTRODUCTION
in
paid back
and
which
be added
of abundance,
moment
183
is measured
the difference of
by
of the
representingthe resultant
sacrifice of
deterioration of the object,
deprivedof
its use,
remuneration
The
of
subjective
time,
mobile
and
of the
can
property
determined
the creditor
or
neration,
remu-
three
benefit derived
is determined
factors:
as
rarily
tempo-
the debtor.
by
different from
interest should
an
what
of
expected,
was
the
requiresthat
in the
allowed
to
if the debtor
same
form
pay
it,as
of
exploitation
the tenant
land
in return
year
proves
year,
to
for
far
as
the
profitfrom
and
if the year
to offer the
owner
is
more
it he shall be
Finally,the
determined
the
least allow
of
now
quantity of
if
But
should
owner
the
idea of
owner
remuneration.
determined
at
debt whatever
any
of rent; the
essence
or
pay
creditors.
by
the rent,
to
he contracted
exceptionallybad
possibleremit
ought
in which
debtors
modified
exchange has
next
is unable
Nevertheless, this
creditor.
allows
fication
solidarity
requiresa correspondingmodiAnd
the idea of solidarity
agreement.
it to be
as
far
paid
exceptionally
good the
than was
agreed.
as
the
tenant
personalrelation.
(day-or piece-work)and
in hired work
or
service that
The
It is therefore almost
this
principleis
in
active.
equivalencetends to be perfect
is in the simple exchange of objects. The idea is that the
objectsmust be reallyequivalentfrom the economic point
only
case
in which
not
exclusively
employment
84
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of view,
person
or,
on
But
one.
attached
to
becomes
social sanction
an
ridicule.
idea of exchange of
The
equivalentservices
with
the
to
harmonize
we
it
as
it
tions
at least into the relaquantification,
of a community.
members
Nevertheless,it
which,
life,because
economic
between
does not
the
prepares
the
applied
same
stage of evolution.
exist
co-
family)and because it
tendency of economic advance
of the
with
can
economic
egotistic
organizationof a community which rises very slowly and
gradually,remaining still solidaryin so far as it permits
nobody to profittoo much at the expense of others. No
individual fortune can
in such a community, and
be made
in fact
no
community
individual
It expresses
fortune
is made
an
within
(exceptby sociallycondemned
enter
the peasant
usury);
for
world.
And
this is illustrated
by
curious
fact.
There
was
of a community,
between
members
no
commerce
originally
at all. It was
no
buying and selling
hardly necessary in the
ance
and it would not have been in accordprimitiveconditions,
outlined it.
with the idea of solidarity
have
as
we
Therefore
the attitudes in buying and sellingdeveloped
INTRODUCTION
later,by
a
all the
almost
where
buying
transaction
money
somebody of
It
has
to the
for
his
done.
and
And
be
as
concluded,
community,
but
outsider,and
an
only
not
with
even
with
bor.
neigh-
conclude
and
and
happened
buyer
different
horse which
could
sellingwas
or
sort of half-conscious
185
the second
to search
the transaction.
Of
for
horse,they meet
neither
course
make
to
the
is almost
like to
of them
transaction
broken
from
buy
wait
to
down,
sell to his
or
contact
outsiders
accounts
principles
dominating the economic relations
transactions.
community is applied to money
within
the
find the
as
no
typicalbusiness tendency
cheap,sell as dear, as possible;no
social considerations.
personalor
in its pure
the
Here
we
form:
limitations of
But
of
none
buy
honesty,
He
attitude.
had to
purely economic
that goods brought to the market
learn,first,
acquirea new
character
that of being subjectedto a common
tive
quantitadistinctions
standard
of value,in spiteof any qualitative
to
be
this
taught
"
which
outsiders.
And
present many
to
some
someone
to
it
else does
be
not
easy
within
bought from,
to
learn this.
or
the
munity.
com-
sold
Up
to
to,
the
peasants do
of their
land, but
was
social values
as
sometimes
not
also horses
or
cattle which
have
86
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
been
used
the
on
farm
sold
are
unwillingly,the peasant
As we
have seen, there
preferringto sell the young ones.
was
probably an unwillingnessto apply the economic point
of view to farm products which served for living,
and up to
the present, except in localities near
the peasant
largecities,
will not
sell bread.
is,of
There
course,
such
no
limitation
of
buying, although the fact that every individual sum
has a particular
destination,can be used only to buy
money
pendently
indeobjectsof a particularclass,shows that there is still,
in
of the
question of needs,
social classification.
qualitative,
After learning to apply the
peasant had
dear and
to sell very
at
to
community,
.within the
spiritof business,and
even
buy
once
The
now.
in
standard
possibleand
few
will
the
take
not
more
nor
if accidentally
he makes
of business
psychology of
the average
the
and is consequentlytraditional
you
once
the idea of
to
want
the transaction
of
making
such
the business
in
exceptions,
the most
up
to
the
he
poor
Jew ?"
the
assimilated
community. But
an
appeal indicates
attitude.
This attitude
This
forms.
last,and
he
In
does
better
is
introduces
at
personalelement, and
exchange between
the necessity
course
to an
of
the
now
partialformation
with
prevails,
extreme
IPSS
adapted to
people with whom
they deal
and often correspondentwith
in bargaining the
appeal:
equivalenceand
becomes
of the
members
wrong
pjyp
it
reproacheshimself for
feels gratitudetoward
him.
method
of the
localities hinders
remote
he
Jews, whose
the
desirable
development
some
peasant
of
very
hindered
i? right;and
thinln
Ithanhe
economic
to
remnant
It
assumes
of
few
often
INTRODUCTION
187
of his economic
The
life,
however, it is not systematically
ized.
organ-
quantitativeside
of economic
value
is, in his
actions
of the
same
class.
The
is therefore not
selling
future,by any endeavor to get
and
dear
The
at
peasant
which
class of
steady customers.
of delivery
contracts
any
are
in any
minerals,
way
game.,
the
product of human
we^havesaid, everybody's
unchanged
up
activity;trees, grass,
to
the
property.
mushrooms
are,
as
present, because
of
the
sermtuts,
88
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
that
scendents
have
to
to
use
which
the life of
man
the
deand
products
animal
or
be
may
taken
their
the forests
extent
"Taking"
estate.
maintain
to
serve
limited
serfs and
former
the
theft.
as
soon
as
product
any
is
no
of the word.
Even
it is theft in the full sense
justification;
here we
find a gradation. The
stealingof goods which
belong to the class of income is incomparably less heinous
of farm-stock,particularly
horses and cows.
than the stealing
Since money
draws
its character
from
the
the
represent only
an
the
if the
and
it decreases
of the
2.
class.1
There
income, a
medium
one
large one
land.
And
the
belongs to
and
community
be
can
community;
same
if the
proprietor
of
particularly,
or,
theft between
no
members/
sometimes
it
was
even
worse,
We
and
find often
than
the thief's
also
village.
often
were
the
stealingin one's
not
own
contrary
was
than
charges to
they could
pay;
of emergency
1
can
family.
same
with
taxes
thief
small
any
of another
endowment
indeed
on
property,
theft varies
sum
member
another
worse
condemnation,
is poor
is
individual
object of
of money
stolen,simply because
amount
which
objectsfor
at
first no
before.
better,
They
their
were
heavy
village,because
it gives rise to
bad
villageis
opinionof
PRIMARY-GROUP
90
to
morals
and
of his immediate
where
simply moved to another environment
found conditions awaitinghim which requiredno particular
adjustment. Only gradually the more
independent
environment
he
ORGANIZATION
forms
or
could
of advance
old environment
Land-hunger
and
the
"
climb within
to
or
appear
the
phenomena
of economic
forms
modify
the
environment.
new
the
emigration are
to the lower
effort to
sponding
corre-
industrial,and
expressedin agricultural,
commercial
and in the active adaptation
at home
enterprise
For those who
and abroad.
to a higher milieu in towns
remain in the community, increasing
or
acquiringproperty
in land is the form of advance, satisfying
tional
the tradiat once
higher forms
are
The
first two
which
But
calculation
in
buying
in force
character
at
of land
peasant who
the
at
pays
better
The
in the second
the power
time
same
land
In
property.
pricesfor
the
a
of
living.
proportions
the
to
tendency
new
the lack
regard
to
of the
that
proves
least with
absurd
standard
fundamental.
are
proof of
the best
are
advance.
remain
factors
land-hunger assumed
century
to
desire for
extent, the
smaller
standing,and,
of economic
old
the
attitudes
qualitative
consciousness
pieceof
of the
land there is no
would
land
more
rather
turn
cent, he does
not
for the
same
the money
money,
not
because
does not
count
he
his work,
or
living.
dissociate
INTRODUCTION
interest
the
work
one-sided
of
his
on
the
to
who
overcome
the
So the
and
had
twenty morgs
to
farm
lead them
rich
was
undertake
to
their
sufficient motive
to
incalculable
attitude of many
mere
the attachment
unknown,
months
examples
some
their future
and
strong and
cultivated.
actual
Peasants
work,
glad that he
How
Brazil.
to
of his
he is
elsewhere.
land, not
own
land, and
be is proved by
get there,at
not
the
to
product
land-hungercan
emigration
of cultivated
the
capitaland
is due
his work
because
can
his
on
191
the fear of
journey of
hardship afterward.
farmer, while the
to
This
the
was
and
poor
two
landless
at
in the most
in the
part of the country 7[
backward
of
this
and
once,
an
isolated
parts of
eastern
of colonists
with
their families
emigration of singleindividuals
shall
speak of
in connection
there
course
it in detail later
with
are
increases every
the
many
year
"
land,and earningsome
Their livingis on the
are
no
Here
on.
of
search
who
hope
cannot
Most
of
money
grandfathers under
longersatisfied with
better than
even
average
such
similar
an
if
Of
they
live
can
small
by
it only
their number
them, indeed,
in addition
We
advance.
advance
to
proprietorsof
or
work.
mention
we
tendency to economic
in the community
and
laborers,servants,
fathers and
in
is the
land
of
"
in search
as
pieces of
outside work.
that
of their
conditions,but they
better
future,"if
which
not
it.
they express
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
192
for
ourselves,at least
This
is the essential
for the
accounts
simultaneous
for
children,"
our
change
of attitude
and
appearance
mous
enor-
the wages
and
often
in
mines, on
of labor to which
labor.
expressedthat
inclination to become
undertakes
found
secure
regret are
decided
no
can
ment
Astonish-
farmer
in
America, but
he is totally
unaccustomed.
But
it will be
the work
peasant has selected precisely
that the
namely,
quick
and
sure
forms
which
accumulation
of cash.
Usually it
is the second
the economic
above
the accumulation
effective.
be
to
ceases
increase
is
of landed
land
be
property
of division among
localities where
no
bought
at all
"
and
A
notable
themselves
whole.
income
As
and
commercial
under
takings.
progress
first line.
more
industrial
through
has
their father's
from
Industrial
his
land, and
now
each
of them
has
the
Thf
INTRODUCTION
important
most
and
of butter
fruit,and
The
cheese.
to
those
Among
are
development
of
is
commerce
It is
stillslower.
and
193
who
left the
have
country
the
second
and
generationtends to higher wages, better instruction,
usuallytries to rise above the ordinaryworking-class.The
milieu
usually gives more
opportunity,but requires
new
more
personaleffort in order to rise,and it is therefore here
find the greatest changes of attitudes.
that we
Finally,education and imitation tend to create in the
country another
of economic
form
The
progress.
parents
who
cannot
Germany
or
America,
unskilled
as
the
laborers.
economic
attitudes
become
fundamental
problem of economic
The result of this adaptationis that they cease
to
advance.
almost purelyeconomic; they quantify
be social and become
all the material values and tend to increase the quantity.
economicallyprogressiveindividual
The
the classical
"
economic
tendency to
advance
man
; that
Or, in
in the material
an
analysisof
analysisis the
from
if it continues
conditions
of existence
of
The
phases:
evolution
of
ing
concern-
regard to the
enjoyment by the subject.
viewed
their
with
individualization
and
the
systematicbody
to react
and
his social life,
constitution
the social
exact
more
imately
approx-
is,the economic
completelydetached
even
systematizedin itself,
to social influences.
of
"
becomes
As
capitalization.
soon
two
as
PRIMARY-GROUP
194
the
problem
living,the
increases
a
was
to
ORGANIZATION
of advance
individual
role of the
and
more
certain amount
live from
to
concerned
the
at
more
of property
merely how
the
takes
the
problem
in matters
of the
cost
assumed
was
the
and
originand
When
family.
question
essence,
claim
no
there beforehand, he
its
of
of property
was
with
way
place of
not
was
but
only
in the modification
factor
certain
extent
here
even
of this basis.
the
the
distinguishing
without
this modification.
The
To
family could
part played by
be sure, to
act
as
unit
individuals
under
in
the
which
only in
modern
economic
advance
shall
in
see
of property
family as
made
whole
by
in the next
one
more
of the
one
could
generation was
family in
followed
the number
of
the increase
and
moral
who
And
even
family group
those
who,
as
as
that
were
as
the
the progress
by a regression
marriage-groups
in whom
Consequently the members
advance
was
particularlystrong and
the
we
generation when
to consider
burden.
the
injustice.Still
began
On
the most
to
members
been solved, as
solidarity
not
was
side of familial
increased.
social
later volume.
individual
played by
an
and
ency
the tend-
impatient
no
longer a help but
heads of the family,
INTRODUCTION
familial
representedthe
efficient an
particularly
itself
individualization
step toward
individualistic reactions
The
195
from
other
and
members
more
the progress
the
itself,
familial form
of property.
of the
and
difficult it
more
provoked also
the
individuals
The
activity;then
productsof their own
extended
individual ownership became
to
the
familial
land, and
in
family.
those who
take
the
possibleintact.
property
money
land, farm-
"
individual
among
"
is the
aim
pass
property in generalwas
used
as
from
of existence
the
basis of
nature
Other
change.
an
as
of economic
not
pass
incomparably
was
end
an
a
in
secondary
of property
living,but
far
the process.
income; it was
than
favor
as
it,but it could
into
tioned
apporto
this
to preserve
economic
of any
are
tendency
was
of property could
matter.
these
this is
But
And
land, but
remains
there
familial property
into them.
The
land, in order
could
whole
separately,and
forms
ing
began by claimthe principle
of
the hereditary
ity
only vestigeof the old solidarif divided,
such cases
is the desire to keep the land, even
in the family. The same
as far as possible
members,
of the
never
therefore,
The
retain the
the
quantitativedivision of the
stock, house
furniture,and
members
rapid
more
to
was
group.
its value
it
that
did not
property could
never
made
impossiblethe
capital. All this was
but
individual,
even
be subordinated
of
treatment
changed
as
property
soon
as
as
productive
property became
nature
was
not
196
PRIMARY-GROUP
completelyexhausted
since it continued
to
ORGANIZATION
its
by
stretch
new
revaluation
basis.
property
The
valuation
the basis of
on
income,
an
than
more
of the various
new
of
forms
of
one
and
property upon
of every
form of
particular
its productivity,
of the amount
and
which
it brings,has two
results:
waiting
for
in
the
peasant will
not
such
improvements, even
results.
/^But even
the
as
requirelong
most
advanced
to start
with
this
a more
somewhat
similar
evolution.
makes
The
of this also
individual
an
individual
effort
to
matter;
198
PRIMARY-GROUP
standard
And
ORGANIZATION
of life becomes
thus
economic
an
ideal of life.
of
income
into terms
This
Polish
of money.
attitude
been
has
particularlydeveloped
immigrants in America,
those
among
economic
level
becomes
have
who
the
of
of the
one
sources
among
but
in
succeeded
of
importance typicalof successful climbers, and is one
It
which we find many
examples in the present materials.
has an
important influence upon various social attitudes,
in matters
of marriage and in relations with the
particularly
shall point out
these
family and the community. We
presently.
consequences
As
increase
of
fortune
and
income
is
mainly
effected
The
want.
period was
bad
God's
"
or
search
at
will of men,
first merely
endeavor
an
to
we
find at
get
more
pay
later
for
same
of advance.
limited
which
In
amount
the
of
tendency
to
rise the
needs
grow
con-
INTRODUCTION
199
amount
be
can
so
increased.
peasant
at
get piece-work. It is
to
eager
The
in
from
work
and
in
wages
sixteen
Germany
to
about
are
hours
twenty
day.
higherthan
50 per cent
And
at
as
home,
into account,
of
accept them
higher income.
absolute
moved
When
as
they
inevitable
an
condition
come
rest
for
two
do
the
to
highlyundesirable
which it brings.
or
Another
three
months
and
of this
consequence
not
are
new
to
an
be
is still
income
attitude
is that instead
more
and
more
of
the
importance of
steady job,particularly
in America.
But
the evolution
does not
through the
the attention
skilled and
medium
to
of
end here.
wages
When
been
has
further
piece-work,a
labor.
The
once
established
step bringsto
of wages
increase
mere
limited
quantityof work proves more
the improvement of quality. While
the relation
and
between
of
the
this difference
was
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
200
known
abstractly
before,it acquiresnow
has
worker
the
advance
tendency
The
peasant.
pass
concrete, practical
opened
ities
possibil-
new
becomes
sufficiently
strong
the
overcome
to
to
old
skilled
or
half-skilled workman
to
immediate
reference
certain
question of earning a
The
character.
This
remuneration.
changes its
for
amount
pared
particularpiece of work becomes
secondary as comThe
with the generalearningpower of the individual.
with that which we
ultimate level reached here is parallel
some
found
the culmination
at
of progress
in matters
of income.
in an ideal
tendency to rise expresseditselffinally
incorporatingthe highestpossiblebuying power at a given
is
increase in the general earning power
an
stage. Here
There
the
connected, and
buying-power
power;
we
should
would
the questionof
expect that finally
become
secondary
not
seem
few
cases
in America.
that of
to have
to
earning-
reached
attitudes
this
except
INTRODUCTION
time
had
enough
develop
to
rapid adaptabilitywhich
native
the
of failure,
resultingfrom
the
hinders
other
explains,among
to the
up
in America
reallybig fortune,either
to
the
no
a
This
American.
201
present in making
at
or
facts,why
home.
The
fear
insufficient
feelingof
adaptation
economic
life,necessarily
complexity of modern
the undertaking of great enterprises./
a
economic
external world
happen
become
indeed
that
of the
if those relations
hinder
an
has become
individual
who
traditional
are
who
rich
relatively
advance.
generositytoward some
without regard to the degree of
is of course
quite contrary to
typicalthat
peasant settled in
short time
course,
much
habitual
stillbehaves
this
some
only
occurs
Thus,
years
for
example,
in America
show an
occasionally
relative,often
poor
familial connection
tradition.
And
"
it is
and
pected
unexeven
which
quite
his native
villagewill
acquaintancesin
display of the
of showing off.
occasional
his
and
rare
will
man
But
for many
has been
in
It may
groups.
few and
durable.
business
modern
individual's
the
emigrant
and
in
occasionally
not
various
more
an
lifeis almost
economic
member
attitudes
an
treat
ostentatious
old attitudes
has
The
of
attitudes
all of
way.
in it,of
solidarity
be in
old milieu.
PRIMARY-GROUP
202
ORGANIZATION
if the individual
But
his
old economic
community, the
hindering advance.
formerlyapplied to
his
Usually the
the community
are
attitudes
are
in
family or
dropped
which
as
were
transferred
now
to
of
extended
be
strangers may
real
though a
community, as in
some
the
members
ceremonial
attitudes
for
"
munity,
com-
of the
of usury,
infrequentcase
ritualized
the
to
measure
of
exploitation
the not
the
Even
in
is
demned.
con-
example,
of
matters
because
disinterestedness,
advance
because
behaves
The
attitudes
new
greater
adaptation to
organization,and
business; it is
are
thus
the world
an
he
be
to
milieu.
we
more
is,as
higher and
every
economic
investment
gives.
In
dividua
sought hi the in-
outside of his
advance
individual
profit. The
than
the
is now
feature of economic
more
lead to
of individual
possibilities
make
marriages without
dowry possible,and
the marriage-group,isolated from
both families,
in economic
individual.
matters
as
a single
relation to
which
evolution
new
always
this way
wants
seen,
complex
act
with
the dominant
Here
have
community,
takes
the
to
sive
progres-
economic
the
form
expectationof
get from
his behavior
of
a
others
corresponds
INTRODUCTION
classical economic
the
to
organizedwith regard
system,
others who
meets
competition arises.
known
aims
The
And
which
business
constitute
far
as
acts
a
are
tical
prac-
the individual
as
interfere with
his own,
attitudes
too
are
well
not
but
to
the second
3. In
among
a
business
to
have
His
type.
life-business.
203
classes
intelligent
movement
enlightenand
to
order to prepare
effort to
revolution
them
for
national
recover
particularly
1863, there originated
of
In Galicia
began in a different way in each part of Poland.
the starting-point
was
politicalorganization,in Posen
economic
Poland
instruction.
organization,in Russian
But
graduallythe problem of organizationalong all lines
of social activity
assumed
not alone
an
importance by itself,
with
regard
modern
of any
of
to
future
militarism
endeavor
national
revolution; and
proved
to
almost
unity of
unity of
the
organizationof
with
the
more
independence by
recover
revolution
and
more
the advance
as
the
as
the
of
problem
a
or
of
hopelessness
arms,
the idea
except in
European
nection
conwar.
diately
peasants is imme-
a strong
constituting
and economic
political
zation
organitype (thestate),
is the most
important part of this problem. All the
traditional
well
as
modern
economic
are
individualism,
economic
of
and
course,
lifebased
of
the
on
used
to
attitudes,solidarityas
construct
co-operation. There
western
new
is an
peasant associations
form
of
imitation,
and
labor
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
204
the
line has
importation of
been
the
most
hand
one
study
thus
and
actual
or
reality,
subordinated
to, and
organization,that
constructs
peasant gives us
the
system of economic
to
the future.
completely
with, social
state
new
of
which
isolated from
tries
deduce
to
fail. Then
out
thingsdeveloping"
with the
correspondspractically
economic
life becomes
theory. The
behavior.
as
must
life,
as
which
elaborated
are
as
theorywhich
any
in fact from
abstracted
life was
attitudes
economic
see
we
classical economic
so
beginningof
the
as
rapid,
present moment,
methodological abstraction
any
organizationfrom
of human
the
of
process
consequence
indissolublyconnected
attitudes
at
on
shall
We
that
see
operation,
co-
volume.
fourth
our
process
as
vestiges,
the other.
on
rationalism,since,in
of economic
of
character
original
exceptionalopportunity to study
an
social
an
of the Polish
evolution
circumstances,the
particular
and
We
in detail in
economic
development
of
has
this
with
this movement
The
movement
tendency in
self-conscious
and
organizations,
the
rest
which
These
constitute
can
are
rational
motives
among
practicalsystem
of the individual
from
selves
themwhich
other
with
spheres of interest,
although occasionallyinterfering
But this is not a general law of economic
them.
life,
only a
of the
particularhistorical status, due to the appearance
to
upon
economic
economic
advance.
life. The
economic
organization
206
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
aside
magical life,
attitudes
by the peasant
themselves.
And
of these
find four
we
of the fundamental
the
and
religious
originof these
rites hi which
and
complex.
in his
questionof
the
this
they
express
partially
independent
(4) TntrnHiirtirm
r"fmysticism,
tendencyto
self-perfection
Although
represent
as
many
these^Typesof
attitude
necessary
this cannot
without
be affirmed with certainty
life,
religious
icism
like Catholcomparativestudies. And in a concrete religion
various
we
naturallyfind mixed elements representing
or
stages of religiousevolution, and a concrete
group
individual shows a combination, often a very illogical
one,
of attitudes belongingto various types.
All the natural beings animals, plants,minerals,the
i.
are
objectsof the peasant's
heavenlybodies,and the earth
interest and sympathy. His motives
not
are
consciously
"
"
utilitarian,
although, as
always
We
may
causes
between
which
in
some
way
perhaps assume
the
man
himself
to
we
that it is this
invent
and
some
objectsare
life and
welfare.
generalinterest
which
exist)when
object (a
he wishes
to
connection
justifyhis
INTRODUCTION
interest
determine
we
207
the
become
clearer when
essence
man
and
nature.
But
welfare
one
common
feature
in both
individualization
animals,but
and
far.
goes
tendency to individualize.
Not only all the domestic
always,as far as possible,
(with domestic animals
are
sometimes
act
always)expresses
largestone, every
own
is the
even
identified,which
of its
related to man's
all
at
aesthetic
The
objectsare
itself in
often
The
name.
same
even
tendency shows
anthropomorphiza-
are
year
never
of the daYS_Qf
At^leaj^onejjhird
and the peasant
individuallydistinguished^
numbers
uses
The
names.
saint is very
for these
Christian
consecration
of
day to a
peasant usually
every
proverbs)the
saint for the day.2 Tales in which
months
or
days are
anthropomorphized are frequent. The anthropomorphization itself is not serious,but it is a sign of the tendency to
individualization.
Thanks
to this tendency,time becomes
a
part of nature, and individualized periods of time become
natural
objects. There is little trace of an analogous
substitutes
individualization of space,
the
six cardinal
I
directions
It is forbidden,for
swallow
too
example, to
when
persistently
touch
be
Or:
For
sharp."
"If Johnny begins to
St. Ursula."
swallow*s nest
may
out
of it.
become
or
The
the
rationalistic justification
and
angry
observe
to
even
drop her
ment
excre-
example: "When
Or:
it is flyingin and
distinction of
"St.
St. Martin
Matthew
cry and
either
God's
comes
upon
white
destroysthe winter
Mother
does not
horse,the
or
calm
makes
winter will
it wealthy."
208
PRIMARY-GROUP
north,
down.
up,
When
with
a
subjective:right,left,before, behind,
down;
up,
ORGANIZATION
individualization
regard
to
invent
tendency to
then
the
Thus
we
whose
the
wild
many
an
is
crown
tales
some
of the whole
king of
in
stealing;
particularly
old and
powerfulindividuals
there appear
various
whom
individual
they obey;
animals
exceptionalqualitiesand knowledge
if in some
and even
cases
specieshas to listen,
and
even
without
For
tales
whom
to
their
these animals
to
prove
in many
birds endowed
and
with
species.
the serpents,
peasant succeeds
becomes
be
in
objectsis that,while there are no spirits
objects,the latter are always animated, often
behind
natural
or
the
conscious
and
reasonable.
even
attached
to
To
be
sure,
we
find
also
spirits
cases
quitedifferent religious
system. In the system
we
are
now
consideringwe find only livingbeingswhose life
is not at all distinguished
from its material manifestation
no
oppositionof spiritand body. The animals, the plants,
belong to
"
the fire,all of
the
them
live and
degrees.
days
and
Even
all of
them
think
individualized
and
fields and
same
varying
meadows,
kind
some
in
know
of
even
independent
characters
belong
degrees to manufactured
objectsand to words.
existent
short,anything which is thought as individually
in various
In
is at
the
same
time
animated
and
and
endowed
conscious
with
thing"
some
seems
INTRODUCTION
to
be
the
that
209
"thing"
mere
reasoning. Or,
scientific
"substance"
or
is
same
sense
category of
scientist
a
exactly,when
isolates an objectin thought in order to study it,his act is
purelyformal; the objectdoes not (orrather,it should not)
acquirein the eyes of the scientist any new property by being
thought, except that of becoming the subjectof a judgment.
But
more
isolate an object
cannot
study here in its vestiges,
of course)
in thought without ascribing
to it (unintentionally,
and more
less
an
or
independent existence as an animated
conscious being.
We
find innumerable
examples of this attitude. If we
her
manifestation
take only one
of nature's consciousness
conscious reaction to man's activity we
that up to the
see
highestforms of animal life and down to the manufactured
which
we
"
"
time-periodman's
An
action is understood
and intentionally
reacted upon.
animal
and
not
only feels gratitudefor good treatment
indignationat bad treatment, not only tries to reward or
thingor
to
but
to avenge,
them
the animated
abstraction
understands
even
into account.
This is not
but is manifested
tales,
of
human
motives
only shown
and
takes
of the
animals
of the
Some
master.
actions of
bees will
leave
the
same
farmer
man
never
farm
was
death
in
animals
even
understand
some
formerly true
plants,iffruit trees
tell them
if these do not
stay with
where
to
grow
inform
to
that
and
domestic
the
he
condemn
is
the
now
unmoral
The
affect themselves.
the swallow
evil deed
committed;
has
of the house
been
snake.
As
to
the
if crops succeed,
fruit,
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
210
it is not
of the
treated
and
not
literally,
dignifiedin
bends
the
tales,where,
its branches
did not
from
the
laborer's
became
black
an
fruit to
and
apple tree
who
a girl
another
is contained
the earth,which
owner
belief
same
anything to
well-intentioned
taken
and
in
consciously
sincere
refuses to
work.
yield to
is
upon
the
literal sense
same
its real
earth
The
usurper.
The
best
be
must
example,
and refuses
moss,
gratitudeof
the
field knows
Every
for
gives its
and
do this.
saying about
rewards
find
metaphorically. We
show
after this.
It sometimes
refuses to
cover
who
has hanged himself.
self-murderer,
particularlyone
The
and knows
sun
sees
everything that happens during
the day. If something is said against it,it punishes the
ings.
and blessto thanks
offender,while it is no less susceptible
Prayers
the moon,
and
the
does
moon
who
still addressed
are
evil
doings are
not
knows
be
to
them.
see
on
occasions
some
performed
The
rather
understand
stars
to
when
the
give an answer
and immediately in the form of inspiration,
not
literally
in
as
mediately,through the calculation of their positions,
should not be dirtied or dried up.
astrology. The water
Nothing bad should be done or said near it,because it knows
man
and
how
Imore
animated
Ishown
told:
The
"Don't
covered
with
the
The
play
with
be
when
ashes
them, and
pitshows
apple
tree.
the
children
who
same
gratitude
perhaps still
peculiarrespect
Fire is
conscious,and there is a
it.
fire should
blessed
as
and
toward
ask
In the tales
betray.
can
to
play
with
your
brother."
liness,
kept with the greatest care and cleanlightedin the morning, blessed when
at night. Once
a year
(on St. Lauren-
INTRODUCTION
211
both
being accompanied
should
blessings. Fire
is
tale of
new
fires meeting;
lighted,
one
with
thanks
fopIpntjpjtViprfrom
never
and
respect
or
connected
jtjsjiajlicularlz
because
of them
praisedits hostess
for treatingit well, the other complained that its hostess
mistreated it,kept it carelessly,
and never
blessed it. Then
a
two
followingnight the
Nothing offensive
the second
second
"
and
itself,
to avenge
burned
should
wind,
phenomenon
of the
againsta season
we
one
be
the house
said
vengeance
natural
cold
follow.
may
"
or
Again,
tales in which
have
for bad
treatment.
regard
the
to
peculiarattitude
of the year.
days
others.
upon
the
next
year
and
But,
then avenge
can
and
months, and
normal
attitude in tales,where
of the
Traces
conscious)belief
or
to
the peasant
misused,great
1
There
mediaeval
as
words
is scarcelyany
the pun
already knew
how
to
read
(but
year.
are
here
are
pomorphized.
anthro-
only
found
half-
in the
pronunciation of
is seldom
if ever
used
relation between
almanacs;
fragments, while
months
mere
in disconnected
week-days
exaggerationof the
things understand
peasant's unwillingnessto change the
words
reward
mainly the
comes
and
that
or
returns
is true of
same
same
day
action
bad
Thence
days
of its
action,1or,
this,each
we
in view
ably
actions,unfavor-
some
last year.
good action committed
The
importance of anniversaries.
day,
determined
than
more
be noticed with
can
Each
is particularly
fit for
individuality,
more
exactly,reacts favorablyupon
by
of its hostess.
against any
thunderstorm, hail, rain,
year;
the
on
the
astrology. Of
all the
he
it reached bun
book-doctrines,
in the text is systematically
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
212
the
of
power
measure
depends
curses
in
immanent
the
upon
natural
blessingsand
certain
It
seems
nection
explainthis respect for words by a magical conbetween the word as a symbol and the thingsymbolized,
because for us the word is nothing but a symbol, and
in imagininghow a word can have lifeand
have difficulty
we
in itself independentlyof any relation to something
power
else. But for the peasant the word is not only a symbol, it
find also,
'as will be shown,
is a self-existent thing. We
magical power ascribed to the word, but then we are in
a
to
The
attitude toward
the word
an
utilitarian considerations
alone
nor
because
alive and
of the fear of
are
and,
sense, it has
in tales
they
and
speech.
The
whose
process
are
of
animation
disappearssometimes
in the
And
case
of those which
the latter
for
are
certain
of
cases
been
case
an
objects,
of
objects
observed, and
always)almost completely
also the
if it
only ones
which
himself.
the individual
has sometimes
does
(but not
has
even
with consciousness
decreases in the
manufacture
also active.
PRIMARY-GROUP
214
This
explanationexists,but
ORGANIZATION
in connection
with
another
seeingeverythingin dreams
to call for no
seems
explanationat all,because it is simply
assimilated to the fact of imagining thingsin the waking
state; it is too naturallyaccepted to be a problem. The
problem appears only in connection with propheticdreams,
but here again it is not distinct from
or symbolical,
explicit
other facts of prophecy or second sightfound hi the waking
state, and the explanationis made, not on a theory of the
the basis of the whole
on
soul,but, as we shall see presently,
conceptionof the natural world. As to death, there is
certainlya "spirit"which leaves the body, but it is only
"vapor" or "air" which dissolves itselfin the environment.
The body simply loses the part of its vital power
of which
the "air" or "vapor" is a condition,in the same
as it
way
loses in sleepthe power of voluntarymovement,
and
seeing,
then the body is not reallydead; it
hearing. And even
is never
for under certain
quite dead as long as it exists,
influences it may
to full life again. It may
awake
come
at certain moments,
periodically
or, if it has a particularly
live indefinitely
it may
in the tomb, coming
strong vitality,
This is the case with the vampire.
out every night to eat.
A man
who will be a vampire can
be distinguished
even
duringhis lifeby the redness of his cheeks,his strength,his
big teeth. And all of this has nothing to do with the
questionof a returningsoul.
This, however, is only a partiallife. To have a real
is
second lifethe body must be destroyed,
and then the man
other.
regeneratedand lives again,in this world or in some
The
regenerationis nothing particular.Every year the
whole
of nature
fact of
is regeneratedfrom
death.
There
are
cases
men
who, without
INTRODUCTION
in another
world
natural facts.
lives his second
possible.The
can
215
instrument
be either fire or
earth.
of reach
of his
mystical communication
of destruction
The
and
is
regeneration
purificatory
propertiesof
the fecundity
destruction,
fit for
particularly
of the earth for regeneration.I^oth cremation
and burial
used in funerals at different epochs,anidagriculture
were
opjgenerallori
by bothjnean"^ In primitive
gaYe~analogies
the forest was
burned
and the soil acquireda
agriculture
The branch of the willow placedin the
fertility.
particular
fire make
it
else,out
perfectly
usually
of animated
and
more
or
less
which
beingsis connected by a generalsolidarity
because the ways of its
has certainly
a mysticalcharacter,
action are usuallynot completelyaccessible to observation
be rationally
tions
and cannot
determined, but whose manifestamoral principle
the solidarity
of
as
express the same
the familyand of the community. Even in the reaction of
which we have indicated in the
man's activity
nature
upon
is manifested.
above, this solidarity
examples enumerated
But we find stillmore
explicit
proofs. There is a solidarity
between certain plantsand certain animals.
When
the animal
(forexample, a cow) is sick,the peasant finds the
plant,bends it down, and fastens its top to the
proper
ground with a stone, saying: "I will release you when you
will
make
well."
The
cow
same
evening the cow
my
Then
the man
must
recover.
go and release the plant,or
else on the next day the cow
will fall sick again and die.
animals are interested in plantsand can influence
Similarly
them.
Hence
the numerous
of assuringgood crops
ways
the successful growth of fruit trees through the help of
or
animals.
A stork nestingupon
the barn makes a full barn.
A furrow drawn around a field by a pairof twin oxen
insures
216
it
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
againsthail,and
with
the
the addition
same
twin
that
is used
means
brothers
these birds
allies and
are
The
cuckoo
can
blossom, because
to wake
not
cherries in
and
summer
be allowed
to
companions
help them
oxen.
eat
peas,
of man,
and
If there
to grow.
are
them.
is also
There
lead the
must
in
maybugs
many
againstthe pest,
relation of
between
the earth
solidarity
(alsothe sun) and all livingbeings, which is strikingly
expressedin such beliefs as the following:The earth can
communicate
its fecundityto an animal (forexample, to a
sterile cow), and, on
the other hand, the fecundity of
animals
The
or
women
in
the
eve
blood, and
of St.
before
Easter,make
There
is also
life,and
or
even
animals;
of
course
dead
object.1 The
lesser
degree,of
should
fern is
lost
2
We
powers;
or
is to increase
nants
(rem-
dead
mattress
of
dead
water.2
his house, or
near
privileged
plant.
same
custom.
all living
beings.
anything
the
Fires
localities
some
aim
whose
it is
making of a
of the
the aim is the regeneration
is true, although perhaps in a
exists between
solidarity
particular
from
straw
rain.
old pagan
an
"
the fireand
of wood
remnants
unless
coffin),
animals, because
be fed with
never
sterile field.
mysticalactions
it should
to
may
between
solidarity
of dead
man,
dead
in many
It is used
look upon
not
disturbed,sets
lightedon
be communicated
can
should
sun
sees
Whoever
the
fire;therefore nobody
will burn.
In
general,the
under
at
stolen.
magicaluse
other beings.
of fireand water
their
own
nature
as
and
symbols of mystical
their
with
solidarity
INTRODUCTION
between
But
beings of the
this
upon
about
of any
kind
house
success
others,and,
of
on
plantsnever
Predictions
of wild
when
animals
Among
of
the
goes
can
be
plants,and
is
snake
solidarywith
die.
is killed they will certainly
exists between
still greater.
The
poultry;
thrive,but if it
kind of
same
of
sympathy
givebloody milk.
link with the
die, and
weasel; whenever
warn
high in
the clouds
one
another.
and
his breast he
calling:"Snow, snow!"
more
closelyconnected
comes
there
when
down
is
some
weasel
danger
the redbreast
In autumn
watches;
dies
cow
reciprocally.When
animals
fallsupon
reason
the goat
swallow's nest
must
for the
is
solidarity
the
the
as
a rational inference based
hardly be interpreted
the knowledge that these plants need the same
mospheric
atconditions.
No such explanationis in fact attempted,
his belief.
If
of
principle
solidaryand
can
even
The
of
success
the observation
from
crops
are
Therefore
alone,but
made
Plants
another.
results in the
of them
class the
same
evident.
is still more
solidarity
sympathetic with one
some
217
the
one
and informs
than
another
rises
first snowflake
everybody,
("nieg).Again,night animals
with
the
are
with others.
solidary
speciesare naturallymore
is less
than those of different species,
and their solidarity
and
often observable empirically
mysterious,because more
ity.
solidarmore
easilyinterpreted
by analogy with the human
An. animal,particularly
wild one, can
always call
a
animals
But
of the
to
same
its rescue
if attacked
or
the
apparentlymost
inoffensive animals.
The
much
knowledge ascribed
as
sign of solidarity
to
of
natural
because
intelligence,
it is
2i8
always
result
about
knowledge
or
cause
omit
cannot
In
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
analogy between
about
or
be
to the
as
far
far
is, as
another, and
one
objects,either
them.
the bearer
of
is also
stranger. Nature
as
the
power,
The
applied
and
creation."
guest
is it
primary group,
member, perhaps
We
sphere of the
as
one
people know
only secondarilyand
unknown
some
nature.
under
accidentally,
may
natural
between
mysticalaffinity
of the
here the
other
man
somewhat
attitude
of
natural
rivers
springsand
for them.
The
accordingto
cuckoo
the amount
makes
him
rich
or
(orsome
of money
poor
other
possession)
when
pigeon,the
to do.
sparrow,
The
the
rail,
lark,the quail,the land-
to
preted
particularfarm- work, their calls being interas
indistinctly
pronounced phrases. And at every
he is warned
intentional sign against
moment
by some
misfortune.
If a hare or a squirrel
his way, it is
across
runs
begin
an
some
advice
of the
to return.
journey;
the
The
dog
horse foretells a
foresees
good
fire,pest, war,
or
bad
and
end
warns
2IQ
his master
help the
mice
The
tooth is thrown
them
to
and
one.
is healed
by
the
help of
of medicine
essence
birth,etc.
or
they
are
befalls the
animals
and
in the system
asked
man
to
or
give a
better
his farm-stock
plants,for
this is the
of beliefs which
we
are
of remedies
number
analyzing. We find an enormous
the oldest of them some
which
againstsickness,and among
of magical symbolism and
contain not the slightest
trace
also are not based upon the concept of purelyphysicalaction,
be explainedonly by the idea of sympathetichelp.
but can
that plantsby being bent are compelled to
We
have seen
help the domestic animals; there are plants which act
act of growing in the garden; others
remediallyby the mere
Easter
which
on
or
destroy sickness when brought home
Pentecost
(ancientpagan springholidays,symbolizingthe
awakening of nature),St. John's Eve (midsummer holiday),
holiday).
or
on
Mary's Day (August 15, and harvest-home
of the plants used internally or applied
And probably many
to the mysticalsolidarity,
their power
not
to the body owe
now
to the
magical
that the
or
mechanical
influence.
There
is
no
doubt
same
least when
of various
most
1
stone
The
of stones
use
which,
as
to
seems
be
mainly magical.
are
from
this is particularlyefficient,
because
in
some
cases
usually found
it has
stone
There
sand
immanent
power,
helpsby its own
learned
is
and
their
use
reptiles,
by birds and
of
and
from
PRIMARY-GROUP
220
Plants
and
animals
ORGANIZATION
have
of
provoking
when
and
sown
boys, without
snake, and
the
Finally,even
man
even
may
normal
is not
The
other
In
plants
some
girlhelp her
magical ceremony.
swallow, among
in the human
toward
cared for by
any
find also
we
of
to succeed
stork,the
mony
functions,keep har-
harmful
seem
attitude
(bugs,mosquitoes,fleas,etc.)the
We
is expressedin the words:
don't know
"
what
use."
And, as
they are for,but they must have some
from the Chrismost
of the old beliefs are interpreted
tian
now
standpoint,a peasant says to a boy who wants to kill a
also praisesour
Lord
frog: "Don't do it. This creature
Jesus." Christian legendsare indeed connected with most
of the natural
propertiesof
day are explainedby
when
it was
soars
so
cut
high, is
they hold it
storm
the
in their
hands, and
angels; during a
when, with
every
the heaven
lightning-flash,
opens, it is allowed to look
The nightingaleleads the choir of birds which sing to
Mary on her assumption day, etc.
VirginAlthough the belief in the solidarityof nature
most
and
in connection
evidently manifested
somewhat
extraordinaryoccurrences,
pervades, in fact,
the
whole
sphere
of
with
we
the
see
in.
the
is
isolated
that
it
peasant's
interests.
of nature, in the peasant'slife,
is neither
solidarity
of theoretical curiositynor
matter
an
object of purely
a
aroused on specialoccasions.
aesthetic or mysticalfeelings
The
PRIMARY-GROUP
222
And
the
natural
other
in turn
must
man
ORGANIZATION
be
community,
members.
himself
show
far
as
old
good member
of
possiblehelpfulto
as
tales express
this
explicitly
idea.
The hero and heroine are asked for help by animals,
and they give
plants,mountains, water, fire,
etc.,in distress,
it out of the feelingof sympathy, often without any idea of
service usuallyfollows.
reciprocal
reciprocity,
althoughsome
These
Many
every
in order
done
increase
to
of
an
value.
Work
religious
aim is help. Plowing
is
sacred, whenever
the
ing
actions
this kind.
sacred.
consist
They
in which
work
its immediate
have, of necessity,human
They
the
mainly
not
in
immanent
be
better.
On
the other
Some
punished.
innumerable
an
has
the
interest in
protect life
to
and feedfield,
sowing^ sheltering^
animals, digging ditches and wells, are
domestic
of
act
But
solidarityand
character
the
assumes
of
and
dent
evi-
death
sure
means
which
crime
killed
who
human
member
is immediately
solidarity
examples have been given, but there is
quantity of them.
Cutting a fruit tree
hand,
can
a
to
the
be
never
house
any
snake
break
of
criminal.
pardoned.
ceased
to
old times
In
be
he
man
member
was
who
is
stork
Killinga
no
man
of the
longer a
killsa
dog
or
cat
house
where
refuses
mice
will
some
a
evil deed
pregnant
has been
woman
anything which
The
If
committed.
one
some-
she asks
destructive
for,
forces of
INTRODUCTION
(about
which
223
shall
speak presently)usually
the ridges between
abide, when
personified,
fields,
upon
because
those placesare desecrated by human
quarrelsand
The bees give testimony to the purity of the girland
hate.
the honesty of the boy by not stingingthem.
And so on.
nature
this system
In
and
work
we
of attitudes
results in
bad
the
relation
is
agriculture
not
between
that of
bad
purely
water
or
result in
may
some
unsuccess
with
domestic
animals, etc.
But
sary
there is always
for
to
man
certain amount
of destruction
cannot
be
neces-
helpfuland
In order to understand
partlyapparent, partlyreal
breaks of solidarity
know
must
what is the generalmeanwe
be a struggle
ing,the aim of this solidarity itself. It cannot
with
the
external
whole
world;
there
seems
nor
these
strugglewith
evil
because
principle,
to
be
no
evil
any
the
PRIMARY-GROUP
224
ORGANIZATION
It is really
difficultto say how
idea of death
because
interpretedas
peasant'sattitude
the
the connected
On
the
evils has
nature.
It is neither
for there
are
it
toward
individual
of
be
nothing but
decaying thing
to
seems
the
"
mortal
or
"
of
things which
make
break.
on
But,
concept is
an
the
itself
that of
nebulous
The
latter
But
it
other
hand, death
etc.
up
It likes also to
hedges.
in white
derived
In
by
in
man
stay
short, it has
on
and
of
die," is
from
death
Christian
object;it may
paintings.
or
of
an
also be, as
fields and
form
We
skeleton.
in the
cask, buried
exclusive
assumes
in the form
appear
such
decay.
that of
ridgesbetween
no
to
an
shapes which
other natural
any
tales,shut
some
phenomena
usual
be
weakness
objectified
anthropomorphi-
as
be
can
separately
or
solidarity
punish
thing and
other
only
exterior natural
some
in
can
animal, plant,or
in
influence of
woman
to
seems
of which
kind
any
is therefore
break
animated
which
everything "has
"
cally represented,like
know
by tradition of two
"
to
things,there
harmful
a
be
to
no
abstraction
philosophical
not
seems
one
no
of
trace
no
essentially
negative
meaning a positiveentity,
is
quite consistent.
is
far this
abode
earth,
about
and
dent
beings,while there is an eviis true
analogy between it and the spirits.The same
of diseases (pest,
fever)and sometimes of "misery." Winter
of the character of a natural being. We
has a little more
differs therefore from
find here
natural
hesitation between
intermediarybetween
attitudes and
naturalism
type of belief
and
resulting
spiritualism,
from the fact that for death, diseases,misery (poverty),
munity
etc., as independent beings there is no place in the comof nature
and
therefore
they must,
if anthropo-
INTRODUCTION
morphized
at
this is the
reason
have
from
seen,
only
But
being.
But
where
case
essential
no
objectand
natural
225
preciselyfor
and
objectification
importance.
The
of
activity
its character
it is not
so
as
with
this
result,as
animated
an
death.
facts of death
and
It is
mation
anievery
have
we
conscious
impossibleto
in nature
by the
interpretationis
and
such
activityof the death-spirit,
never
attempted. We find at most the fact of human death
This limitation of the activityof
explainedin this way.
world is still more
evident
the death-spirit
to the human
with regard to the "bad air" or "black death," that is,the
times
somedistinctly
representedas a woman,
pest, which is more
flyingon bat-wings,sometimes waving a red kerchief
and towns;
but this "black
above villages
death," whose
is quiteinexplicable
for the peasant, is afraid of many
essence
natural
death
beings
"
is conceived
Such
the
fire,
reptiles.In short,as
natural
world.
(aswell
as
of
soon
as
conceptionseems, therefore,to be a
going on with a separationbetween
death
as
at
not
of water,
The
more
determined
late result of
lution,
evo-
the human
and
the
of
image
the farther
disease,misery,etc.),
we
are
the
"
with
death.
This
attitude is found
always shows
or
near
to
a
in the aversion
which
the peasant
tery
talkingabout death, passingnear a cemedied, staying with
place where someone
226
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
dead
dead
thp
lagf
frpH ar"rlt^
Wf;
pplinfprg
house.^(We
of
have
that
seen
somebody
else
they should
not
look
into
mirror
which
.,0/4^
[Iduring death, and no
^J* \
the coffin
uJ 'inearthupon
rnffi'nshr^ilr!nnt
flip
frnm
the
same
member
be burned
reason
in the
hung
die in the
may
no
one
out
should
dead
person'sroom
family should throw
of the
ju^
,
it is sunk
when
has
some
and
despised
women
who
with
dress the
the
death.
killinganimals
almost
as
much
as
and
All these
etc.
(ifthey kill),
performed by Jews, or by men
the present, in Russian
functions
stillJews.
are
defend
the crops
and
bodies
are
these
Among
were
therefore
usually
Up
hunting
in old
tunes
the domestic
act
as
the
tioners
execu-
the butchers
does
it
not
was
to
often
But
something
skin-dealers,butchers
and
skin-dealers
have
the executioner.
Poland
prevailswith
preparing their
who
cuts
tions,
the best inten-
attitude
who
the
who
person
with
at the
of
to
body.
Those
dog-catchers, tanners
who
occupation
executioner,the gravedigger,even
animal
to
his
less feared,hated,
or
avoided
men
is more
the
do
are
with death
and
wash
regard also
to
the
"
down
fnr|r|pTnpnia1
are
connection
All
and
provoke
sable
indispen-
animals.
in some
already seen
examples, is ascribed to other natural beings. The sun
hates the sightof death; animals and plants foresee it for
and for the man;
themselves
they avoid and despiseanybody
who bringsdeath, they will not abide in a place soiled
The
with
same
death,
attitude,as
etc.
we
have
and
fire,while they
INTRODUCTION
should
with
be
never
death,
they have
are
profaned uselessly
by anything connected
in a sense, above
the dread,because
still,
death.
over
power
(exceptpest),misery, and
Sickness
the
dread
of
attitude
and
hate
winter
the
to
varieties of the
are
effect is more
do
not
extent
same
evil,their
same
easilyavoided,and
more
voke
pro-
their
easilyrepaired.
this dread
But
227
of death
rises to
never
tragical
pitch,
never
natural
of
beingsby
since
sacrifice,
the natural
and
solidarity,
sacrifice is ultimate
no
the
in view
possibility
of the future
regeneration.
The
life of every
by willinggiftsof other
voluntarygiftof life. In
their
sacrificing
because
was
the animal
sacrifice themselves
his human
life. A
life there is
no
tales
is
go
In
for the
reward
sacrifice
assumed;
only
far
as
find animals
we
of
man
or
as
sciously
con-
of
one
usuallyonly temporary,
form, which
explicit
acknowledgment
beings to
readiness
many
may
its primitiveform.
natural
being can
beings,which
another,even
be maintained
natural
of the readiness
themselves, but
while, as
we
a
implicitlythis
know,
break
of
of
any
useless
a
solidarity,
228
PRIMARY-GROUP
destruction
which
is necessary
beings,is permitted.
elder,whom
thus
for
of the inhabitants.
rest
food, but
never
Man
than
more
alive
order
is
to
in killing
animals
justified
actuallyneeds and not for
he
build
sale.
house
none
no
in which
case
because
man
the rats
away
cut
can
fair to cut
not
used
He
as
belongs to
selected
the state
them
for
only
tree; old
or
or
utilitarian considerations
to
trees
firewood, and
living
and
manor,
only
prevail. The
it is
is when
The
be
should
trees
if the forest
therefore
or
should
be found
can
poorly growing
even
barn, but it is
wood
Dry
when
or
sell the
may
knowing
save
sale,although,sophistically
enough, he
animal
to man
and
appliesindifferently
of a village
the ward
story of a girl,
expiatorysacrifice in
an
maintain
to
This
find the
We
nature.
ORGANIZATION
by
may
destroy the
in his
some
insects which
means
"
to
his crops
damage
for
frightenthem,
drive them
to
instance,by
The wolf
catching and maltreatingone of their number.
is justified
in eatingother animals, but man
is also justified
in slayinghim.
In short,every livingbeing has the right
to get its livingand
to defend itself againstdeath or decay
in any
but every
then
destruction
retaliation is
beyond
just. And
to
there
would
justifydestroyinglife for
interesting
story which shows
complains to a hungry wolf that
since the mole
ones
should
"
is
the necessary
an
and
man
his purposes.
this very
a
crime, and
mole
We
which
have
plainly. A
threatens
unnecessary
to
act
to
an
lark
destroy
of destruction,
pass
around
of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
230
firewhich
kept under
was
conceived
phenomena are
partialdeath.
And
attention
close.
is turned
in
familial
The
spiteof
resurrection
whenever
regenerationin
other
analogous
partialresurrections
as
least to
at
successive generations,and
and
the ashes,and
be
cannot
mitted
ad-
continuityof
the
the connection
after
between
tion
genera-
the
the death
interests,
certainlygave
vidual
purely indiparticularstrength to
this
of home-bred
the
in many
now
the
animals
those
chased,
pur-
attitude.
same
Even
when
the
appear
may
appear
in
what
different form,
or
absent.
The
dead
different individual
tinction
these two ideas the displace. Between
do not
we
sharply drawn, and sometimes
real idea is. The changing of men,
animals,
in his
is not
know
above
the
ject
particularly
frequent subthe first idea;
of tales and legends gives us definitely
individual is the same
throughout the process of regeneration,
in spiteof a different form, and may
assume
times
some-
and
plants into
another
one
"
"
the
his
is
precedingform.
quite real
assuming by
second
and
a
crops
should
spiritof
idea,that of
planted
new
the
the
are
"born
from"
the
following:a
must
remember,
interpretedas
mere
The
bodily appearances.
individuals appearing in the place
when, after the burning of a forest,
same
dead
willow
be
never
soil,when
spot where
a
change, we
different
is found
upon
upon
The
.another
body.
growing
But
upon
fruit tree
new
when
grew,
in such
the
is
worms
examples as
of a girl
grave
INTRODUCTION
sister
betraying her
and
of
the grave
upon
wife,we
cannot
another.
And
her
as
murdered
it is easy
it is the
distinction
this
is
Death
that
from
change
of the group;
regenerated,for
long
as
the
of
death
the
but
he
his
in
from
the first it is of
individual
generalfor
is much
dread
almost
grows
the whole
menaces
death
own
Of course,
ascribed
to
questionof
vidualization
to
is freer to
therefore,man
the
and
and
use
some
the human
or
when
only
subject
to prepare
when
self
him-
calamity
of pest and
memory
localities.
less importance
of destruction.
In
general
higher degree of
of
not
of the
the
regeneration,
acts
is
are
weaker
fear
The
centuries in
with
community.
war
another
or
or
insane
the
secondary one.
standpointand
calmly for
erate
oblit-
particularindividual,even
very
life and
of the individuals
is dreaded
but
so
signifies
relatively
little,
value
and
Death
group,
it
not
communal
while
same
of the
helps to
the individual
the
group
the number
diminished.
natural
the
in view
regeneration and
of individual
and
that
individual
from
regarded both
same
familial attitude
between
and
betrayingthe
livingbeing or
question has
of
generation,so the close solidarity
correspondingsocial attitude make
change of form
and
understand
to
lilies growing
murderer;
husband
tell whether
of nature
generalsolidarity
great importance. As the
the
231
consciousness
greater similitude
with
and
man
indi-
plays
freely
part here.
the
Among
forest seemed
Among
the
to
restore
itself
animals, aside
easily and
from
the
ously.
spontane-
question of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
232
economic
value, the
less
are
productive ones
readilysold or killed,etc.
more
ciated
appre-
individually more
The religious
system which we have sketched does not
tween
requireany magician,priest,or mediator of any kind bethe layman whose
everyday occupationskeep him
which
within the sphere of profanityand the sacred powers
too
a
are
special
dangerous to be approached without
in his practicallife is continually
preparation. Here every man
"
with
in touch
is supported and
religious
reality,
world.
integratepart of the religious
the
by it,is an
oppositionof sacred
surrounded
meaning in tl
it is only when the re
it appears later,
system; if sometimes
attitude toward nature
encounters
an
one
irreligious
ligious
wit
But
there is another practicalproblem connected
The
within
community.
duties; he
againstthe
how
must
group
to
He
know
of which
how
he is
conciliate the
societyare
still more
no
nece
religious
specialist
the community of nature
know
of this
members
and
makes
In order to prosper
sary.
profane has
and
know
must
to
a
exist among
make
his
good
part, how
offens
to avoid
good-willof, and
to
relations
the
The
right
own
an
hi
the
geance,
ven-
get helj
natun
various
and
society,and it is
and
the kind of solidarity
between
and
all natui
any
Last but
beings in order to act upon one through another.
who
knows
and understam
not least,only a man
nature
the warnings and
signs which other beings give to
human
foresee future
and
direct his
activityaccorc
it is evident that the ordinary rm
to this foresight.But
his occupationsno time to acquireall this knowl
has among
if he is sufficiently
come
edge, even
intelligent.Thence
A
the necessityof a specialist,
of a "person who knows."
can
man
who
"knows"
events
is
usually
called
wroz
or
wiedzqcy,
INTRODUCTION
"prophet" (augur)or
"knower";
should
Both
wise one."
233
be
mqdra, "the
woman
from
strictly
distinguished
the
magicians and
those who
among
The
have
is often
wroz
deal much
to
with
recruited
from
and
have
nature
keepers,
beeenough to learn what they need to know
but seldom hunters
shepherds,sometimes foresters,
fishermen,whose occupation requireskilling.Woman's
or
and therefore any
activityin peasant life is less specialized,
leisure
"
but
woman,
become
and
the
this shows
of
that the
"knowing,"
The
sex
usual
not
women
occupations
domestic
difference is
animals,
necessary
mately
approxi-
even
fundamental
wise
easilythe
more
such has
as
children,can
more
plants and
that between
as
many
the woman's
finds
woman
not
somewhat
because
so
has
are
probably because
than men,
involve
There
mqdra.
who
usually one
no
in
importance in
magic.
man
or
matters
woman
are
from
preserve
as
the
witches
this,because
the natural
"
is,
am
not
do, and
be moved
can
to
by no
incurringthe
reward
usual
in such
do this."
they
behave
tianjreliftion
answer
With
rather
to
of
vengeance
regard to
do
cases
the Chris-
They
indifferently.
go
to
among
the
people and
magicians than
from
use
not
true
to
be identified
Christian
Christian
sacred
with
witr.hes
feeling. On
objectsin
and
the other
perverted
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
234
sense,
at
once
magician
of hate
and
witch
or
and
show
for them.
contempt
Their
curious
main
tude
attiof
means
selves
in which they address themdestroyingmagic is conjuration,
in the bewitched
to the spirit
objectwith entreaties
and threats,and call for help to good spirits
and to natural
is regarded as hostile to harmful
objects.1 Nature in generaj.
natural
magic, and
gical
beingshelp one another againstmainfluences and
harmful
spiritsand collaborate also
useful spirits.The
same
plants and animals which
with
luck to
bring good
Flowers
buried
and
under
the presence
defends
the
faith in nature,
It
disturber
in nature
cu
disclose
burned
of the
natural
but
harmony,
the
to
long as it remains alive,permits man
community of natural beingshas power enough
as
its members
againstthe
when
above
hung
as
of the
one
away
againstwater
horses, etc.
appears
when
forces.
diately
helpfulimme-
are
the witches
keep
In
againstevil
growing
threshold,and
witch.
woman
killed and
of the
of
while
animals
and
men
him
defend
can
plantswhich
and
to
man
natural
againstthis
evil
death.
"
unnatural
evil
It is only when
as
well
as
the faith
t-
is
appeals to
in order
to
"
magical influences.
2.
We
have
beliefs and
1
The
now
to
examine
the second
based
attitudes,
concept of "spirits"is of
we
course
upon
here borrowed
.1:
gious
system of reli-
the admission
from
the second
of
religious
INTRODUCTION
world
of
spiritswithin, beside
pointout
We
in the
235
that
no
or
above
historical connection
natural
objects.
be established
can
of historical
present
present
in the pagan
were
state
introduced
with
period a system
naturalistic system.
It is
the Christian
but
religion,
coexisted
spirits
possiblethat the
of
even
with
two
the
were
this
supposition. The
lightning or thunderstroke
and a
a natural
being (fire)
divinity;probably the two
time
(piorun)was at the same
divinityor the expressionof a
acter
not
meanings were
quite distinguished.Its second charassimilated to the Christian mythology, but not
was
the first. We
find, therefore,two contradictorybeliefs.
is the instrument
The lightning
of punishment in the hands
of God or a weapon
of the angelsin their fightagainstthe
be a great sinner.
struck by lightningmust
devils; a man
is
But there is also a belief that a man
struck by lightning
without
sin and goes immediately to heaven, because fire
in the naturalistic system is the purifactory
of
instrument
The snake
regeneration.1 Another
example is the snake.
time it was
was
a powerful natural
being,and at the same
consecrated
to a
divinity. In the Christian system it
became
a
symbol of the devil,but its first character was
1
turned
mixture
of both
elements
in another
is found
being Christian,but
baptismalwater.
at
the
also of
same
belief
die without
"
christening. There
regeneration.The
lightningis
that
souls
to be
an
is
persecuted
equivalentof
are
236
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
thus
we
is sometimes
considered
contradiction
benefactor
and
its
attitudes
which
he ascribes to them
the whole
characterize
easilyunderstand
sary
about
cannot
natural
an
these
different from
not
are
such
why
toward
community.
extension
beings am
those whic
And
of nature
we
is neces
and
what
the known
Man
shows
man
natural
the natural
ascribed
beings,and
either suppose
may
to
beingshave
them,
In any
or
two
ways
are
openec
knowledge is false,that
than those which he
properties
imagine that the inexplicable
that his
other
he
then
can
beings which up to tl
by some
present he had no opportunity of knowing. The secom
less intellectual effort am
explanationrequires,certainly,
fre
has been used in the historyof human
thought more
quently than the first. We do not know how far the mythc
phenomena
are
caused
238
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
attitude toward
them
is the
same
toward
as
that toward
and differs from
natural beings.
spirits
belong,for example, water
spirits,
boginki,who have
human
bodies but
heard
become
can
their linen
invisible
night or
at
will,who
be
can
from
her home
her
there,while
in its
one
remains
place,and
abducted
at
at
marshes
steals the
in the house
and
mistreat
child,puts
in the form
her
o\
of th(
woman.
"
turned
side out.
wrong
Another
kind
natural
of
beings, intermediarybetween
logical
mytho-
INTRODUCTION
real
with
spiritsof
natural being.
He
has
change.
magical.
He
grows
not
and
animals
no
to
body, which
They
died
other
indeed,sometimes
The
by mere
Magical
strength
rites have
best way
is
simply
naturalistic
The
taken
were
draws
againsthim.
topczykiis shown
drawn
them
are
by fishermen
hunchbacked
from having been
the
topczyk is
hi water.
of the
years;
he may,
men
him.
is evident, the
spoilsthe hay,
He
particularpower
avoid
dead
the
239
to
shut
covered
was
up
and
One
pond.
hi
hair
with
house
human
of
out
pot for
like
was
seven
animal.
an
christened,but they
after.
soon
importance they
had
beneficent,the second
hi pagan
The
The
first
except by
last vestige of
field-
the
midday- woman,
poltuLnica,
in the field,
sleeps at noon
stranglesanybody who
the ridge between
particularlyupon
wisps (compare below) are beings who
who
times.
and
character,have very
they have littleof a spiritual
themselves
around
small bodies,warm
a
fire,etc. They
viciouslymislead drunken
people, but do no other harm
unless aroused
tactless action.
Religiousmagic
by some
meadows
belief in
The
indeterminate
or
witches.
The
means
of attracting or
dispelling
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
240
clouds
sometimes
are
the
againstlightning,
the field
plowing around
planting certain trees, etc.
stork and
"
as
shall
we
beautiful
particularlytwins,
sometimes
again magical,
oxen,
and
"
presently.
being is the kania, which
and
woman
in the form
appears
steals children,who
are
never
seen
who
eats
jedza is a horrid old woman
in the night,terrifies
wil, a being who comes
hinders people from
sleeping ("It stands
has two
you look"). The nightmare, zmora,
children;the
children, and
always where
meanings: it is sometimes
sometimes
also
soul,as
shall
we
see
later,but
half -spiritual
distinct,
being which strangles
natural
rides at
and
sleepingmen
beings have
of
The
more.
any
with
swallow; againsthail,
see
Another
a
natural solidarity
based, therefore,upon
traced.
can
They were
beings,requiringsome
if this
help was
them
the
to
Thus
means.
against which
were
past and
to
he used
the
transferred
was
even
long time
as
had
man
graduallythe
essentially
harmful,and
of the devil
they assumed
fight,and
to them.
in the present,
hesitated between
magic
harmful, and
of the church
tried to
drive
character
spiritual
We
proving that
the
two
beings
consequently
which
of the
some
features of
attitudes.
againstthem,
them
away;
their
help.
Officially
treated them
but
privately
duties of solidarity
toward
for using the church magic
Even
if accept-
INTRODUCTION
241
intermediarybeings.
interestinggradation
particularly
A
with
regard
the
to
soul.
human
of beliefs is found
There
are
least six
at
varieties of
of soul
"
Christian
earth,
on
soul
scarcelya spiritat
all.
It is
livingbody,
and devoid
ideas and
be touched,
feelings.It
again.
Sometimes
farm-
have
sexual intercourse
but
and
itself at
occupy
vampire
die
can
night
even
dren,
bring forth chil-
grappled with,
even
the male
housework, and
with
to
of the human
some
it continues
with
or
can
of
if
even
soon
"
of
course
cause
be-
vampire
are
to
(ability
relative
pass
characters
only spiritual
tions
independence of physicalcondi-
appear
through the smallest opening,to dis-
to
appear
"
"
rid of the
vampire
are
the
well-known
natural
actions
"
PRIMARY-GROUP
242
cuttingoff
ORGANIZATION
the head,
may
find the
back.
way
since it exerts
(the scar
it,because
turns
soul is of
The
immediate
material
course
half -material,
be wounded
action,can
seen
the
upon
"
"
soul and
soul
of Christian
must
rites.
be detached
from
then
soul cannot
it belongs to
solved
rites themselves
gave
becomes
lives
on
different
earth
and
frightfully
numerous,
on
hand,
christened
with
by
theory, to
Christian
The
second
was
and
there
which
are
the
two
through baptism,
becomes
legend, there
not
But,
birth, that
through confirmation.
one
body
therefore
be
a
the
the
system of beliefs.
was
of which
On
a
a
the
Catholic
souls,one
the
other
vampire. According
time when
vampires
people appealed to
the
to
were
pope
INTRODUCTION
243
for
specter is
The
is
always
frighteningmen
its aim
is
or
in
church,
not
anti-Christian,
specter
of church
the souls
intermediary being between
which are stillpartly connected
with the system of nature
and those which are alreadyquitesupernatural.
earth belong to the latter
The souls doing penance
upon
objects.
It
is
spirit.It
of church
Since
It appears
cemetery
It is thus not
in the church.
sometimes
of
useful.
nor
night,walking near
at
kind
and
identified,
It is neither harmful
visible form
afraid
undetermined
very
some
unknown.
a
at
an
Their
penance
They manifest
their existence
they talk,sometimes
bodies
which
when,
as
they
those who
penitence,and
line.
The
often
can
penance
as
which
they
it is
of
do has
sex
should
hears them
of the
always
dead
children,but also
men
throw
two
by
to
who
were
even
unchris-
without
lar
particu-
some
acter;
magical charthus
has
who
the
died without
various
furniture
some
names,
is unknown.
Children
"
The
stillnatural-
suddenly,
always analogous to
destroyingthe sinfulness.
who
seen,
only in
belong
group
sinned
form.
enter
died
who
times
some-
be touched,
not
have
we
have
hi any
appear
happens, they
plant. To this
or
numerous.
mainly by noises,but
they
assume
sometimes
animal,
human,
aim
the idea of
originseems
purely Christian,as
itself. Spiritsof this class are
very
group.
noises
and
"
walls,
baptized; the
and baptize
water
be
Adam
and
Eve,
for
only unbaptized
wrongly baptized,wander
Not
PRIMARY-GROUP
244
their death.
after
many
killed in
church.
They
be
cannot
locality
one
againstthe
accordingto
christened
they were
battle
in
are
and
eighteenthcentury,
for
Greek
instance,there
For
of Russians
graves
in the
ORGANIZATION
Poles
rest
no
where,
any-
helped, and
await
must
the last
haunt
their sins,and
it happens sometimes
are
them.
sudden
Any
death
that
courageous
something
has
"
clear.
cases,
Thus
wrought.
wronged the
one
or
poor,
who
to
compel
was
refused
buried
or
miser
during
to show
looks
will-o'-the-wisp,
wishes
in vain to correct
did not
his wrong
over
them.
dishwater
of remnants
threw
is heard
at
in order
and
of
the
standing
under-
livingfrom
surveyor
in the form
the
remnants
who
woman
into the
night dabbling in
to
of
and
measurements,
soul of
The
hovers
the poor
ticularly
par-
livingwhere
the
or
his life,
way
they
giftsto
wealth,wants
but
which
the harm
in any
by God,
not
to undo
who
man
his collected
it is or
for the
uncanny
by the
whether
with God's permissionor not is not always
Finally,people whose sin was not, as in the previous
but some
a lack of religious
particular
purification,
about
stillher hunger.
the
A
who
reconciles
the
mass
once
them.
wanders
man
who
hunted
and
Sunday during
hinders people from
on
246
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
boginka,the nightmare,
evolution
from
the
an
vampire, etc., means
naturalistic toward the spiritualistic
religious
system.
The least spiritual
the local devils,who
are
are
more
less attached
to particularplaces ruins,marshes, old
or
but can
They are usuallyinvisible,
trees, crossroads,etc.
the
"
show
themselves
at
of animals
(usually
horses,
half -human
or in a human
or
body. Although popular
etc.)
imaginationhas naturallybeen influenced by the traditional
mediaeval
picturesof the devil and orthodoxly conceives
the devil in his real form, stillit has
them as representing
constructed for itself representations
more
adequate to the
devil is representedas a little man
The
popular sense.
in "German
clothes"
(fashionof the second half of the
eighteenth century) with a small "goat's beard," small
horns hidden
horse-
to
do
with
he does not
being who
the
try
to
frightensthe
he has
tail and
one
in the
as
goat-leg,
or
nothing
under
INTRODUCTION
merely in
often
a
serious function
danger
of life in
flower which
him
to
searchingfor treasures, or
the eyes
opens
the
see
of
the way
247
of the possessor
under
treasures
do it
does
as
and
treasure
it
be
can
found
by
enables
with
year
who
buried
to
ceases
the
fern
It is believed
a
man
after
penance;
once
the
and
the earth.
for
fire,
them
watch
the
this tale
living. In
second
The
who
those
are
possess
the
animals.
Possession is quitedifferent
or
livingbeings,men
In the latter case
from the assumption of a visible form.
but in the first with a
have to do with an apparition,
we
dwells.
the devil,himself invisible,
natural thing in which
be explicitly
The natural thing can
thought to have a soul
besides the
devil,or the
be many
may
harmful
as
well
some
to
as
devils who
The
of consideration.
"
are
that
if we
And
mythology, was
which
had
note
be left out
possessionof
Not
useful to the
and
good
others.
idea
the
take
three,five,seven.
all of them
son
perare
possessedperson
that sometimes
wise
is identified with
woman
matter
naturalism.
The
third kind
of devils
independent existence
still mainly interested in
an
to the orthodox
men
them
play also
co-operationon
outside
matters
tradition their
makes
are
those
of the natural
world, are
of this world.
According
damned, but
the
the
to be
peasant sometimes
with whom
part of spirits
the basis of
tempting
simple
without
is possible,
reciprocity
248
PRIMARY-GROUP
involvingdamnation.
lack
they
ORGANIZATION
natural
apprenticeof a
while teachinghis
in the
butter
with
but he
man
some
and
of
whom
In
tion
connec-
all-knowing)
Or
he
tional
excep-
for his
know
not
agriculture,
gives
This is the
treasury.
sexual
the
sows
better,or he
have
the
upon
gettingan
bring him,
grow
hidden
is going
of
for he does
witches
who
is not
cheese.
the crops
out
money
magical powers
own
become
to learn what
(forhe
man,
make
can
miller and
field in company
"
of his
purposes,
devil may
supernaturaltricks.
master
some
Or he
unknown
the
or
community
human
while he bestows
witch.
blacksmith
Thus,
with
on
sides.
relations
or
"A
"
or
yearly)banquet
on
Of
course
vf
m"tive
tne
f* ^but
J^
^
its moral
value
popular
and
important,
The
devil,
doubtful.
is sometimes
,V
according to
"^* ^ "f a
" "" as
man
as
or
explicit
an
n*s
own
reward
relations among
is very
of damnation
of his rich
servant
tacit agreement,
for
men
some
in
service,
poor
peasant may
neighbor for
the soul
takes
certain
the
same
way
become
time
to
pay
a
a
Sf
debt
which
he cannot
scarcelyany
promise his
pay
idea of moral
moment
the
man
means.
The
idea of
does not
mean
most
man
may
even
And
frequentlygets
And
by magical
rid of him
if the sin
as
leads to hell,it
such
of the break
of its magicalinfluence,
"Bald
Mountain," proper
provinceof Kielce,but used also
1
punishment.
do business.
is because
there is often
way;
to
in another
name
appliednow
mainly
to
of the
a
magical
mountain
in the
INTRODUCTION
249
denial of the
heavenly
On
him.
recognitionof
effect is to establish
rites whose
and
powers,
we
an
of breaks
avenger
between
and
men
functions which
unable
to
The
societyor
almost
except sometimes
They
earth
well
as
vail
pre-
spiritualistic
in hell
as
or
men,
as
even
performs vicariouslythe
nature
for
are
some
reasons
perform.
in hell and
men,
He
nature.
human
on
between
solidarity
of
devil,
with
magical affinity
the
torture
the
are
dwell
those who
permanently
nature
or
living
relation with
no
taking souls
souls and
from
endure
punishment
themselves
againstGod.
The category of heavenly beings God, Jesus, the Holy
Spirit,the Virgin Mary, the saints,and the angels are
"
"
them
between
Any connection
completely spiritualized.
and actuallyexistingnatural beings,if it ever
existed,has
is identical with the
been forgotten. For example, heaven
the thunder and lightning
skies and is God's dwelling-place,
are
manifestations
activity,
etc., but there is not
identityof God with those natural
of God's
trace of any
slightest
phenomena.
problem of
Naturally the theological
The
the peasant's attention.
attracts
the
is individualized
symbolizationby
the
addressed
dove.
names
are
God
Trinityseldom
Holy Spirit has
the
only through
to
him
and
through
and
Jesus
beings,owing
the
to the
are
tainly,
cer-
earthly
PRIMARY-GROUP
250
ORGANIZATION
to
sufficiently
distinguished
are
and
allow
main
This power
attribute
is not
limited
in this
and
is
by
God
sense
magical
but it is limited
by
influence.
consider
of the
eyes
of the
God
peasant.
things.
over
power
the nature
may
to
us
selves,
thingsthem-
be called
all-powerful;
the
when
he
wishes,but
does
not
does
not
divine power
be used for beneficent or
can
without regard to properlymoral reasons.
purposes
The
but
qualitatively
harmful
It is
or
malevolence.
moral, character,
if it is
"
"
as
"offense of
sacrilege.Therefore
to
every
sin,and it is enough
harmony
.
also
with
God
magicalchurch
to
in order
establish
to
keep
rites can
relation of
destroy
magical
one's
INTRODUCTION
any
harm.
of
magical estrangement
the
dominant;
the whole
if not
it may
act, and
made
also extend
from
this it
sin reach
much
just retribution
from
God
situation of the
future
But
of the
the consequences
farther than
itself over
incidental
251
extends
and
man
good by
itself
were
over
thus
some
trary
con-
the
man's
with
not
or
God, and
mainly depends.
He
he is also not
the
whom
upon
is somewhat
a
moral
moral, value
more
divinity;
of the act
is
always important.
ity helpingalways a.nd everybody hy_the way of miracles.
In fact,she is the only divinityworking miracles even
now.
For, although the whole activityof God and Jesus is supernatural,
because
it does not break the normal order of things,
well as magical
this normal
order includes material
as
,
phenomena,
the material
and
magicalaction
of
of
miracle
sin,of
and
the
both
when
spontaneous
some
it is
more
that breaks
one
a
or,
God.
when
the sickness is
is
or
necessary
the
or
witch, but
consequence
dissolution of the
This
of the devil
causes
PRIMARY-GROUP
252
ORGANIZATION
Mary.
in favor
disturbs
order itself;she
saves
and
even
of
from
men
commonly
divine
the
men
the
to
the consequences
Virgin
magical
of their
in the other.
saints have
limited
a more
is less
St.
Every man's
fire,etc.
patron saint
saves
him
in
averts
danger. Every parish has a patron saint who
calamities from it; the day of this saint is a parishfestival.
There are patron saints of corporations,
fraternities,
cities,
provinces.
mir, of Lithuania.
functions
The
They have
to
souls
of the
If
to
omit
we
now
natural
beings and
its pure
form
as
divine
and
all the
intermediary stages
world in
atid take the spiritual
spirits,
from the material world, we
distinguished
are
communities
antagonistic
spiritual
To
and
the first belong also once
two
devilish.
damned.
These
two.
by
and
in
are
purgatory
communities
kind
particular
they
between
of
opposed
are
are
on
each
the way
between
connected, each
which
solidarity
to
we
other also
can
by
the
separately,
call magical,
magical con-
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
254
than eating,eatingmore
ently
insistinsistently
than breathing. The
is hardly
phenomenon of snow
explainedmagicallyby the Polish peasant, while hail and
thunderstorm
are
frequently referred to magical
very
activities.
this is only a difference of degree between
But
the
cal
magi-
the
magical
stages, between
when
when
field because
of too
of action of
one
known, the
cause
without
into
as
by milking a
neighbor'scow
formulae
her
and
distant
rain
much
fightstrikes
and
effect
of
many
is known,
stages as
we
own
burning
some
when
winter
ripen,but
never
"
here
between
the
first
the passage
another.
the
blossom
the
process
between
Therefore
the
when
the milk
and
of action
can,
of
four
witch,
of her
and
the
effect
do
we
the
new
until
month
every
Four
of
corners
during
sown
again
cause
continuityis
not
cannot
know
thing
any-
analyze
the state of
we
other
analyze the
chapters of
each
milk-pot;when by sayingsome
headache
to
plants she causes
But
in the
supposedly
or
can
house, draws
own
into her
wish.
blow;
the process
with
we
rot
cases
connected
are
another
crops
in all these
"
continuity,and
stick in her
enemy;
when
another
thingupon
break
any
process
in
man
wind
when
by night to
comes
woman
and
cause
one
INTRODUCTION
direct it by
physical
process,
but
255
various
introducing
additional
can
we
of those
that most
relations are.,
rather appear
or
can
it is
the desired
in the example
as
effect,
stick,or in
analogy
between
the
us
to
different forms.
assume
Sometimes
to
supposed
and
cause
of the witch
milkinga
the very
man
whole
whole, as when
used
are
body,
taken from
when
field is
harm
a
or
rite
hairs
to
or
heal
performed
supposed to
finger-nail
parings
through
upon
them
few
the
grains
crop.
Or
action
or
to
some
house
or
performed upon
some
sand
from
some
under
the
threshold
is used
to
Succession
magically the house or its inmates.
in time, particularly
if repeated,becomes
often a basis of a
beliefs in
of many
magical connection; this is the source
lucky or unlucky phenomena. The connection between the
word and the thing symbolized by it is,as we know, particularly
The words
often exploitedfor magical purposes.
have
immediate
influence upon
exert an
a magical
reality,
influence
creative power.
The
is hit by magic
magical action; the owner
ciprocally
exerted upon
some
object which belongs to him, and, reto affect
it is possible
by bewitching the owner
natural
his property. Things often connected
by some
causalitycan be easilyconnected by a magical causality;
food can be spoiledby bewitchingthe fire upon which it is
to
be
vehicle of
256
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
example gives us
by analogy
the
wings
combination
wind
the
arouse
can
by imitatingits
of the mill.
of
kinds
two
last
The
of
ism:
symbol-
(natural)cause
effect. Such
combinations
to
are
frequent in the
very
more
complicated kinds of magic, as when a witch, by
sittingupon goose eggs, brings hail as big as those eggs, or
when
relation
the
by
consecrated
the bees
make
and
This
prosper.
beehive
last is
of
in order
to
tion
triplemagical rela-
of the
the words
to the insects.
in all these
cases
is the
process
think
reasoning)we
of
cause
determined
what
given effect.
is hidden, and
of
know
given fact
fact B
effect
But
there would
A
rather
being
as
than
of
cases
in
error
has
cause
of any
or
what
magical causalitythe
therefore be
the
of observation
cause
of the
or
no
effect of
above.
innumerable
to
reason
not
the
this
we
of
INTRODUCTION
the
If, now,
probablybe
257
considered
natural, not
supernatural. But
multitude
of
cases
would
of
it
of
the
common
have
merely
not
material
at
result of their
the
world.
Magic
contains
in itself elements
this connection
oppositionto
common
the
which,
Indeed,
necessary.
instrument
of theoretical
an
magicalcausalityis by no means
explanationbut of practice;only such relations as are
supposed to help to attain a desirable end or to avoid a
tion
Every magical reladanger are taken into consideration.
in some
is therefore connected
more
or less closely
way
the idea of the conscious
with
acts, who
wants
necessary
a
stick must
which
think
to
directs the
in all endeavors
to the person
a
hidden
if the
1
and
to
whom
treasure
diggerhas
The
antithesis is
the
at
certain
end.
In
many
same
time
of the
whose
woman
convey
one
to
desires to harm.
harmful
magical
at this moment
evident
particularly
it to
who
somebody
she wants
cow
apply
of
primitivemagic, intention is a
relatively
milks
who
witch
condition
of causality. The
in
even
cases,
to
intention
water
are
powers
the intention
when
the
same
naturally washes
an
object from
magicallypurifies
searchingfor
In
neutralized
(provisionally
object exerts
natural
physicalstains,but
secrated
con-
258
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
assumed)
of
And we know
givingthe treasure to a church.
of consecrated
that in religiousmagic the use
objectscan
have its whole influence only if exerted with a determined
intention and belief in its efficiency.There
are
certainly
in which
the effect of a magical cause
is precases
many
sumed
the intention is not
to come
mechanically,when
amulet
produce
to
necessary
talisman, has
or
when
action,or
beginning.
find
result from
when
not
members
have
been
objectsand
object,
magical
ently.
inadvert-
action in the
(when their
talismans
and
natural power,
own
intentionally
moment
some
such
are
the
of the inadvertent
that is,
gious
relifirst,
naturalistic,
of the
of those which
many
Most
prepare.
intentional
their
magicalpowers;
with
endowed
an
is brought about
some
at
when
property of
permanent
of the amulets
Most
they are
system)
happens
magical effect
usuallywe
But
This
it.
magicians and
actions have
witches
magical
influence because
even
have
the
By
supposed
to
usual
exert
action which
it
association
the
same
the inadvertent
influence
resembles,because
the
conscious
no
more
suppose,
case
every
of
or
short,in
magical relation
it
And
even
when
non-
there
between
somebody,
man
or
the action
not
spontaneouslyacting being, as
system.
spiritual
power,
every
which
a
intentional
him.
behind
the
is
action in the
to
In
as
action
is exerted
in
the
naturalistic
INTRODUCTION
there
But
of
259
curious
objectivecausal
the
more
to
phenomena
"
the words
when
are
not
mere
the intention.
between
consequences.
influence
because
man
only
Those
the
can
who
desire.
which
expression,
the visible
it is
because
act
more,
marked
The
proves
is essential.
counts
there is
case
times
some-
portion
dispro-
exert
being which
looks,
concentrated.
But
conscious
spiritual
powers
are
magical influence by
consciousness
the
keeps hidden
and
spirits
feelingor
the
In any
sometimes
beings may
devil who
actual
arrangement),but
alone,without
nature,
and
in itself,
and its
physicalact, trifling
Evidently the "evil eye" has a magical
never
of
rite.
the
in the eye
can
an
sound
is efficient whatever
curse
complicated the
more
by words, particularly
traditional formulae
(to a great
of
spontaneous expressions
blessingor
visible
the action
in
efficient by their
extent
the
so,
relation between
need
the
treasures
can
get
The
with fire;local
cleans them
some
visible rites.
help of
man
into their
power
action.
And
of
course
the whole
magical influence by
to
do
upon
their
this,they would
not
importance
practical
their
mere
count
abilityto
will.
at
exert
If they
of
a
were
all,for,being
2"5o
PRIMARY-GROUP
detached
from
ORGANIZATION
through material
objects. In other words, the dissociation of mythological
dition
beingsfrom the material world is possibleonly on the conthat those beings can
influence this world by the
magic of their will,and thus the magic of consciousness is
the condition of the existence of spirits.For spirits
without
exist in the popular mythology;
practicalinfluence cannot
their power
of their reality.
is the measure
This magical power, which, among
the spirits,
God possesses
in the highestdegree and of which the spirits
in general
is nothing but the facility
than men,
have more
of producing
magical effects. It is quiteparallelwith the "energy" of
nature, they cannot
act
manifest
act
itself even
of will.
"inborn"
The
in
case
is
so
bent
upon
actual
an
motive;
direction of the
the
individual's
exercising
magical influence
upon
all
do harm
even
particularmeans
example, look upon
object which
may
they do
when
in order
their
be
to
own
harmed.
not
wish
it and
must
use
neutralize
their power,
nails before
lookingupon
Of
the
witches, in
for
any
many
localities the
her
power),and
cases
are
harm
inani-
262
The
of
curse
can
of towns,
But
centuries
laws
adapt itself to
idea of consecration
The
we
objectsonly within
have spoken above.
to every
the
into
the
legends
earth, of
same
human
as
way
the laws of
is used
physicalcausality.
explainmagical powers
to
Thus,
use, but
the
hermits, etc.
by priests,
of spiritual
beings when acting
adapt itself to the immanent
the
techniquemust
the town
cursed
when
into stone
nary
ordi-
cursed
are
sank
an
Gniezno
Numerous
ago.
of
that
the town
fortune
magical power
material objectsmust
of magical causalityin
upon
from
or
turned
men
nine
than
more
in
Thus, nobody
make
ever
influential than
saint is more
person.
of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
each
symbolism
not
every
one
by
of which
objectcan
consecration
be
secrated
con-
acquires
of action.
For
only a particularand determined
power
example,in Loreto consecrated bells are particularly
adapted
to
avert
St.
Agatha extinguishesfire,determined
acquire
in the
washes
evident
to his
of
the
The
power
have
we
relation
use
Another
the laws of
mother's
or
Hence
use.
the
water
said
above, because
between
priesthas
as
in the
communicated
children; God
to
meaning;
The
curse.
particularly
powerful because
parents and
in hell,fire tortures
the universal
becomes
magic is found
is
curse
objects,consecrating
medium,
purificatory
to
spirits
fulfil it.
1
secrated,
con-
material
away
naturalistic system.1
father's
As
water.
dominant
of the
plants,when
of
dirt,consecrated water, by an
symbolism, purifies
magically,that is,destroysthe
which
stamp
and
of
use
water
them
laws
immanent
the
day
against determined
perhaps is this adaptationof spirits
of magical causalityso evident
as
Nowhere
etc.
diseases,
to
magical
the
on
without
purifying.
us
has
that
a
must
an
old
ferent
completely dif-
INTRODUCTION
263
life. The
went
to
obliged
to
see
already met
have
We
most
heinous
son
to
?"
the
as
the army
and was
the peasant said: "Why did I
son
in his confession
and
killed,
son
He
was
killed.
was
than
more
the problem of
once
The
belief in magical causation
leads
magical dualism.
to the standpointof a dualityof contrary influnecessarily
ences.
does not bring
a magical action
Indeed, whenever
the intended
result,the agent can only either deny the
efficacyof the
magical cause
the
used
means
or
suppose
neutralized
was
by
contrary influence,
the causation
but
In physidestroyedby an oppositecausation.
cal
explanationa process of causation cannot be destroyed,
with another process, because we
only combined
can
follow both
but in
in their
development and
magical explanation,as we have
causation is not
given,and
when
be assumed
their combination;
seen, the process
not
come
of
the
to be annihilated.
this
course
the
There
are,
bring
point,
of the standevil in itself.
harm
and
actions
which
the
as
of classification
of
community
be introduced
into
this moralization
help
of
magic
can
of
the
who
264
PRIMARY-GROUP
performs them
evident
if we
be virtuous
can
is neither
power
ORGANIZATION
good
the
that
remember
community
of rain is a
the individual.
to
or
the
harmful
or
to
the
The
bringingor stopping
harmful influences,
directly
Even
good example.
but
magical
itself. This is particularly
same
magical influence can
in
bad
nor
wicked,
or
true
of actions which
true
such
of
as
which
those
have
which
magicalpowers
spiteof
its absolute
is
on
possess,
different actions.
not
Christianity,
even
and
God
devil,heaven
once
magic, and
that
the
magic
of
was
good, all other magic evil.
priests
this idea
do not raise here the questionhow consistently
itself. The peasant, standing
developedin Christianity
empiricalground, could frequentlynot avoid
practical,
the conclusion
as
well
as
ideas of reward
cheat
decisive way,
God
can
be disastrous
ever
magic
does
bring harm
not
in
more
is
of
evil
an
at
thingsmay
or
oppositionof
able to introduce
hell,was
We
spirits,
men,
can
and
a
result,it is the
understand, therefore,that
We
in
determined
can
the less
during lifeand
so
as
it
the devil
to
always possibleto
was
at
the
moment
of death
good which
by acceptingany
formal, moralization.
the influence
of
If God
religionupon
were
alone
againstthe devil,
be
very
INTRODUCTION
265
concreteness;
legendsgrew
power,
With
the
about
churches
and
memory
up
many
made
local saints
them, their
consecrated
them
were
graves
to
them
familiar
and
development of reading,lives of
added
to
it,
cal
preserveda magi-
perpetuatedtheir
plasticdivinities.
the saints became
266
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
favorite
related by
topic; and before this their lives were
priests,
amulet-peddlers,
pilgrims,etc. In this way many
known
and worshiped. The Virgin
foreign saints became
down
from the higherclasses to the
Mary, whose cult came
churches, miracles,and
through the many
peasant, became
of the most
legends one
powerful divinities. Particular
legends connected God, Jesus, Mary, the saints,and the
a
angels with
of them
most
bear
thus
its forms
"
were
in
contributed
beings of
incalculable
an
make
to
measure
all the
and
alive. Of
heavenly pantheon concrete
the hell-pantheongrew also,but its growth was
less
course
extensive and was
decreased by a loss in number
and conof the pagan
creteness
mythologicalbeings.
The
the
second
the devilish
for
reason
community
the power
latter is not
too
of which
example, that
than
In
heavenly world
much
we
divine
rather
much
very
to increase
againsthell,even
as
if the
tions
minimized, in view of other considerashall
the pagan
rather
limited
devil have
choosing the
"
spoken
of the power
of Mary
of the
patron saints
phenomena
of social and
and
Jesus, whose
community,
them
up
main
to
to him
to
them
if they
are
manifested
whom
most
individual
function
defend
as
is
to
of the
life
attract
againstthe
stubborn
"
in her miracles,
subordinated.
are
to
men
devil
usual
more
"
the divine
and
to
is always shown
give
as
INTRODUCTION
267
after death
belongs mainly
the devil
from
not
magical
which
the human
to
take
saved
the church
The
help man
to attain
implies the
distinction
reach
can
in the
line did
same
which
objects to
communicated
were
powers
soul
heavenly community,
always take the soul away
singlegood deed, and after
the basis of
tendency of
quite so well.
are
devils in direct
on
another
But
angels
the
to
because
The
divine
consecration
by
influence
and
the
spirits
and over
nature
ought to belong also exclusivelyto the
divine order, ought to bear such a magical character as
would make
them by themselves useful only to the members
of the divine community and harmful
Here
to the devil.
belong,for example, the localities and instruments of divine
But
service,amulets, holy water, consecrated wafers, etc.
to
were
this idea
magical powers,
and
failed.
of
The
be made
use
therefore
between
used
them.
them
in
Sometimes
perverse
way
as
by
was
evil
and
of the church
could
the church
well
the intention
it
good
the endeavor
objectsconsecrated
community, according to
over
as
of the divine
of the person
necessary,
indeed,
to
who
use
the
where
community, especiallyin cases
long use for divine ends had evidentlyimparted to these
with the world of the devil.
objectsa certain incompatibility
We find this attitude in such facts as the saying of prayers
backward, crossingwith the left hand and in the contrary
But
etc.
objectscan be
direction,
very often consecrated
used at once
for devilish purposes.
cian
Every witch or magito
the
devilish
tries to get
water, oil,or
hosts, church
salt,fringesfrom
268
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
magical purposes;
sometimes
even
them
to
get such objects. A candle put before the altar with certain
rites and
effect
as
wanted
died
to
waxen
kill;the
while
intention
determined
image
of
person
was
candle
the
had
person
consumed
the
same
whom
with
magical
the witch
sickness and
of
the
course
was
was
in actual
possessionof
expense
many
to introduce
only by
so
went
God's
stillfarther and
the
tried
tarily
permission,that God leaves to him volunthis idea seems
to
a certain sphere of activity. But
have been assimilated by the peasant rather late and only
in connection with the religious
system which we next treat,
for the church
itself apparently contradicted
it by making
all possible
efforts to ascribe useful phenomena to the effects
of divine magic, all harmful
phenomena to the devil. This
PRIMARY-GROUP
270
present
And
one.
did not
rewarded
by
ORGANIZATION
turn
did
by God, if man
the devil,was
sooner
to
proved
with
true
regard
suddenly discloses
as
well
members,
cheated.
realitywhich
its human
to
expressionof
later
or
In
greater good.
in many
between
itself to
An
esting
inter-
tales.
In
and
appearance
men
in their relations
as
lose
not
Any
member
of the first turns
given to a man
by some
into gold; apparent calamities sent by heaven prove to be a
of happiness; divinities in human
form
behave
source
apparently in the most absurd or cruel way and disclose
trash
afterward
the
the wisdom
and
benevolence
of their acts.
On
is in realitycomposed of the
seemingly the finest possible,
most
disgustingsubstances,the splendorand beauty with
which the devil or his servants
to men
change into
appear
the utmost
poverty and ugliness. Even if this tendency to
lower the value of the hell community is not completely
itis not without its influence.
successful,
in
of the church
harmful
All
the
inculcating
was,
picturesof
the
of course,
future
as
The
great resource
conceptionof
life in hell,without
torturingthe
souls.
The
future life.
exception,
Christian
or
to
human
were
The
of the
no
whole
souls.
evolution
of the divine
number, concreteness,
power,
community,
and
the
benevolence
growth
of the
INTRODUCTION
is
of all his
component
second
mostly degraded
to
disbelieved,but unworthy of
of credulous
matter
more
when
no
which
of
concerns
activityof
is
But
rare.
is
part of the
character,and
considered
as
evidently
abnormal
it is
to make
of God
or
the
is
members
such
as
man
to
member
conscious
contrary
man
from
makes
him
passes
many
the
temporary
community
times
of the
and
durable
life from
he does not
sion
exclu-
and
matically
auto-
of hell.
community
during his
because
or
of heaven
men
the
to
member
choice that
of the devil's
Indeed
religious
problem.
become
which
the
the whole
enough
it is not
course
it is the
men;
himself within
The
and
individuals,
vital.
longersocially
This
can
to be
comes
few
an
its abnormal
to
attitude
an
for
stuff,"not
occupation; it is
curiositythan
women's
real man's
dispens
in-
an
practicalactivity,the
"old
an
only incidentally,
except
used
271
munity
com-
one
want
to be
membership imposes
upon
him
are
difficult to
keep.
The devilish community, in this magicalreligious
system,
is an indispensable
condition of the existence of the divine
itself. In the naturalistic system the aim of the
solidarity
the struggleagainstdeath.
of natural beings was
solidarity
Here the magical solidarity
of the heavenly world has its
numerous
only reason
of the whole
fightagainstthe
heavenly community,
in the
world
from
of hell.
God
down
The
to
aim
the
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
272
humblest
soul,is
saved
possiblefrom among
possibleof the material
the
for
same
only
want
the
harmony
who
livingand
world.
But
as
to
own
of the
as
the hell
the strugglegoes
itself,
members, such
true
members
new
many
At
human
do
members
destroy
much
as
as
cases
without
the
munity,
com-
not
difficult in
as
community
on.
any
as
much
is
not
are
new
as
communities, exactlylike
time both
same
attract
the
as
wants
to
not
those
more
need
the devilish
selection.
in which
In
away
untrue
There
are
members.
is not
of the
material
world
heavenly beings as
in the
name
gatory
Pur-
members
The
hell wants.
nor
mere
stage for
be true
neither heaven
whom
men
In
well
of their
heavenly group.
is also an
object of
as
respectivegroups,
contest.
to
as
The
appropriate,
many
material
We may
objectsas they can.
say that the material world,
with regard to the magical communities, plays the same
part as property with regard to the family. It is perhaps
not
the
of the
basis,but
at any
rate
one
condition
of the
must
and we
gives a dwelling-place,
this respect the devil was
wronged at
It
group.
that in
existence,
member
re-
the
ing
of extendgives,as we have seen, the means
who
the power
of the community among
act
men
can
magicallyonly with the help of material objects,and it is
of the living
therefore important to give into the hands
adherents as many
magical instruments as they can handle.
at
Finally and this point is not very clear the spirits,
beginning.
"
It
"
INTRODUCTION
souls,seem
least the
to need
273
natural
food and
clothing;it
this conceptionis only a vestige
is difficult to say whether
of the belief of regeneration after death or belongs to the
magicalreligious
system itself.
The character of the priestand the witch (ormagician)
be easilydetermined
within this system can
from what has
who
been said. They are
by divine or devilish
persons
consecration have acquired a magical power
superiorto
sometimes
that of ordinary men,
or
they became priestor
witch because
they originallypossessed this power hi a
the
higher degree.
At
of the world
and
spirits
which
was
of
same
communicated
themselves,partlyby other
"knows
time
have
they
knowledge
of magical action
of the means
to them
partly by the spirits
priestsor witches. The priest
a
all the
with
At
same
natural
power
is added
time
they
magical power
any
incalculable
as
the
such
between
the profane,
magical, supernatural
powers.
is
undetermined;
have
it may
effect,and
enough himself
intermediaries
are
life and
The
power
own
of the
the latter
the
their
with power,
The
for
because
priestand
efficiently
he cannot
the witch
can
do
this
because
by
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
274
their
itself than
has more
their intention,
will,
the will of ordinarymen,
magical influence
devoid
of the
same
power.
of
go
are
which
between
they represent.
limited
to
holy man,
the
But
layman
and
this function
the
is not
community
necessarily
of heaven
the official representatives
or
hell; a
out
witha possessedperson,
being a priest,
being a witch, can play the same
part. It consists in
members
to get new
or
helpingthe respectivecommunities
in rejecting
those who are harmful,and hi helpinglaymen to
active members
of the magical groups.
become
The
influence of this whole
magical religioussystem
the peasant'slife-attitudes was
upon
very durable and of a
diate,
great, mainly negative,importance. The belief in immemagical causality,inculcated for nine centuries by
those whom
the peasant always regarded as his intellectual
superiorsand appliedto all the important matters of human
existence,developed a particularkind of credulitywith
dents,
regard to the effects which may be expected from any incioutside of the ordinarycourse
of life.
things,or men
Anything may happen or not happen ; there is no continuity,
consequentlyno proportion,between cause and effect. Out
of this a feelingof helplessness
develops. The peasant
without
accustomed
almost
to
unlimited
the limitations
control
think
world, while he
degree.
of power
of the
He
of those
has
who
no
are
this control
consciousness
has
to
of
his intellectual
INTRODUCTION
possiblefrom
the benefit
to
third type of
3. The
contains
church
no
has
began
to
elements
pagan
assimilated
manifest
leadershipof
christened.
and
and
with
that
happens
the
the
unity of
with a
priest,
help of
is purelyChristian,
in
It has
which
the
attained its
moral
to
person
except ceremonies
themselves
and
or
religious
system
development recently,and
full
the
fact
any
his control.
under
come
275
the human
view
to
under
society,
the gloryof God
conformitywith
the divine
world.
The
mythological
precedingsystem,
in the
as
nominally the same
but the attitudes are completely different,
often contrary,
and this obliges
to treat this system as a different religion.
us
In practicethe correspondingattitudes of the peasant
have originatedmainly in the parish life,
and of course
the church is their initiator. The parishis a kind of great
united by a community of moral
are
familywhose members
interests. The church buildingand the cemetery (originally
always surroundingthe church) are the visible symbol and
beingsare
material
the
property of the
We
say
"moral
belong,in
or
group;
dedicated.
instrument
of
this
God's, then
to
the
any
human
individual
saint's to whom
it is
it
economicallyalso,not
parish,however, but only as
the
explainswhy in America
priestmanages
representativeof the
This
appointed by God.
Poles so easilyagreed in earlier times to have their churches
gregations
as
registered
property of priestsor bishops,not of the conwho
It was
had built them.
not a questionof
as
formalityconcerningmanagement.
ownership,but a mere
to the idea
accustomed
Gradually,however, they became
that churches
can
be treated
as
economic
property,but
up
276
PRIMARY-GROUP
the
to
as
the sale of
sacrilege.The
moral
the
of the American
as
ORGANIZATION
church, appear
claim
the
of
in
parish to
some
measure
the
church
religiousdestination of
be used
in the
for any
ends
other
life of
religious
the
church.
than
the group
The
point,
stand-
those which
guard
to
latter
as
cannot
involved
are
meetings,parishfestivals,
"
moral
to
make
the church
as
fit as
Buildingand adorningthe
and
the most
parishfor
the
evident
satisfies the
church
symbol
glory of
God.
aesthetic
the
to
an
of the
At
impressive frame
strengthens the feelingof awe
gives
is one
church
of the manifestations
solidaryactivityof
the
same
tendencies
for
time
beautiful
of the
peasant,
religiousmeetings,
and
the
and
all
ceremonies provoke.
religious
The
moral rightsand duties of the parish with regard
the church
originatethus exclusivelyin the functions
which
events
are
performed
in the church.
The
most
communal
of individual,familial,and
important
life
occur
the
in the church.
are
connected
with the
In
short, the
place,which
most
intense
feelings
is therefore surrounded
278
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
if the
Even
"
"
unity,of
which
do
now
the
"
attitudes
only of a
This is made
definite kind and direction.
possibleby the
ceremonial.
Every ceremony
performed by the priest
before the congregationhas not only a magical meaning
(throughwhich it belongsto the precedingmagical religious
known
beforehand, and
not
be
can
present group.
in ceremonial
"and
common
those
to
acts
response
in gestures, songs,
"
schematized
acts
the sermons,
with
their
This
goes
prayers
definite attitudes
so
varying contents,
far that
and
even
the process
to
listening
sermon
are
INTRODUCTION
maintains
continuityof
without
which
it could
279
interests and
group
be
attained
attitudes,
only by
perfect
organization.
Besides
Sundays
the
and
holidays there
number
undetermined
mass
week
on
eves;
during May
December, preparatory
during
to
confession; adoration
after
of the
an
occasions-
singingon holiday
Mary; service during
of
and
prayers
songs
the
of Jesus and
sufferings
preparationfor the Easter
Holy Sacrament
during the
Christi Day,
Corpus
of
Whoever
etc.
lives
near
villagessmall groups
evenings and sing in common
liturgical
songs
on
are
those
during Lent
in remembrance
are
people gather
are
and
the
concern
called Gorzkie
of the
Passion.
religiousassociations
on
and
kind of worship,such
particular
Holy Sacrament, the worship of Mary
after-Christmas
coming
of Christ;
zale,"bitter regrets,"
almost
In
is a
In
half -popular,half-
religious
subjects. The
called Kolenda
songs
there
of
remote
winter
on
and
Christmas;
commemorating
Lent
other
on
in honor
partialmeetings
are
service
parish
every
parish
fraternities whose
as
or
the adoration
some
aim
of the
saint,common
or
"
poor,
help
insurance.
to
widows
These
last
fraternitiesin towns;
in the
familial and
country, where
communal
of
exclusively,
women
and
elderly men,
are
under
the
280
PRIMARY-GROUP
direction
control
and
ORGANIZATION
of
the
if he
priest,even
does
not
always actuallypreside.
It is easy
understand
how
immediate
touch
parishget
to
into
an
Such
occasions
with other
gregations.
conreligious
celebrated
festivals,
are
once
borhood
parish,where all the people from the neighgather; religiousrevivals,organized usually by
visitation by the bishop; festivals during the
monks;
consecration of a new
church, an image, etc. ; priestjubilees;
a great
pilgrimagesto miraculous places. The last assume
lectivel
importance in the peasant'slife when they are made colof people,under the leadership
often by hundreds
of such "companies" come
of the priest. Hundreds
every
year to such placesas Czestochowa, Vilno (OstraBrama),
a
year
and
in every
localities of minor
many
take part in
a
many
man
of
cases
economizes
woman
to be able to make
In
Some
importance.
such
for many
pilgrimage.
extraordinarycalamities
people
Jerusalem;
years
in order
which
befall the
unity of
the
of the group
as
well
as
the
sponding
corre-
assistants the
far
in all the
of the
members
sciousness
con-
an
parish,but
not
the
in their individual
this life is
regulatedby
only one.
religiousand
the
moral
church, are
moral
also
as
life,
obliged
INTRODUCTION
to manifest
the
interests and
same
duties
regard
in
identically
on
the
the
formulae, read
more
same
less
or
traditional
same
familial circles,
greet
They must,
the
occasions,use
same
objects,perform
they have in
church, behave
the
attitudes.
the
to
281
ceremonies
another
by the
religiousbooks,
one
same
sphere of
consecrated
same
same
etc.
in the
religious
In
short,
attitudes
imposed by
the church, and they are conscious of this community even
outside of religious
meetings in their personalrelations of
the unity of the parish stillcloser
every day. This makes
time this unity is disand more
tinguish
persistent.At the same
from that which is due merely to social opinion
by the fact that its form and content are equallyfixed and
To be sure,
imposed by the superiorpower of the church.
sphere can also,
any phenomenon belongingto the religious
common
vast
"
sense
become
moment,
any
of the term
commune
or
unique
an
group
determined
is,indeed, not
an
organizedgroup
association; it does
within
way;
the
we
the
cannot
social world
speak
of
not
in
the
like
as
function
a
steady
functions
and
of
which constitute
parish. But the attitudes of its members
its unity are relatively
independent of the fluctuations of
in stable symbols, and in
social opinion and are embodied
rises
this sense
this part of the peasant'ssocial environment
above
the level of the primitivecommunity and popular
the community
is an intermediarystage between
tradition,
the
282
PRIMARY-GROUP
becomes
God
the
supreme
consciousness
religious
for the
lord
ORGANIZATION
and
of
master
the
of the peasant
human
community;
the
and
social.
becomes
There
man,
member
spirit,
by the moral
incorporatedinto
is the form
of
character
the
which
which
is ascribed to
human
this
community, and
assumes.
incorporation
it,becomes
social
A
ship
wor-
acteristic
char-
in the moral
fact
to
The
frequentlyused as that
of the spiritual
head of human
of God.
societythan the name
This is of course
the result of the half-human
personalityof
into the human
munity
comJesus, which makes his incorporation
of
name
much
more
easy
and
natural.
the
the
same
way
the
source
of
INTRODUCTION
is
hardly
action
any
remain
does not
extended
limited
of the
in the eyes
which
act
every
the
actions
time
which
in
worship
but is
practices,
value
the lord of
the
preserve
moral
(Jesus)as
its
The
idea of
have
God
community.
helps to
The
the ceremonial
is interested
community
the
magically indifferent.
system.
to
all human
to
is
in the moral
happens
same
which
283
of
an
contribution
every
act
the material
to
welfare
of
by
men
licit
means
aesthetic
by
God
in the natural
order
environment
of
gardens,
houses, establishment
of
Partly perhaps
more
probably in
under
etc.
church, but
to
natural
in this system
well
as
subordination
man
has
as
of nature
only
arose
an
man
orchards
the
the
God
glorifies
immortal
of the
thanks
of
animation
of nature,
by
their life
is therefore forbidden
way^
whole
beings,glorifyGod
to
flower
and
influence
and
solidarity
that
cultural
agri-
"
ment
animals, adorn-
spontaneous
Unnecessary destruction
do.
men
idea
natural
the meanest
even
as
objects,the
men
is
ends
in the
although the
incomparably
prescribed
way,
it is for
soul, and
man
that
Christ died.
As
the
munity
comagainstthis moral organizationof the human
of Jesus and the saints,
under the spiritual
leadership
devil
and
evil
distinctly
immoral.
The
devil-worshipassume
character; they are
reason
for
for the
not
first time
but
only harmful
this is evident.
There
is
no
284
PRIMARY-GROUP
human
community
with
ORGANIZATION
which
would
the
into the
enter
into with
parish enters
social ceremonial.
and
between
The
the
God;
oppositionbetween
individual
social and
relation
same
the divine
the
opposition
life,and
religious
both
position
op-
character
acquire through this association a new
and
a
new
strength. The divine world becomes
socially
acknowledged, a positivesocial value; the devilish world
is socially
despised,a
is
God
God
member
good
of the
his group;
to
moral
socially
action is subordinated
harm
the
be in
Since
every
of
glorification
oppositionbetween God
to
the
action is conceived
immoral
socially
devil,every
serves
the devil is
serves
fellow-citizens.
essential
who
man
his
who
man
community, trying to
harmony with
rebel, trying
as
servingthe devil.1
It is only in the latter sphere,in thingssubordinated
to
the devil,that magicalaction keeps most of its old character,
because this sphere,becoming secret and individual,
precisely
evolution as the sphere of divine
undergo the same
things. In the latter,actions whose meaning in the magical
system consisted in bringingimmediately and mechanically
effect become
acts of worship,and their
now
a determined
did not
old effect is
action of the
1
tempt
becomes
not
Whatever
The
rare.
give them
to
peasants have
grown
saved.
so
evil themselves
The
women
temptationand
see
out
divine reward,
by
human
are
men
the merit
a
as
much
little better,and
the devil
more
worship.
permission;God
of victory. But
as
use
therefore
frequently.
they
are
no
more
It is
no
of his old
allows him
temptation
even
conscious
as
of social life,
has lost stillmore
in order
men
as
divinitymoved
importance.
to
conceived
now
man
God
men
does
have
could be
subject to
286
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
the
regularly. In general,the greater the role of the priest,
and the more
requiredfrom him
greater is his responsibility
in
the
line of
volumes
moral
and
shall have
we
detail the
role which
the
the
religiousperfection.
later
In
in
opportunityof studying more
priestplays in peasant society
of his
is stillstrong, and
the
influence which
it has
exerted
upon
But
psychology can hardly be overestimated.
it is no longerdeveloping,no new
elements are added to it
and in fact it is rapidlydeclining.
The fourth system, that of individual mysticism,whi
is stillrare among
shall presentlydefine,
the peasants and
we
the peasant
does not
to be
seem
on
the way
the
to
an
immediate
development.
But
retains almost
limited
but
circles,
communal
problems.
We
that
most
of
belong to
this
moral-religious
system
is still growing
and
the old
as
strong
not
except in
new
only
some
conditions
is appliedto
principle
of
new
in other volumes.
4.
with
Religionas
God
mystical connection
of the
individu
ordinatio
expressedby the attitudes of love,personalsubdesire of personalperfection
and of eternal life
with God, etc.,is,as we have said,not very much
developed
the peasants.
The
peasant is a practicalman;
among
with his practicalinterests,
religionremains interwoven
while mysticism requirespreciselya liberation from those
of thoughts and
interests,a concentration
feelingsupon
beingsand problems having littlerelation with everyday life.
INTRODUCTION
signof
the lack of
peasant; unless
the
religiousattitude
any
287
church, because
outside
himself in any
this respect
Still there
different from
the
teachingof the
he never
imagines
divinity. He is in
of the church
radicallydifferent
in which
the
from
the Russian
peasant.
mysticalattitude develops
during extraordinaryreligious
meetings revivals,
pilgrimages
are
cases
"
for
are
environment
while forgotten,and
his normal
by
state
the
example
of
conditions
phenomenon
into
passage
problem
the
But
lead to
must
which
ceases
ones
from
to
and
he is a part.
The
way
form
of
When
But
which
upon
the
lifeleads
religious
death
to
ceases
be
the
upon
is
way
his
own
member
at
event, particularly
death
from
the
when
or
that
of
standpoint,from
of the group
a
the
mysticism.
possibleonly
to
becomes
certain detachment
open
death
look
less normal
of which
of others
practicalproblems
this brooding upon
his dear
of the devotion
from
supernaturalworld, broodingupon
new
of death
individual
or
belong as much to
to the properlymysticalone.
as
peasant can reallypass into a new
through the problem of death.
natural
and
by
and
the usual
when
"
is
more
for only
only as a fact of individual life,
then it has extraordinary,
abnormal
importance which can
give birth to mystical reflections and attitudes. And this
the average
individualization
than
requiresagain more
realization of the uniqueness of the
peasant shows, more
individual.
find
indeed
We
mystical attitudes always
during calamities which threaten the existence of the whole
But
community pest or war.
singleindividuals develop
begin to
view
"
death
288
PRIMARY-GROUP
attitudes
such
ORGANIZATION
when
only
more
servants
(e.g.,
communities
or
or
largecities)
in
when
their
ally
exception-
cultivated.
In Volume
IV
shall have
we
peasant'stheoretic
development under the
the
classes.
will be
succeeded
the center
of attention
three
are
manifested
are
however, apparently
in Volumes
their
the
occupying within
of individuals
primary
forms
the
how
they have
singlegeneration
in which
in the peasant
tional
tradi-
tudes.
practicalatti-
of whole
and
II, it
I and
within
place
their relation to
in
sometimes
interests
be able to understand
shall then
There
opportunityof studying
aesthetic
determine
i.
the
manifested
are
useful to
We
and
INTERESTS
As
lacking,and
never
AESTHETIC
AND
THEORETIC
groups.
theoretic
the schematism
"
of
interest in new
life,
facts,and interest in religious
practical
explanationsof the world.
first is completely original.It arises out of the
The
peasant's spontaneous reflection on his activityand its
his human
conditions,on
constitutes
natural
and
the
man
may
be very
wise, have
stillbe
concerningpractice,and
lack of energy,
assumes
of presence
satirical
of
meaning
mind,
their
wisdom, behave
For
reflection is not
prepares
for
an
it,tries
This
etc.
distinction
one
having
stupid.
as
their
The
last
all
like fools.
accustomed
man
clearly
practicalabilityin
valuable generalizations
unpracticalthrough
in the tales
It
is very
and
peasant's "wisdom,"
distinguishedby public opinion from
itself. A
environment.
easy
to
one.
live in action
We
see
and
how
a
of
the
task
the
peasant
solitary
place,
INTRODUCTION
spends occasionallymany
then
and
he wants
when
Even
it
he treats
of the
write
to
as
importance of
he remembers
that
289
hours
letter which
difficult and
in
thinking.
tion,
requiresreflec-
long business.
proof
we
he
results of such
The
are
also
individual
proof of this.
of
acts
mulated
accureflection,
a
rich stock
of
themselves
We
"
municated
changing abstract schemes of life comgraduallyby the peasants to one another.
divide this practical
philosophyinto two classes
of things and
of people. The
first
schemes
may
schemes
concerns
is of
It
subordination
We
have
of details
already
goods
comes
is the slowness
reasons, but
The
new
noticed
to
very
of imitation.
frequentreason
technical invention
this with
regard
very
slow.
economic
to
quantitativeviewpoint to
Another
very generalexample
of the
late.
peasant who
generalview, seems
sees
with
It may
come
from
estate-owner
good
results does
other
many
tion.
generaliza-
apply
not
some
imitate
PRIMARY-GROUP
290
ORGANIZATION
he does
not
His
respectivepositionsas farmers.
It is all rightfor you, who
a
are
but not for a poor, stupidpeasant
"
in social
in this
positionas a whole
particular
respect he
the
For
same
usual
him
instructed
The
from
same
their
is:
argument
like me."
do the
can
identityof
rich and
hinders
the
reason
the
see
as
man,
difference
noticingthat
his
superior.
little
peasant brings relatively
agricultural
learningfrom season-emigration.In Germany
level even
he usuallyfinds an agricultural
higher than that
of his
the estate
on
dare
not
to
abroad.
he learned
what
of the
that
farming and
own
estates
generalizeand
On
the other
his
is
apply
to
hand,
we
so
at
find
him
few
with
the
disconnected
classified upon
the
days of
the year
based
mostly upon
observations; a new
object is often
basis of a quitesuperficial
analogy with
are
the slowness
and
the incidental
objects. Both
and hastiness of generalization
result from the
superficiality
known
way
in which
the process
of reflection
at
this moment
is present in the
If the material
happens
When
occurs.
the material
sphere of
his
false it will be
or
often
by others until
some
new
is
generalization
of reflection
are
criticized.
explainsthe
This
seldom
contradictorystatements
again
comes
But
and
and
with,
or
reflection
verified hi
requiresso much
experience,seldom
evident
many
current
himself
in accordance
made
sciousness.
con-
the generalization
is valid; if not, it is false.
sufficient,
valid
the
among
the peasants;
created
they live,and
because
one-sided
they help to equilibrate
they have
absurdities
even
useful
views
and
once
function
of others.
INTRODUCTION
peasant seldom
The
291
dialectic in
uses
criticizing
any
can
is he to
He
may
opinionis right,but
even
He
view
simply
effort the
less
willing
acknowledge
own
of solvingthe apparent
right,and he feels no necessity
contradiction unless the problem is important enough to
is also
more
compel him to do some
thinkingand to elaborate a
to live
third,intermediaryopinion. He is so accustomed
that he likes to
partialand one-sided generalizations
among
opinionson
seeming approval to every
he intended
to do
some
one,
at first or
and elaborates
reflecting
If he selects the opinionof anybody
view.
his own
else,he is led,not by the intrinsic merit of the opinion,but
If only he has confidence
by his appreciationof the man.
in the man's sincerity
and intelligence,
he supposes
that the
man's advice was
the result of a sufficient process of thinking
and considers it useless to repeat this thinkinghimself in
order to
His
either
appreciatethe
ideas
about
and
advice
other
afterward
at
the
equally schematic,
are
traditional
store
of intense
moment
some
without
used
its merits.
on
people
appropriated from
elaborated
sets
new
any
thinking
with
solidarity
evidentlythe
people is that
interest
egotistic
supposes
last
either
his group;
by
his
if neither
can
be
body
everyor
by
detected,then
hidden.
that of
only
The
reflection.
about
peasant'sgeneral prepossession
is moved
pendently
inde-
or
man
is clever
the peasant
stranger, is manifestlydisinterested,
first stupidity,
and
ex
to altruism
only
as
the
who has
only exceptionis the priest,
interest is usually
officio;here egotistic
explanation. The
to be altruistic
recurs
the
of
last,more
the
less
or
be
which
forced,explanation. The
of
readilyin
interested but
motives
whose
man
understand, because
that
in
in the firstcase
the
degree
confidence
to
can
he does
the
more
be not
whom
one
he
and
person
he understands
he knows
than
dishonest
even
given
will show
He
willingness
depends upon
thinks
or
this person.
him
persuaded by
he understands
motives
with
business
do
to
peasant
to
particularly
to
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
292
only
he does
not
not
how
to
limit the
what
and does not know
to expect.
possibilities
and egocentric
classification
Accordinglyhe has a summary
Those of the first
ready and appliesit in any given case.
class are the members
of his family,whose behavior ought to
be determined
whom
of the
or
more
Then
come
other,unknown
The
are
but
stillsupposedly known.
The
has
already been
are
understands
the
wine,
money,
and
his
always more
is classed
no
other
makes
him
or
once
motive
and
less of
and
the
than
the
and
life.
religious
peasant knows
In
man
peasant.
who
priestis supposed
noble
of
serfdom;
has innumerable
There
may
neighbors,but
reciprocal
understanding.
money
his schematization
that
of the country
ity
be hostil-
his peasant
forever
as
merchant
is ascribed
The
is
Jew
cheater,and
and
to
there
relatively
easy in spiteof
if anything,about his
little,
this
ones.
the peasant
the reintroduction
farmer, a
traditions with
between
of course,
housekeeper. Every
of the known
weaknesses
to
those
as
determined, and,
usual
interests
peasants, whose
the fact
familial
PRIMARY-GROUP
294
country in order
ORGANIZATION
learn from
to
them
at
unless,indeed, as
generalizations,
time free to observe
some
and
to
least
seldom
reflect.
few
elementary
happens, he hi
The
fault is here
of
again insufficient generalization
; the peasant has schemes
classes of people,but not of man
in general.
particular
The interest in new
facts is always strong, even
if not
We
much
here very
are
supported by practicalmotives.
reminded
of
the
even
the
center
fact
provokes
in
only
the most
of attention
of the
kind of
some
strikingof
whole
these
Each
community.
reaction,and,
facts become
as
have
we
seen
consequences
of
know.
he
And
his
to
curiosity;he just naively wants
knows
and remembers
everything about
his environment.
This
for it enables
this is a consequence,
him
among
course
to
however,
in order to build
try to know
when,
is of
construct
not
sonally,
per-
schemes;
practical
motive.
He
does not
learned,one
strikes
practically
important. Consequently the sphere of
his concrete
knowledge is incomparably larger than the
schemes, and one of the most important
sphere of his practical
sides of his latest intellectual development is the
of thingswith which he
learningof the practical
significance
was
acquaintedlong ago.
from
This independence of curiosity
practicalproblems
interest in thingsthat
enables the peasant to show
a lively
him
as
can
have
no
practicalimportance for
him.
In
older times
INTRODUCTION
information
bulk of such
the main
295
suppliedby returning
emigrants, pilgrims,travelers,beggars. Happensoldiers,
ings
and religious
in the political
social
world, extraordinary
of the
outside
events
community,
industry,the varietyof
human
interest.
objects of
main
was
marvels
mores,
Fiction
of nature
and
were
gladly
are
be in general
to
seems
still the
are
stories also
and
much
those which
than
less interesting
their consequences.
in
or
such,
as
peasant
"
food.
have
be
know
As
shall
we
read, and
the
must
progress
to
character
large extent
Even
account.
of
promotion
a
on
of theoretic
for
The
newspapers
facts in order
concrete
practicaland
to
intellectual
higher
closed
dis-
facts got
later,the popular
see
of
descriptions
give many
to
into
the
When
new
When
imagination is
this interest is usually lost.
only about reality.
even
to
wants
stillreal in themselves
are
intellectual
curiosity
level this
interests is preserved.
Descriptive
works
on
geography, ethnography, technology, zoology,
botany, etc.,have the greatest popularity;historical books
the second
are
on
last, unless its
plane; fiction comes
subjectsare
nations
taken
or, in
general,unless
papers
know.
not
As
it informs
a
result
dropped completelythe
novels and
short
other
classes and
about
of
some
old custom
things that
the popular
of publishing
stories.
cityworkers and
quite different among
lower middle class,where
mous
enorassumes
fiction-reading
proportionsand a powerfullydeveloped interest for
The
the
from
plot
situation is
has
favored
This
the
recent
of sensational
success
city population
is
certainlydue
to
ture.
litera-
the country
and
difference in social
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
296
conditions.
interest hi
life
facts
new
them
gives
superabundance
the
of the life of
character
that
numerous
place of
But,
the
on
city inhabitant
of the novel
hand, the
other
city
the
ment
excitehis
unsettled
lacking. The relatively
compared
as
the hero
an
with
news
the
peasant, the
imagination,make
the
additional
the
uncertainty and
of the future, give
possibilities
of the
keen
as
facts and
new
is here almost
community
of
because
and
not
country because
find hi the
we
as
is deadened,
receptivity
which
have
city inhabitants
The
and
numerous
with
relatively
food
more
for
put himself in
to
thus
the
fiction-readers without
readers
with
There
city class
lower
be
can
divided
non-fiction
social interests.
is indeed
always finds
the peasants; it is religious
fiction
a strong interest among
legends,lives of saints,etc. This, however, is quite a
different kind of interest,based
the general theoretic
on
one
kind
of fiction that
"
and
practical value
which
the
religiousconceptions. The
compel
interest.
of
peculiarities
notice it here
to
us
Here
of
as
course,
the
primarilyindependent of
other
this
also
practicaland
aesthetic
theoretic
kinds
elements.
complicatedmachinery
to
the
attitude
of
interest
is not
interests,but
only
whole
ascribes
peasant
But
while
is
contains
in the
are
others.
The
relation to
INTRODUCTION
297
useful,indeed, to know
only know
than
more
the nature
of
and particular
means
particular
powers.
Except by prayer and a few simple ceremonies, the peasant
into control,but
does not try to turn his knowledge directly
the latter intrudes
as
appeals to the specialist.As soon
between
practicethe interest
religious
theory and religious
this world
but have
practicalaims.
Myth then
for the layman chieflya theoretic explanation,
becomes
but, on the other hand, the interest in mythology remains
for a long time the most popular form in which the peasant's
in
theory
myths,
such
those of Genesis,have
been
greatlychanged,
ences
systematized,and completed. Lately the explanatory sciphysics,chemistry,biology,geology have begun
to take the place of religion.
as
"
To
"
these
three
built in view
"
of
correspond three
different types of
We
specialists.
playsin
the
in troubles
or
village
and
in the
is the
community
the role of
He
people would
nlore
or
givesassurance
be
must
not
less and
well known
listen
met
to
many
adviser
at
all the
view.
is
He
has
guaranty
him.
He
different
an
to
must
have
people,for
grasp
any
new
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
298
prudent, conservative,mistrusting. He
talks with
deliberation,slowly, weighing carefullyevery
His arguments seldom fail to persuade,because they
word.
less clearly
his listeners had more
or
express ideas which
of the
He
realized themselves.
usually selects only some
situation.
is
He
many
"advisers,"as
obstacle
to
we
problem. These
given practical
the
adaptationto
tion and
call them,
may
efforts
all the
main
such
frequentlythe greatest
are
enlighten and
to
organize the
an
the
are
rapidlyand easily. Such men
In extraordinary
of the commune.
often elected mayors
epochs of rapid social change (as during the revolutionary
be provisionally
period of 1904-6) the old adviser may
supplanted by a popular agitatorwhose influence is based,
not
personal authorityand not upon a selection of
upon
which the community implicitly
but
arguments
approves,
an
abilityto provoke favorable feelings.Then the
upon
follows
community
himself
peasant
second
be old
now
or
facts.
as
for advice
.ancient
His
in
may
be
the
the
has
practicalcare,
on
winter
of information
source
approximately
even
if ever
have
may
no
asked
social
function
the
solid social
this function
much,
inherited
naturallymuch
becomes
He
may
hired servant,
in times
Insignificant
narrator
traveled
is seldom
He
He
dailyworker, a
beggar or pilgrim.
for
is the
He
important matters.
schemes
narrator."
have
importanceis not
parasite. He
performed,
"
should
positionat all;he
even
various
be called the
type may
formerlyhe
simplyread much.
he may
great
his
among
young;
about
as
finds
arguments.
necessary
The
him
time
of work
if the
the
positionis even
latter is steadily
is needed
and
of
or
to
learn
new
serious business,
INTRODUCTION
neighborsgather in
the
299
of
big room
some
rich peasant
men
"
and listen
lighthandiwork
to the narration.
Lately,since readinghas developed,the
is being graduallysupplantedby the reader.
narrator
function
The
of "explaining" was
traditionally
performed
and by the priest,
or
by the "wise" man
woman,
often by the organist. Since religious
explanationshave
begun to give place to scientific explanationsthere is an
evident need for a new
kind of specialist.
Indeed, this is the
for the appearance
of the "philosopher" in the
moment
smoking,
ancient
doing
women
Greek
some
for
sense,
"
scientist with
modern
the
his
cannot
specialization
satisfy the peasant's many-sided
desire for explanation. Hence
this type also is beginning
to develop. It is the self-taught
reading every book
man,
he
can
to
explain everything.
papers,
problem
to contribute
which
about
scientists
eager
fame
reaches
him, and
abstract
matters.
he
positionin
an
the
But
it
priest,
classes of the
scientific
is recent
community
since he
the
correspondwith
is continually
this type
is
this movement
As
to
the peasant
determined.
yet sufficiently
antagonistof
letters to
hears,is
whose
thinking about
writes elaborate
He
is the
is not
natural
become
when
this movement.
social
tion.
regard to the two latter types, is a strong factor in instrucwhen instruction develops,the prestige
Reciprocally,
of these functions
of
grows.
"enlightenment"
uses
We
shall
see
how
this circumstance
the movement
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
300
In
well
as
progress
as
of the peasant
the progress
of social
organization,are
and
2.
sources
We
The
religionand
"
main
amusement.
have
two
which
beyond
goes
sensual
the
individualize
to
in the
empirical
However,
content.
in
the
significanceto
beliefs whose
seriousness
forgottenbecome
examples in
sensual
world
is lost
itself. Hence
or
aesthetic attitudes.
the
whose
We
real
stories are
spirit
are
still plainlynoticeable
sense
is
find innumerable
naturalistic
beliefs
religious
religious
and
many
of the
of colors
in
popular architecture,
had a magical value.1
The
furniture,dress,and ornament
is mainly forgotten,
but the traditional
magical significance
models
still determine
the
originalreligious
meaning
often
1
remain
Cf. M.
taste.
Old
ceremonies
whose
be
easilyrecognizedeven now
valuable for the peasant,
only aesthetically
Wawrzeniecki,Nowe
niektdrychprzejawdw
can
naukowe
stanawisko
dziedzinie ludoznawstwa
pojmowania i wyjatniania
(Warsaw, 1910).
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
302
other
familial
old
and
in
all
festivals.
social
and
Sometimes
Others
are
of
feelings
familial
extend
thanks
More
recently
itself
lines,
while
and
background
it
models
the
not
try
in
this
tends
is
to
later
if
any,
increasingly
become
volume.
among
poets.
occasion.
the
sion,
occa-
the
to
ask
to
express
for
has
movement
developed
by
nificance.
sig-
entertain
particularly
peasants,
presented
few,
probably
do
the
very
gifts,
etc.
aesthetic
intense
an
the
for
solidarity,
hospitality,
for
suit
warning,
and
are
religious
to
"
communal
or
among
social
advice
give
to
them
composed
evidently
is
to
present,
persons
of
aim
modified
are
sometimes
recent,
their
and
to
they
more
had
originally
probability
of
Many
the
the
under
classes.
upper
half
We
come
-educated
shall
examine
literary
traditional
the
upon
to
along
fested
mani-
the
influence
There
are
who
peasants
this
ment
move-
FORM
FUNCTION
AND
OF
THE
PEASANT
LETTER
Polish
The
writes many
peasant,
as
the
social function.
All the
one
peasant letters
fundamental
can
type, whose
be considered
form
variations of
as
results from
its function
and remains
ifit eventually
the same, even
alwaysessentially
degenerates. We call this type the "bowing letter."
The bowing letter is normally written by or to a member
of the familywho is absent for a certain time.
Its function
is to manifest the persistence
of familial solidarity
in spite
of the separation. Such an
expressionbecame
necessary
of the family began to leave their
only when members
native locality;as long as the family stayed in the same
and permanently
was
community, the solidarity
implicitly
The whole group
assumed.
manifested its unity at periodical
in
and extraordinarymeetings,but no singlemember
familial feelings
was
particular
obligedto manifest his own
more
than
other
members, unless
as
leaves his
compared
or
some
her
marriage.
familyfinds
with
extraordinary
on
himself in
that of other
the
distinctive
members, and
But
There
the
is
familial
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
304
In
with
accordance
its
"In
centuries of centuries.
The
the reader
are
members
of the
religious
same
community,
and
from
the
to
member.
enumeration
The
should
be
plete,
com-
stilllive in
who
embracing at least all the members
the same
if the family is already scattered,as
locality,
often happens today.
These
elements
function
of the
remain
in every
letter becomes
be
schematized; the
may,
but
for
the
of
more
else
"bows
the
complicated; every
it may
be, is a bowing
solidarity.Various
words
when
letter,even
for the
elements
whole
may
family"
letters.
The
bowing
letter is the
which
function.
The
letters
are
functions
only one
has
an
original
types of familial
takes
the
place of
FUNCTION
functions
family becomes
of the
LETTER
communication.
personal,immediate
these vicarious
PEASANT
THE
OF
when
has
It
it is
perform
to
of the member
the absence
long that
so
305
impossibleto
wait
letters. These
Ceremonial
1.
occurrences
of all the
normally require the presence
the family weddings, christenings,
funerals,
of
"
name-days
of
New
Easter.
Year,
older
instead
letter is the
of
members
These
speeches.
a
The
of
the
letters
as
the function
occasion
which
the whole
concerns
narration
letters. The
of the
the
meeting
feelingon
monial
cere-
speech
of such
and
speech,
determined
group.
bowing
"
for
function
The
of
detailed
sends
saying it himself.
same
Informing
substitutes
member
absent
Christmas,
group;
are
namely,
2.
familial
such
on
as
members
written
sent
are
"
life of the
letter
member
absent
the
leaves
or
of
"
familial
weakens
solidarity
the
in
feelings
sentimental
the
as
letter has
consequence
the
task
individual,independentlyof
of the separation,
of
any
reviving the
ceremonial
occasion.
"
of the
of
most
who
cannot
take
usual
of poems.
personal part
that
during informal
expressionin
The
in the
absent
the form
member
entertainments
306
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of his group
sometimes
which
sends
read in
to be
same
It is
way.
is
instead,and
verse
amusement
an
of
element
an
letter in
in the
answered
has
destined
often
letters certainly
literary
The
public.
far
As
quite plain.
The
letters.
5. Business
business in person,
is
of these
all his
does
business letter
to a
resorts
only when
great for a special
the
function
possiblethe peasant
as
and
vicarious
meeting.
Up
the
to
the present
have
we
spoken
of the letter
function
original
to
was
for
family letters,
of
keep
members
of
when
We
stranger becomes
mention
must
also the
expressionto thought
language, as
for determined
of
sociallyfixed
uses
in
them,
some
measure
diverge from
clearlyto
ways
the
in
used
attitudes.
of
speaking
express
The
are
or
life,but merely
writing.
The
new
peasant
attitudes,but
attitudes
which
necessitate
peasant
stances
circum-
determined
They
the relation of
has many
in translation,
even
not
question of
peasant letters.
phrases
current
results
in the
be noticed
can
traditional
assimilated.
expression. And
also
already
is not
when
felt
he
FUNCTION
gets outside
find
and
the
great words
to
form
of
LETTER
307
expression and
tries to
to
uses
PEASANT
THE
of the usual
words
new
when
OF
new
trifles,
or,
express
more
frequently,he
phrases which to
with
familiar
imitate
trying to
attitudes
often
them.
the
in his
words
freshness
and
when
But
the
but
less
peasant, instead
of
translation.
extent, and
some
to
modification
every
of
ritual
in connections
the weather
limited
casual
to
occasions
where
social intercourse
is
man
the
peasant
language
We
there
the
remains
within
the
slightest
shading of
notice
is very
sphere of traditional
the expressionis significant.
in this connection
that
in
material
our
little
or
outsider
and
forms
of
effect
from
the
Nos.
404,
the absent
can
usual
429.
be
person
there
those
produced by
language norms.
are
indeed
adequate
mum
the maxi-
nearly related
the
minimum
divergence
See Raczkowski
series,
308
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
are
or
portionsof letters,
followingletters,
The
here
LETTERS
PEASANT
SPECIMEN
illustrate the
to
into
enter
letter.
enumerated
elements, as
will be
It
intended
above,
understood
represent the
printed
that
that
these
primitive
and
elemental
types, into which little of the informing
and business elements enters.
Specimens of informingand
business letters are not reproducedat this point,as they are
the dominant
type in the later series. See, for examples,
specimens
are
Wroblewski
series and
No.
below
is
No.
is of the
letters
No.
blood"
No.
series.
pure
type, written
same
more
to
teaching peasants
to
priestwho
write
is
in this case.
successfully
sentimental, designed to "warm
of
an
absent brother.
not
"
Kowalski
almost
an
in
specialinterest
to
informing
very
is the
took
the
frozen
ceremonial-congratulatory
portion
of
of
letter.
No.
5 is
peasant letter,and
charming
writer
also
letter may
letter
The
containingall the
an
example of how
interestingas
written
was
either
as
be
on
within
the
"Palmer
norms
proper
traditional
House"
paper,
chambermaid.
or
a
scrub-girl
barely literate,as shown
by the orthography
of punctuation and
absence
The
capitalization.
whom
was
the letter
was
6 is from
No.
America,
and
shows
literaryeffort.
in-law also
was
No.
7 is the
No.
8 is the
letter
toward
to
addressed
could
girlin Poland
in its most
It contains
to
not
write
her
na'ive form
at
norms.
but
She
and
is
the
all.
the character
the
the
girl to
brother-in-law
indicationsthat
and
in
of
brother-
achievement.
attempting literary
beginningof
rhymed
and
his
replyto Magdusia.
versified portionof a ceremonial
7.
As
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
310
GERIGSWALDE
I, Leon
Christus."
to
as
well.
The
ist of
I inform
that
April from
from
bows
solar
Rozalja.
I do not
have
Also
Praised be
Jesus Christus.
I send
to write.
more
have
the
Address
to
whom
God
May
bow
write,only
and
wife,
to my
grant it.
WARSAW,
Amen.
WESOLY
April 29,
1914
Jesus Christus."
be
[Greetings;health]. Although
BROTHER:
other,almost
to each
the
same.
DEAR
burning.
I work
LEON
"Praised
am
eclipseon
more
low
for
indecentlythat
so
everybody with
Germany.
[despicable]
live in this
was
I do not
man.
Mother,
the bricks
arrange
o'clock,but it happened
low
Canon
the Holiest
and
Priest,that there
catchinga
were
sincere
lay down
to
is to
I have
Canon
you,
you,
to God
Thanks
health.
work
shivers
even
and
I inform
Also
all,I lay
shepherd, and
my
work
our
First of
be
Jesus
to you,
Priest,
Ecclesiastical Father, about
bows
low
down
"Praised
1912.
at
not
all,and
I don't know
write
we
such
why
little
coldness
not
prevailsbetween
us, stillI write this letter from fraternal feeling,
from
with our
principle. I was
parents for the holidays of the
of Our
Resurrection
Our
parents grievethat
So it is my
duty
to write you
your
kind
Mother
you
in the
but
of
old
whole
very
she
too
"lacks
And
What
she is
him.
and
with
we
love
forgettingthem.
still looks
Such
a
white
whether
pride,endowed
to make
an
look
not
of him].
[all
sound
and
bad,
I don't know
But
whether
Not
sister
our
gay.
either.
[ordinary]
boy!
head.
Don't
even
Marya
not
I don't know
ought
father
Jan, for
brother,we
whom
our
with
I could
because
Our
the other.
dear brother
you,
the fifth
consumption.
hand
for not
"
and
one
selves,like egotists.
and with God's help
own
I thank
first,
parents
our
our
into my
brother-in-law
small
sickly.
At
the
letters,
only for
the pen
future.
acquainted
are
ugly,only
looks
of
memory
our
live
words.
has grown
seen
I read your
we
to take
few
forget them
have
Lord.
for
with
it will be
winter
and
to
possible
looks like
knowledge and
learningand
for
loves
us.
clever mind.
So, dear
keep alive
This
her,
shadow.
everything!
exceedinglyand who
save
is the
sister
result
FUNCTION
inquiriesin
my
the
us
to
and
much
reward
She
I kiss you
forget her.
dear
never
and
Be
us.
this letter
concord, and
God
warm
health
our
shake
will
and
"Praised
be
DEAREST
CHILDREN,
AND
PARTICULARLY
patron of
love
make
one
may
our
may
our
another
happy
you
Lord
can
will
fort
com-
Don't
lovingbrother
NUCZKOWSKI
Let
have
we
hope
February 16
on
us
30, 1910
God
is the
defend
you
all your
you
from
answer
wish
We
have
never
and
of St.
day
you.
any
Julianna,
dear
wants;
may
be
you
sorrow;
may
God
happy and
gay;
you
our
lack
evil accident
against every
health
Lord
love; may
you
to
come
congratulate you,
we
friendship;may
supply
DAUGHTER-IN-LAW:
no
name-day.
in human
God
Lord
who
because it is your
daughter-in-law,
and happinessand long life. May
you
God
success.
Your
YOU,
daughter-in-law. Well,
our
our
Jesus Christus."
the
you
and
WOLSKIE, January
[Greetings;health; wishes.] We
for
good
hand.
your
POREBY
write
of
help us.
you
good
so
frozen blood!
your
photograph
my
STANISLAW
May
our
also.
the address
comfort, because
forever.
We
I send
know
them
to
to
sees
for
God
prays
Write
You
311
today letters
also.
yours
This
her ?
Send
you,
though she
you.
I write
yours
beg
LETTER
in Zambrow.
aunt
me
PEASANT
parental home.
our
Send
....
so
THE
photograph.
my
also to you.
aunt
OF
nothing;
and keep
in his
you
happy, and
you
from
save
you
their whole
from
evil.
This
your
father and
mother
wish
heart
JAN
AND
EWA
STELMACH
28, 1912
5
I
beginning this
Christus,"and I hope
am
centuries.
DEAREST
health and
letter with
that
you
the words:
will
answer:
"Praised
"For
be
Jesus
centuries
of
Amen."
OLEJNICZKA:
happiness.
God
I greet you
from
my
heart,and wish
you
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
312
well,and
birdies in
happy as the
Olejniczka.
as
heart,dear
The
I do not
When
no
it
there,
do the birds
grove
the broad
across
Go, little letter,
Dearest
to start
to
bow
in the wide
low, and
Dear
the
joy
Olejniczka. I
I
see
went
on
up
To
and
see
you,
again,
you
feet I shall
your
shall know
you
not, but I
you
ever
I shall cry.
Then
brother
am
If I shall
sun.
I shall kiss.
hands
but
direction,
sweet
many
I wish
And
in the
are
how
high
hill and
looked
see
you
not, and
I hear
years
all
you
think of you
Are you
good, a hundred
And
well,very
hotel.
is very
day.
I receive
$120 and
here
eat
We
country.
are
I sent
I have
no
of
in the sea,
water
life,
health,and
through the
what
Is there
I
(inour
like
no
so
holidayshappiness.
white
one
Answer,
to write
gettingalong.
am
worked
would
in
money
it,we
factoryand
32) dollars
could
am
am
I
lilies,
the
the Szases
I sent
for you
you
gettingalong
now
working
as
bring Wladzio
every
back
more
Olejniczka.And
greet; and
18
If you
good.
We
I have
how
or
more,
answer.
I write you
well.
years
sand-
many
you
I greet you
you.
in Bielice any
there is no
now
drops of
many
As
night,dearest Olejniczka.
every
not
letter and
as
field,
will I write.
of lifeI,Walercia,wish
loveliness I wish
few words
only a
Olejniczka,
grainsas there
in
to you.
come
not.
you
without
your
dearest
in that far
littlechild,of great
love you,
out
then, like
away
you.
in the
arose
myself that
to
pleasure].
sing so sweetly
for
heart,dearest Olejniczka,
As my
my
feet.
slipping
my
My
from
littleletter,
I write my
And
When
I wish you
is near.
post-office
the
mind;
I will flitwith
In
This
May.
Easter
now.
some
over
in
our
I had
$90.
write,only we greet you from our heart,dearest
Olejniksand their children;and Wladyslaw we
with
their
children; and
the
Zwolyneks
with
FUNCTION
their
children; and
with
their
THE
OF
Grotas
the
with
address:
North
[etc.]
America
goodbye.
WOLKA
I sit down
In
313
their
For
Goodbye.
LETTER
PEASANT
SOKOLOWSKA, April 22
table
at a
paintedroom.
table shakes.
My
I write
letter to you,
brother-in-law.
lilyblossomed
And
it was
the
That
my
First
we
But
VirginMary.
thus
I dreamed
heart
was
near
yours.
not
other,
hands,
Now
when
I read your
must
have
I had
Jesus Christus."
here, hard
with
to
sow
having answered
for not
me
time.
no
dear
you,
with
brother-in-law,
in
plant or
to
and
smile,for
thought that
so
[well]how
you
to
good school since you knew
that letter. But all this [thatyou write]is nothing [cannot
compose
been
for
pass],
to
come
don't be angry
writing to
am
be
that it is cold
now
you
"Praised
words
is there any
boy quiteready to
[and to
come
marry
me]?
Now, dear sister Ulis,I inform you that Jasiek went to you and
I remained
could not both go together. And
at home, for we
then,
will get married, so there would
Hanka
be nobody to
perhaps [sister]
work.
Perhaps there
is planted. Now
me
have
a
And
no
good
I think
children.
and
dear
you,
word], and
[illegible
be earned.
such
beg
....
you
will be
am
and
brother-in-law,
best
I have
that you
Now
no
maid,
I should
don't
I thank
our
need
Lord
that
funny brother-in-law,
we
much
God
know
Ulis,send
you,
like to treat
for at home
money,
everything
nothing can
yet, for
money
that
how
my
I have
to
got
speak to
there is
nothing
more
of us, and
thanks
God.
way
best
my
health,all
to
funny
to be
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
314
in
at home, only
interesting
the
wish you
we
be any
we
cattle
Our
same.
When
to write.
nothing more
write for you
[to come] and invite
they will
[Greetings.]
are
war.
in
are
good
healthy,
is
Hanusia
is
There
married
marrying
am
there won't
Now
man.
When
letters.
our
you
[MAGDUSIA]
Now, dear [cousin]Jagus, I write
in your mother's house, your mother
when
Makar
wanted
to
[them].
coming back
give [send]trousers
was
So
once
was
talked
our
and
with
is angry
mother
your
to
father
When
to you.
you.
April 6,
1914
by railway
Go, littleletter,
don't go to the tavern, where peopledrink
if you went
there,you would get drunk.
But
For
And
would
you
never
when
meadows
And
be
"Praised
now
shejsworthy
her hand.
Magdusia, kiss
reach
you
and
Jesus Christus"
sister,
to my
beer,
of it
[JOZEF DYBIEC]
8
December
BRANNAU,
And
....
beloved
now,
the solemn
On
I send
wishes
And
beg
brother
day
and
of Christmas
1910
brother-in-law,
New
Year
home,
to your
you,
dear
and
n,
beloved
and
brother-in-law
sister and
brother,
Accept
For
On
And
am
wishes,
my
of the
this solemn
if I live and
I think
blood
same
day
come
am
also
back,
And
I wish
And
to
you
as
you.
rejoicing.
I shall wish
come
to live until
back
to you,
then,
congratulatetogetherone
you
another.
by words.
dear
FUNCTION
the
For
wish
Lord
THE
New
Year
God
bless
after
sands
many
in
the
heaven.
high
luck,
heavenly
are
His
good
every
315
everything;
you
from
you
there
as
wish
heaven
in
death,
LETTER
PEASANT
and
happiness
you
And,
As
of
day
the
May
OF
joy.
sea,
as
fishes
many
in
rivers,
Even
As
may
And
And
And
wish
not
have
day
write
to
God
and
the
in
write
you.
kolenda!"1
and
gay
New
happy
and
merry
for
strength
Refrain
of
Christmas
song.
work,
other
amusement
verses,
words
[i.e.,
in
prose].
STANISLAW
Year.
supper.
in
more
you
grant
money.
fine
at
you.
sea,
health
you
wish
holidays
much
earn
you
the
may
until
grant
Christmas
will
into
kolenda,
live
you
money
happy
you
"Hey,
God
may
fall
as
wish
you
may
and
happiness
happy
And
For
now
And
much
so
And
health
drops
many
Even
On
much
so
DYBIEC
the
MEMBERS
BETWEEN
CORRESPONDENCE
OF
FAMILY-GROUPS
addition
In
letters show
to
the
by
which
internal
which
the
normal
external
external
and
marriage,
religiouslife
"
influences
to
which
not
originallyadapted,
and
the
dissemination
such
of
of
social
familial
increase
and
emigration
contact
Russian
and
Materials
with
to
cities,to America,
far
as
its member
of the
and
new
was
and
and
social advance,
environment
to
Germany,
the
German.
of this character
possible with
questions:
"
group,
neighboring nationalities,mainly
do
strictlysystematic arrangement,
as
to
of instruction
the
organization
ideas, economic
new
events
environment,
tendencies
the
as
either
originallyadapted
was
new
the
various
the
and
processes
by
or
hi its relation
hi
of members
death
these
conditioned
are
conditions, traditional
economic
traditional
attitudes
group
situations
organization
familial
birth, growth,
the
confront
These
of life.
normal
of various
exhibition
the
problems
situations
the
to
the
dominant
finds
not
but
reference
to
situation
itself,and
the
family-group.
316
lend
themselves
the letters
the
are
the
arranged
presentation
hi which
to
of two
group
or
progressive disintegration
3i 8
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
attitudes
involved
values
and
In
early
"primary"
schematization
fixed
relatively
is
outlines
the
peasant community
like the
group
peasant child.
in the
of attitudes
fixation
point of specialinterest
Another
of
and
simple,and
universallyand
are
uncritically
accepted. The child,as we may note in these
freelyin the interests of the family and
letters,
participates
the community and acquiresat a tender age the elements of
a
conservatism.
stubborn
very
9-16,
AND
BRONISLAWA
FROM
IN
BROTHER
THEIR
[Usual greetingsand
BROTHER:
DEAR
IN
POLAND
TO
AMERICA
October
DOBRZYKOW,
BOREK
JOZEF
9, 1913,
month
loth
receive
parishthere
is
no
something
will have
you
paper,
read.
In
whole
our
The
news.
to
is
calling
for money.
They
want
to
people don't
morg
every
build
want
schools
to
agree,
in
the
because
[taxesbeing paid
in
of
commune
it would
proportion to
Dobrzykow,2
but
be very
expensive for
land]. Nothing good
us
to
happened.
is autumn,
1
The
When
plow.
we
were
an
digging [potatoes],
Our
Polish National
of lifeinsurance
Alliance in America
is littleknown
to
assume
as
among
The
accident
result of
new
classes
intelligent
commune
for the
to
But
the
case
have
as
many
the
plan
girl
seems
schools
BOREK
dear
brother,I
beg
we
us
send
you,
need
Ewka
also
soon
as
as
is
going
possibleany
And
much
photograph, for
your
she is
us
She
sweetheart.
have
suit,so send
October
10
BROTHER:
DEAR
lina it is
it
as
another.
We
received
We
26, 1913
the
money,
....
roubles,for which
we
you
She has
was.
And
thank
now
the Markiewiczs
gave
no
inform
we
for
can,
Grodny's[daughter]
....
we
now,
you
new
see
told
And
which
money
you
also to
going to America,
to a
now
curious to
am
319
at home.
[with staying]
also weary
am
it very
SERIES
heartily
wish
to marry
this one,
you
what
did
those
we
roubles
50
with
back
100
Micha[sister]
With
this money.
with
and
interest,
to the
it will be
now,
satisfied that
What
the wages
are
work
much, yet
Mother
bought
it is sad
God
for
me
an
a
Michalina
[i.e.,
dowry]. We
that peopleeven
so
helpsyou,
What
girls?
at least you
[Jozef]have
Now
Lord
our
for
could
earn
have
tears
assist at
surplice. Bronislawa
in my
long very
autumn
eyes
much
envy
you.
Although
the
you
Mass.
holy
goes
sings.
came.
brother,that
very
well.
earn
accordeon, and
here,because
are
because
for you,
always whenever
I remember
you,
see
never
whole
our
dear
I
you.
you.1
[BRONISLAWA]
December
11
DEAR
We
BROTHER:
....
We
received
....
were
very
that you
much
did not
Broncia
sad, particularly
write for
work
1
23, 1913,
We
so
have
long a
brother
more
Kozlowska.
favorable
to
We
holidays. It
the request.
We
have
will be very
it is here
see
letter
[Bronislawa]and
time
your
I, Jozef,
now
merry
naively used
in it the germ
i2th
month
to
of the
not
so
for us,
make
the
policyof
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
320
they [theseason-workers]have
for
now
are
many
it any
people in
Our
more.
will calve
cow
young
There
is no
pig for
don't
we
After
soon.
In carnival
Prussia,so there
horse,for
no
killed the
We
now
news
have
village. We
our
from
come
need
Christmas
we
ourselves
perhaps there
will be
more
[Marriagesenumerated.]
news.
There
order
is
brother, whether
boasted
now.
When
letters to
write
you
Jarosinskaboasts
what
also
thank
you
send
forge
for
you
to
it,address
parents]will
take it.
nicelyat the
Mass
Now
it to
and
the
And
what
dear
Wladyslawa
[Bronislawa]
weather
intend
you
Bronka's
is there
send
to
us.
they [the
else
or
name,
alreadyhow
I, Jozef,know
in Latin.
for you.
her]. Bronka
gift which
this
you
ask you,
We
to wait
write
[thatyou
Do
work
We
the
buy
to
to our
is curious
wants
to sell it or
us
who
blacksmith
to assist very
And in Gombin
priestbuilt a very nice barn.
they built a barn for people [toworship],because only the basement
of the church is ready. And
Walenty Ostroski began to go [to the
Christmas
Our
songs.
church] and
to
sing,but he had
voice.
no
And
justanybody. Szymanski'sson
marry
to
wants
marry
me,
to
perhaps it would be well for me, because he will take me
But I don't want
him, for
Warsaw, to [setup] a shop or restaurant.
he is crippled. I have another who turns my head, but only when he
and
back
comes
But
not
am
nobody
from
the army.
in
hurry
than him
more
else.
get somebody
If Michalina
to
whether
?
Our Lord
[thecripple]
I hide
Alina
wife?
[had
Witkowski
....
an
good father
how
it was
we
complain of
on
in
have.
before ?
boys
more
has children in
Prussia].
He
lives like
Well, now
God
America,
small
he
or
you,
God
help me
comes
to
for herself
brother,what
all
we
"
It is
and
me
ask
We
you
know
hard, much
all sides
I, BRONISLAWA
to
additional
some
Prussian
king, and
it is stillworse.
will
marry.
with
the mills.
from
inform
We
I merit
him, but
myself from
Krajeska brought
child
illegal
Did
get married.
JOZEF BOREK
to
BOREK
SERIES
321
February 10,
12
1914
The
was
The
best
were
There
house,only 60.
our
beautiful.
very
There
Wykow.
in
were
musicians
and
men
strangers,from
were
best
4 musicians.
were
girls
The
was
that
so
merry,
very
even
"
former
He
law.
is a great
did
If you
send
not
for
success
those
now,
don't need
them
now.
it,we
shall
because
be
afraid,you
can
lend itat
interest.
We
have
Don't
brother-in-
our
us.
100
of
nothing
we
won't
we
salute
write,only we
to
more
waste
only
T3ro ther-in-law
you
write you
who
also,but
we
won't
brother-in-law
The
with
was
Michalina
and
us
salute you.
And
will
we
at the
express
agreeableand good.
brother-in-law's
now
has
brother
accordeon
an
of
and
one
half
13
....
8.
April i.
it on
to eat
she-calf.
be afraid that
spend
and
Grandfather
Michalina, from
We
drinking; when
on
ary
Febru-
rouble every
shall
keep her.
we
calved
cow
young
you
come
we
week.
Our
cow
young
Wladzio, don't
won't waste
it,we won't
And
back,you
you,
will have
And
gave
me
1
this money.
Michalina
"...
avert
Our
BROTHER:
DEAR
....
for my
So called because
thunder-stroke.
of the ceremony
100
forge which
roubles which
of the consecration
of candles
you
you
intend
supposed to
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
322
to send
for the
me
borrowed
We
back
100
to
which
the money
I collected for my
and
bought for myself a feather-cover,
3 pillows,
I had
the cook.
There were
gaps enough which
roubles were
left,and they want me to give even
for
I
horse,and
neither
am
And
nor
upon
paid
to
caul
roubles to
Only
stop.
10
them, grandfather
Well, I got married, it is true, but
ice [notsettled]
write,Bronislawa
now
In
choir there
our
are
for
girlsleft,
few
water
upon
paid
we
in Trosinek
[with the parents of the
day of carnival we were
Michalina, grandfather and I.
brother-in-law] our brother-in-law,
last
"
played also.
much
very
They
at
were
work.
And
is alreadymarried.1
America,
myself to be
or
you
are
Jozef,a suit,and
dress at her
could
from
we
at
be
us.
the
wedding.
The
is 20
carriageswent
I, Jozef.
to the
thank
more,
1
The
at
younger
for money
least
dear
you,
100
"
brother, for
to send
some
to
so
us
old.
white
wedding.
I greet
19, 1914
photograph, and
your
us.
years
had
May
We
are
dress,and I,
Michalina
rest.
were
They greet
youngest of them
the
we
brothers
His
14
....
wedding
your
of them.
Three
wedding.
wedding,
be at my
girlat
from
come
ashamed
mother
gave
I, Bronislawa, and
you,
until you
brother,to
I will be best
country, since
our
this money
From
not
were
agreeablethat nobody
while
dear
grieve,dear
at mine.
man
that you
our
home, for
at
Don't
in
even
very
sorry
very
it is bad.
I will wait
But
Either
at yours.
shall be best
We
I, Bronka, shall be
in America
Michalina
or
us
is in
brother-in-law
our
me,
People envy
write,dear brother,that
brother, about
Sunday.
on
Now
will be in
pleasedgrandfathermuch.
you
house
our
of this luck.
because
cannot
His brother
much.
me
If you
cannot
send
can
to
daughter be married
first.
BOREK
send
send
more,
for
you
these
Michalina
with
lowna.
wishes
the
time, and
least
could
later
enough
did
you
our
Markiewicz
Wiktor
did.
learning.
are
singwhenever
I go to
I have
I shall
weeding
BRONISLAWA
which
law
thank
we
heartily
They will
you
leaving us.
are
won't
[grandparents]
the
[processions],
many
know
And
pained, and
the army,
from
dear
know
weeks
He
wants
to
to
you
whom
few
when
I should
to.
lend
we
it,for
now
father cannot
I
am
he
Your
....
borrowed
roubles
Now
notes
1
100
Because
she wants
we
and
prefersome
to
you
about
the city.
don't
to an
and
I will write
you
will go
me
to
soon
letters from
from
craftsman,and
'
[BRONISLAWA]
is lent.
Jan Switkowski
inform
to go
money
we
come
July
BROTHER:
crosses
in autumn
comes
16
DEAR
was.
ashamed
very
further.
craftsman
some
what
to
me
ones
[TOZEF]
it will be
marry
you
theater, 12
complain. I
Wladyslaw "abka writes
to
the old
far away.
brother,our
how
nobody
inform
we
brother-in-law.
our
I don't
I will wait
Now
brother-in-
our
lodging,because
merry-go-round,
so, my
for I have
the army.
yet.
Borek, write
understanding with
work, for
rent
and
1914
roubles,for
500
money,
Michalina
money
yet.
more,
her
of them
I, Bronislawa
About
take
Pentecost:
at
news
received
We
....
at
earn
June 5,
BROTHER:
He
of those
15
DEAR
Bug-
buy slippers.
to
with
singers
they quarrelledwith the organistand
I shall go
perhaps
on
got acquainted
[hiswife's sister].And
because
others
now
where
marry
there
more,
and
priest,
If
sure
very
May 15
I,Jozef,thank
brother-in-law
Our
came
roubles
money,
Zazdzierz
consumption
marry
singsany
none
in
as
boys usuallydo with girls,
Wladzio, Bugiel boasts that Staska
to
you
it
as
back, you
come
us
gave
But
to
Dear
lend
from
[Stanislaw]
roubles
323
....
Markiewicz
place
[from America], and
should
We
more.
SERIES
300
our
23, 1914
Jan Golebiewski
roubles.
farm-stock.
We
have
We
have
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
324
and
cows
she-calf
one
for Michalina
and
they
....
does
trade
bought
in
shoes, but
only
and
go
and
for
cow
lodging, but
anywhere
me,
cotton-suit,for there
bought
rent
don't go
cow
For
orchards.
cloth-suit.
buy
to
Father
cow.
to
were
the money
want
not
pigs and
nice
left for
took
and
cow
the young
from
enough
not
was
Father
[JOZEF]
And
now
I, Bronislawa, write
you
father
did
inform
We
bought
but
already
and
600
helps
will be
give her
won't
we
Michalina,
which
you
and
so,
lost.
When
I intended
they
send
home,
at
worked
for 5 weeks.
and
slippers,
photograph
no
of my
with
offer
anything,
me
send
enough
tired with
am
single grosz
kind
and
now
go
her
want
we
add
anything
I could
it to my
name,
to
buy
to
sing any
work
go
for
I will work
was
I have
dress and
a
you
for I have
more,
with
the
is
But
10
it is too
because
for
one
those
you.
Michalina
away,
money
because
but
burned
and
brother, I
Dear
some
work,
to
to
myself in
to dress
together
so
going
Lord
our
nice velvet
us
much
very
name-day,
buy
to
Perhaps
not
am
something
I will
me
if you
I, Bronislawa, be
grieve that
cow
sent
the other
on
Although
us, but
you
much, that
for your
watch.
person.
for
also
least I have
at
thank
the
a
have
You
He
made
Michalina
time.
Don't
wishes
I earned
I have
lime
sun,
working
was
roubles.
100
gave
People marvel
you
....
not
We
second
envy.
brother.
you
to
these
brother, we
Dear
sent.
you
words, dear
office.
a
one
roubles.
12
with
horse
[communal-bank]
the
in
payment
once,
for
cow
what
you
....
few
ask
would
you,
sewing-machine
some
weeks, and
if you
roubles
our
offer
me
parents
took
[BRONISLAWA]
1
Michalina's
grandfather
do this and
selves in
old
to
difficult situation.
people is a
necessary
was
We
evidently expected
her father,counting
sufficient dowry.
see
to
on
retire and
will her
the grandfather's
So the young
organization.
help,
the
of the
326
etc.,has
a
neighboring
estate
between
curious
the
interest in work
and
point
living is
is not
farm
insecure
work.
tion is shown
farming of
The
It
proletariat.1
its
the
nomic
eco-
is shown
does
not
care
which
he
is his
earns
his
pleasure of
interest is objectified.The
same
objectificain his eagerness
to learn everythingabout the
his brothers
second
family.
spiteof
works
still he
situation,and
The
edge
complains continuallyabout
He
personal property.
the
his own,
peasant
independent interest
about
own
is that
case
his
on
country
present
the farm-work.
from
already independent of
that this
and
purpose,
income
the normal;
the
in the
is
such
as
for
income
farmer-class
the
But
is above
paid labor
additional
needs
additional
need
on
season-emigration.A
through
or
does not
his children's
who
be earned
to
peasant who
or
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
in America.
fundamental
happens
for the
that
of interests is that
set
we
of the
of the
possible
familial situations:
"
harmoniously
as
whole, and
justice accordingto
"
be
settled upon
This
relation
is
Cf. Introduction:
as
expanded
his
which
moral
the
The
member
"Economic
pursue
ends
egotistic
economic
problems
own
the
"
and
the
of
should
Attitudes."
another
an
isolated
family, and
the
WROBLEWSKI
harmonious
family.
coexistence
of the two
his
family
own
family.
2. Purely
and
Walery's relation
4.
sentimental
and
5.
which
goes
on
situation and
to
his children,and
of the
progressivemanifestation
and
out
of interest in work;
he is the
and
are
small, and
they may be as
belongs to Olcia,and thus
paternal attitude
definite and
But
as
are
but
the farm
his
feelings
as
poor
a
the children
But
shaken.
he,
his
strong.
After
of
the death
the
slightantagonism
son,
on
of the character
paternalattitude
of
head and representative
becomes
merely a guardian,
farm
nomic
eco-
the economic
work
to
an
"
perfectlynormal;
the
changes in
the influence of
continues
sickness
the evolution
under
long as
As
change.
through her
firstwife
his
He
with
his wife's
to
stepdaughterOlcia
problem. (Seenotes.)
of the children.
no
it is
possible,
to
Walery's relation
as
and
tion
assimila-
contrary,
assimilated
becomes
sentimental
the
families is
the
is
On
husband's
her
327
absolutelyher
of interests prevents
antagonism
to
SERIES
from
between
appears
himself
and
oldest
the
the farm
and
for him
children appear,
again,new
cannot
care
be
expected
children,and
from
to
him
evident
it becomes
take
of the children
Finallyhe
and
his
almost
new
marries
that his
wife
son
and
sociated
completely dis-
The
328
PRIMARY-GROUP
sentimental
is the
connection
only
left and
one
even
this
weakened
seems
ORGANIZATION
quite different
have
lived.
in many
see
we
Feliks
These
(i) As
in which
conditions
very
even
letters,
that
is ceasing more
and
the persons
thus
community
of
relation.
third
more
to
produce
or
that
resultingfrom
is due
a
to
communities.
Ludwik
With
on
to
found
pro-
America.
and
At
ordinarycourse,
that the emigrant
with
any
strong and
rate, the
organization,exerts
the emigrant. Another
hi the Raczkowski
merous
nu-
Russian
a
more
good
letters
series,
of
Wolski.
regard
is also the
to
the religious
interests,
Walery's attitude
typical attitude
while
religiouslife;
The
and
familial
disorganizinginfluence
example of this is found
more
normal
more
is much
emigration
its weaker
life,with
member
new
to
has become
Polish
the
difficult and
it seems,
difference,
more
like
between
consolidate
to
necessary
one
connection
to America
relation
abnormal
an
This
normal
interest,are
more
than
family
generalphenomena:
if not
allied;acquaintanceand friendship,
In other
has become
the
his
and
individual
very
relation
of the
strong, has
to
the
modern
peasant.
mainly
Divinity,
as
His
social form.
expressed
in
WRCBLEWSKI
SERIES
329
prayer,
system.
social interests of
The
play any
to
of
activity
peasant
in
can
his
active
commune
to his
practically
be active.
can
limited
are
neighbors and
relations with
seem
Walery
he is interested
But
as
observer
an
general social
and
marks
and
the political
social
practically
the city workers
as
we
organization,
already find it among
and to some
the peasants, and expressed
extent
among
in socialistic,
and
nationalistic,
interest in
The
plays and
economic
associations.
strong in
is not
amusements
forms
as
independent amusements)
variety of
is much
amusements
Nevertheless
in the
case
of
are
in this character
morally permitted.
greater among
Walery
we
find
photography.
Walery's purely theoretic interests are
natural,particularly
cosmic, facts. It may
in generalpopular books on natural sciences
readingof the peasants.
amusement
(not
The
cityworkers.
new
relatively
"
turned
toward
be noted
are
that
the favorite
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
330
We
notice
in many
absolute lack of
an
other
series
the
"
interest which
one
which
one
we
prevails
the
term
may
enable
him
The
lack
the
this
do
to
easilythan
more
others.
many
explained by the
conservatism
the
prevailing among
this province. Living for centuries in
level of the
the
could
be
exceptional social
peasant nobilityof
analogous conditions,with
to
politicalcareer
few
middle
opportunitiesto rise
nobility,particularlysince a
closed
after Poland's
very
partition,and
hindered
economic
advance
by overpopulation,poor soil,
and lack of industry in this province,lackingthe incentive
which
to advance
was
given to the peasants proper by
was
liberation and
nobilityis
within
to
old
classes.
by social
He
And
is little to
there
any
achieve
the community
than
more
of the
other
with
later by endowment
has
or
some
economic
influence.
pride in
his
in general, the
vanity. And
garden-products,but no
problem of social hierarchyseems
hardly to exist for him.
No
determined
attitude
toward
the
higher classes
is
ever
expressed.
The
more
or
less
by
which
his whole
desire to live
economic
and
invalided
by
is
personal life up
tradition which
familial idea
behavior
requiresthe
and
to
and
fundamental
explained,is
to
resign his
unable
His
the
powerful
spiteof the
the end, in
to
claims
matters
manage
on
those
of the
control
the
when
in
feature,
general familial
age
outlined
definitely
he
is
of
partly
matters
for
WROBLEWSKI
SERIES
331
other characters,
as far
material,
in the
determined
as
another
perfectlyclear.
seem
farmer
Wr6blewski, a
His
WROBLEWSKI
FAMILY
THE
wife
second
wife
Feliks' wife
J6zef'swife
(Aleksandra),daughter of Walery's firstwife
Olcia
Edward
Waclaw
Walery's children by
his firstwife
J6zia
Michal
17-57,
TO
FROM
AND
WALERY
IN
BROTHERS
THEIR
JOZEF
AMERICA:
FROM
55-57,
FROM
17-54,
POLAND,
WALERY;
JOZEF.
LAPY, January
17
DEAR
BROTHERS:
....
health.] Your
traveled
1
In
Kozlowska
never
IN
WROBLEWSKI
and
[Usual greetings
letter of October
for about
29 I received
on
1906
about
generalities
December
30.
It
strikinglikeness
between
himself
that Kozlowska,
with this difference,
(cf.that series),
called upon
2,
and
as
Franciszka
woman,
was
because
a
week,
and
in
now
very
and
afterward
often
"Strike"
their demands.
Even
is
was
because
liberty,
In
we
the
we
The
yet fixed.
would
is no
in the
peace
and
for this
'
land,and
everything
shoemakers
and
tailors.
we
time
have
more
formerly,when
as
write
now
Papers
truth,only
more
different songs
reason
short,thanks
In
trouble
terrible
even
other towns
many
Now
of the monarch
they
so
be
not
Polske
cos
was
working-
are
censure,
in the
order
shorter
day.
are
published without
are
8 hours
word, by favor
only subjects;now
were
than
no
and
higherpay
want
more
there
we
there
about
Manifesto
They
work
to
now
....
than
more
language "bezrobocie"
our
terriblydear, particularlywith
become
tumults
telegraphservice
in
means
stopped for
us,
among
strike.
"zabastowka"
Russian
forward
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
332
can
to
God,
are
sung,
conditions
happen, because
thingshappen,
as
there
in Moscow
The
revolution
of 1905-6
contributed
the bureaucratic
between
that there
was
state
relation
any
the more
general political
problems. The
self-government allowed, within certain limits,the settlement of most
communal
of the
"
and
manufactured
products
"
superiorand
undetermined
his attitude
toward
an
attempt
individual's
own
The
revolution
and
may
the
same
abstract
to
appeared
force.
the weather
problems and
and
and
regulated once
them
more
was
or
giftthe
forever by
or
powers
(Cf. Introduction:
in their treatment
"Social
be influenced directlyand
tune
as
less like
fundamentally passiveresignation,with
sphere of interests.
unknown
him
"
of 1905-6 showed
to
times
some-
of the
Environment".)
order is modifiable
will; it showed
many
at
apparently
Edward
50
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
334
; I pay
Lapy
learning
position[asgardner of
I leave my
when
for his
now
governmental railway-station]
probably they will demand
and
Both
the strangles,
horses had
now
they look bad.
my
winter
weather
Christmas
to
up
is
colder; it
don't remember
have
I for
send
salutation
you
In
our
mill
myself,when
the
one
or
us, and
from
on, when
in
they
we
the children
Now
salute you
"
We
wish
W.
WROBLEWSKI
you
Alekevery
February 8, 1906
DEAR
ANTOS
BROTHERS
that I will
because
probablyremain
I don't know
when
church
grant it.
God
May
The
Year, the
I
sledges
buildinga
more.
New
chapel,and later
to build first a
himself and
on
go
about
written
I have
church
money,
already possibleto
whether
They intend
Lapy.
is
since
light. Now,
was
the
was
I should
that
sure
Kosxus:
AND
at my
remain
you,
post,
I shall be
year
I inform
Now
....
hope to
do it and I cannot.
home, and
at
week
Now
ago
also
I thanked
and
[resigned]
place. They gave me one day for reflection,
my
after this they were
One day, then another,
to say something to me.
then a week passed and they said nothing. I was
that they
sure
were
trying to find somebody else. I was sure because last year it
if they intended
I thanked
seemed
to change me, although when
as
satisfied with me.
them they said that they were
After more
than a
for
week, when
asked
I went
whether
me
remain
on
I asked
for
I intended
different
am
not
improvements in
some
sure,
to remain
conditions,but
The
I
the
home.
He
has threshed
all his
and
hay from the riverside,
and I don't know
the riverside,
successivelytwo
service,and
to
obtain
moreover
them.
for fuel.
serve.
the
to
hope
not.
I did not
was
because
or
to
days
Father
grain,but
now
how
of frost and
stillprovidesfor himself
he has not
yet brought
it is
three
days of rain.
But
when
WROBLEWSKI
Feliks will
If Feliks does
335
shall do.
we
or
come
alone.
the farm
how
I don't know
comes
summer
SERIES
not
I don't know
probably won't
be able to
I don't
come,
whether
know
keep
what
will
because father does not promiseto work any longeron the farm.
result,
sellit,althoughhe could take somebody to help
Perhaps he will finally
enough, but he does not intend to do it.
him, because he has money
On
....
should
do it
I want
very
there is also
farm
my
myself,but
much
nobody
in Plonka
which
church
in the
thought that
the other
shut
evening, was
there,took the
have
We
the
The
in
hand,
Now
earn
can
robbed
been
has
nothing is certain;on
now
this littlemoney
church
to work.
and
money
fled
no
it is carnival
WROBLEWSKI
W.
April2, 1906
19
with
will divide
We
BROTHERS:
DEAR
hi
you
....
thought
As
when
to the money,
give 10 roubles
I receive it I will do
will
to father and
food
their uncle
until you
for the
keep by
the
me
and
remembrance
you
people have
Some
day.
wretched, walking
oxen
and
been
no
bought
[snow].2 As
upon
white
cow;
I wanted
because
opportunity,
which
storks
seen
cows
you
also to
are
I will
remaining 240,
the
my
or
children
promise. Spring
wrote;
Meanwhile
back.
come
as
is bad, it snows
be
sold the
bad
bought, for
and
62
very
dear.
roubles,and
I have
I have
Easter
are
relatives,
and
separation,
in the
particularform
which
this connection
assumes
in group-
festivals.
The peasant
sympathy of the peasant with animals.
stories show that this sympathy developed to a very high degree. Spontaneous to
some
degree,it is also a vestigeof the naturalistic religioussystem.
1
An
example
of the
336
PRIMARY-GROUP
bought another
the other;
as
for
because
the
fetlocks
on
promises
him
have
to
turn
in the last
songs
I don't
only
thieves
of the
stepped out
called,"Who
happily he
be found.
and
He
They
They
thefts
The
strikes of
the
shot
man
to
there at dinner.
it
me
of different
score
about
father.
other
robberies
rob
in
revolver,but
of them.
Father
horse
ended.
and
that is the
cause
of the environment
common
in which
And
factories
noise,
were
not
of
wagon
present there
At
Highwaymen
robbers
in towns
come
and
they can
since
on
stopped, workmen
the
were
"universe
the
On
made
country.
our
them, and
trace.
Many
the end
sleptin the
Plonka, stole
any
fortune
the mis-
At
father
with
two
were
the misfortune
So
and
and
us
went
last year.
out, and
the old
The
Jozik; he lent
horses,and
There
ran.
awoke
usuallydisappear without
up
she
you,
'
now
saw
people on
turned
is
Sokoly,you
to
us
you
kept our
disappeared.
terrible
attack
of
written
God
steal
is there?"
and
us
I have
heard
door.
missed.
to
came
are
hood
neighbor-
written
were
we
Plusniaki
from
corner
and he has
Warsaw
to
He
gram
and
phonograph
Lord
our
came
the granary.
near
and
the
on
whether
know
which
of the carnival
next
on
left,
intend
Wojciech,
go from
the
in the
I have
you
days of carnival
bought it in
He
from
and
When
barn, at the
played
whether
white
marches.
Now
barn
their
in Skwarki
of
had
longer.
Drop
daughter
know
Golaszewski.
the dinner
During
the
Perkoska,
I don't
near
was
this horse
bought
color
same
other
little
two-year-old.Adam
the
Frania
Kleofas
wedding
to
and
is
one
the
distinguishthem,
the
only
same,
this
legs,and
plow.
to
the
old, of
difficult to
be
even
is also
her husband.
married
to
would
his hind
where
with
it
is 4 years
He
64 roubles.
movement
plow with
to
ORGANIZATION
of discourse"
of the family
evidentlythe function
and
thus
of keeping
connection.
2
played a
was
cause
was
evidently different.
of the
moral
may
new
for the
in
real
The
have
reason
ideals,which
social constraint
ff.)
WR6BLEWSKI
holidays brother
the
After
he
mainly because
children.
on
has
Feliks
church
no
is
there
remain
he cannot
Well, but
and
the
to
nowhere
farm, but
teach
to
there
work
to
because
either,
the
of what
said.
I have
I inform
Now
that in
you
The
papers
themselves
that
write
there
are
and
the
"Maryawitas,"
"Mankietniks."
They regard
some
the
prieststhemselves
70 such
to
50
faith
new
produce
priestswho
call
them
saint,
her different
Catholic
holy Roman
our
and
has arisen,
sect,heresyor falling-off
it.
337
coming
But
farm.
SERIES
"
priestsand did
going on
certain Felicia
at
what
is
going on
you
what
[thechurches].
to close
as
she-devil,
of
seamstress
bishop writes,a
therefore
and
priest-clothes,
her.
priestsfavor
It is a
present.
Kozlowska,
them
allow
not
It is
horror
of the world
read
to
is not
in
far
away.1
1 wrote
for if I wanted
I could
to write in
Now, please,write
them
made
when
short,whatever
whether
"
be
may
new
Are
there any
sheets
many
How
the mines.
the earth ?
under
our
I should need
detail,
about
us
about
the passages
are
fall in
they [thepassages]
for
of the
sect
had
peasants
Vol. IV.
The
Christian
2
writer
about
taken
"end
demoralization
representedthe
"Maryawitas"
of the world"
is noticed.
happens
stand ?
In
course
WROBLEWSKI
shall have
We
dependent
the
details of this in
more
whenever
is assumed
It is of
or
to
us
W.
'The
What
props
of paper.
any
upon
general
eschatological
great and
the
ideas.
Here,
were
which
as
in many
other
similar
the constitution
of the
of
are
a
seems
as
not
purely objective,i.e.,
he asks
questions,it
new
common
determined
whether
group-connection,
this
was
the conscious
thus
aim
or
tenance
the mainnot.
338
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
April25, 1906
20
DEAR
BROTHERS:
in service.
remained
I have
Here
we
....
have
full
blossom, storks,swallows
for brother
waitingnow
his
place and
They will
is
Feliks.
Father
soon.
very
back.
come
keep us
and
tickets for
the papers
from
that
May
I don't wonder
BROTHER:
that you
....
but
ill],
such
I don't
thorns
if I had
done
with
always strewn
Work
finish
planting,we
much
Pal.
sell it,but
to
in
you
ought to
He
this; in other
life
in human
are
different
many
in
his servant
a
After
him
him
I inform
that
150
much
not
money
we
buy that
that
finally,
roubles,but he does
farm.
my
I cannot
gave
80
on
that he would
only if I had
home
at
buildingthe house.
only if I
I offered
from
not
am
will set to
Tomasz
garden.
I heard
all
trifle. But
I remain
you
he would
bear
[being
it.1
upon
field from
not
1906
so
me
to him.
flowers; there
know, probably,that
is going on in the field,
we
are
the
mischief
some
12,
wrote
presented
....
being sick,could
[you would look upon it]as
is not
Now
Kostus
why
that you,
conditions
the road
know
as
manner,
understand
so
Francisco.
WROBLEWSKI
21
DEAR
terrible
[Salutations.]
W.
[resigned]
the journey.
this!
from
you
am
for
has
looks for
photographsmade
photographs.] We know
misfortune
and
trees
potatoes,
alreadythanked
has
He
and
birds have
other
some
of the
God
and
waiting only
come
I send you
May
Later
agree.
100
near
roubles,but
could pay
expensive. I
he has.
and
back from America
Jan Gluchy came
intends to build his house in the garden near
Before he came
Stas.
sort of shack, but Filus did not
back, his wife wanted to build some
want
to give her a lot. He proposed the lot near
my garden
Now
but it was
too
you
small
bed, but
[adjacent]
1
Allusion
to
some
for her.
She
I did not
wish
incidents which
set on
was
to have
we
cannot
those to KostuS.
having father
such
sell her
neighbor so
determine, as
we
near
have
an
and
only the
WROBLEWSKI
father not
I asked
sell;I
to
has
planted it himself.
the
pond,
this
but
was
SERIES
ready to
was
339
it
pay
Filus
Later
proposed to
small for her, because
also too
be my
because
Now
to
the end
before
with
boy
from
upon
; he crawled
write you
later how
week
lives
took
to
Jozef is planting
I have
now
garden behind
into my
up
was
father
our
with Olcia
already,he
Now, as I wrote
of Stas Gembiak, and
and
It
home.
of the carnival.
small
I returned
the
I went
the fence.
my
I will
this ends.
trees
blossom
only now,
they
to walk
him
walk, because
blossomed
of
more
to
at St.
enough,and
He
from
rose
like to walk
he would
the dead.
the whole
he walks
Now
in the
day
W.
yard
WROBLEWSKI
June
DEAR
First I inform
BROTHERS:
....
....
Plonka
the basement
for the
church
new
in
In
has
well
you,
been
30,
1906
that here in
made
already;
They
on
in the
chapel as
in every
church.
church.
would
Most
It is a
of the
prove
and at the
same
themselves
are
members
brothers in America
in good circumstances.
munity
com-
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
340
Now,
in
on
Bialystok there
was
the
the city,one
Jews. Two
processionswalked around
other
Some
[Greek] orthodox.
began to fire from
persons
with
revolvers
people,but it is
and
nobody
and
killed and
wounded.
many
Next
ruined.
few
the army
the
water
be
no
In
This
it ended.
Now
looked
Jews. About
at
600
all the
streets
some
have
we
of war;
state
with
the
upon
The
to
killed
the hay
meadows, but now
is also high, and it is impossibleto mow.
stood
the
among
storm
marshes.
hay is upon
house
these shots.
by
Along
the
ours,
everywhere.
had
Yesterday we
arose
windows; whoever
stole whatever
Jews were
shops were
a
the
fired at
killed
was
the street
broke
that
said
called
was
army
procession.1 Panic
the orthodox
on
of
pogrom
will float.
In
the river
the
year
I intend
to
to
go
about
Edward
been
and
warm,
the harvest
will be
with
Cz^stochowa [on a pilgrimage]
time, but
this
know
I don't
how
early.
wife and
my
soon
come
I inform
Now
turns
necessary
farming,yet under
work.
impossibleto
them
farming is going
out
he does
Well, it
get along with the old people. Although
in short,he does everything
carts manure,
how
you
not
in this way
away
dress himself
give any
not
even
of the old
the management
must
does
man
does
He
He
give
and
his
he
money;
possiblefood.
the soonest
home.
at
on
and
possible,
it is
man
children,and
keeps everything
He
wants
to
that will
drive
probably
happen
very
soon,
"
is incessant.
because
1
he
order
said,"I
It is known
preparatory
to
to
assure
authorities.
Why
and
did
the old
the
They
sympathy
or
there
is
were
directed
least
at
the
them
nobody
provocationfrom
were
at
he wanted
But
ground because
the pogrom.
?"
they come
sell the
will
man
to come,
to work."
Russian
the Russian
passivityof
hooligans,
procession in
the
Russian
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
342
your
with
for
me
done
brought their
meanness.
it
telling
them,
to his
in such
of the farm
father,the remainder
forbidden
have
you
them
tell.
to
way
death,and
provoked
were
all,because
us
secretly."2 He
father in some
They circumvented
father willed [theland] to them
this up
robbed
have
"You
they
me;
upon
anger
that
way,
it will be
to be
divided
he will
now
as
theirs,
own
giftfrom
over
they quit boarding with father and yesterdaythey moved
happens later I will inform
Jozef Pilat,and live there. What
I hear that they plan a law-suit againstfather and
in due time.
for
indemnityfor
letter that
my
them
you
them
of my
I told him
move
he has
he
now
it."
can
search for
an
this affair.
of Feliks?
[Perhapsyou
send him
this
I remain
us
with
but
respectfully
yours,
BROTHER:
On
Feliks
chowa.
1
This
It is worth
act
us
"
man
was
making
him
with
was
seeing. I
of the old
23
"
wife
my
don't know
The
social wrong
"
is
an
enemy.
bad,
particularly
destruction
and
secrecy
day
whether
positionvery
pleasedwith his farm.
feel his
and
against me
July
....
he
opinion about
WROBLEWSKI
July
for
not
letter.]But
memorable
since
years,
the documents
24
forever
give
it,but
him, "If
he need
your
W.
DEAR
by
gave
I wrote
will concert
to
"
Please write
employment
me
now
But
He
children."
that he
intended
refuses,that he
wronged.
you
They
that father
come,
they are
so
country because
good
and
manage,
etc., and
to
have
to my
a
to
it away,
pretendedwrongs.
I wrote
the farm
took
their
to
because
to
which
1906
will remain
Edward
in Czesto-
I shall have
intention
and
such
of assuring
of getting rid of
man
did not
legallyfull right to do
the economic
27,
wrong
is added
as
WR6BLEWSKI
it
opportunityagain;
an
it is far
last,for
will grant
from
enough
the
us
miracles,or
in
the first
was
Well, it will be
more.
once
it
as
Thanks
not.
be
I inform
Now
sends
about
you
money
wants
trouble
I inform
is
He
by
its
once
Now
good
so
too
Kopciowizna
you
are
of
to be
home
know
to have
Plonka, taken
the
one
you
the
on
day
same
are
crops
and
already how
they did
it
it
her
children,and he
He
does
each
moved
to
not
the
of
house
write
I told him
other.
the
If you
willing
here with
with
about
was
he
employment.
angry
wish
I send
On
father,how
she remains
in search
about
how
"
quarreled with
Now
The
letter,you
my
directlyto her,
Now
of
210
last year
as
I inform
received
and
address
my
I don't
York
have
we
be
but
me,
of the basement
won't
New
consecrated.
was
that
you
summer
we
seeing
it at least
he sends
bad
of
worth
the
God, whether
visited
we
sums
everythingthrough
other
people'smoney
about
cemetery
Smaller
send
to
photograph,although a
now
Lord
Jan Ghichy. He is in
Not long ago he sent to
new
be
localityso renowned
that
God
to
probably also
it would
pleasesour
be in
opportunityto
time, and
But
us.
343
life.
our
and
SERIES
they
Jozef
to the old
went
Pilat.
place
anything,because
me
that such
thingsought
not
done
mention
it away
move
But
from
hires harvesters
about
that lot.
and
how
he will do the
if the old
man
with
What
us.
duchy
In such
cases
the medium
does
ought
man
in America
of relatives and
the old
the
man
but
field,
I don't know
to bed
I don't know
goes
to do ?
we
evidentlydistrusts
the
from
change it,he
not
there is in
When
farming.
whether
the
how
know
I don't
now
even
the
I ask you
abilityof
attempts
friends.
his part
equal part
beforehand, how
his wife
to exert
an
already,and
to
control
manage
over
the
the wife
are
we
money.
through
act ?
to
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
344
In
father
and
more,
to have
opinionhe ought
my
ought
the remainder
divide
to
and
nothing
yourself.
....
August
25
DEAR
BROTHER:
letter from
that
he
in the
I leave
dangerous to
you] to search
about
because
to remain
take
mean
so
must
to
has resulted ?
my
be
as
as
he.1
country
for my
promised; but he
man
And
abuses
Because
him,
he want
does
misery by
the truth
my
from
my
as
He
ought
and
life,
1
fault is it ?
known
what
work
Did
to
act
not
on
not
to slander others
consideration
and
farm
now
in such
But
get
me?
on
do.
to
if
even
so
well
farm-work
and
what
without
any
have
of the advice.
weighty because
that he
intend
you
he not know
there is
right,hi
abuse
he
whose
is
heard
But
(Introduction: "Theoretic
the advice
is the
the
what
And
[hiswife],saying
does
what
pointedout
than
tellinghim
know
to
of an
responsibility
when
his
first think
than
unfair
ought
great
to
why
if he risked it he
The
well,
believe that
sake.")
I have
fortune,still he would
to have
will be
more
the whole
he did there.
do
come
(And he [answered]:
me
openly, that it is
This
him
then to
to come,
are
even
And
fault.
everybody ought
father gave
back
come
for
ceaselessly
he writes to her
thievish manner;
pricked him,
to remain
and
I don't
now
If you
well
in America.
then to
children's
rewarded
the will.
that he
me
says
slanders me
and
all,and he continually
is somewhat
guiltyin not having given him
what
me
ought
he
us
The
what
curses
"
it here
you
Felus,though
also:
he has
meanwhile
Whatever
He
but
and
regret it later."
you
father.
he
old
with
to him
robbed
He
are
you
also received
opinion it would be
but rather [I advise
justnow,
advice.
my
I wrote
move
where
1906
know,
you
in my
in America
thoroughly lest
over
"I
your
but
27,
to search
or
away
meanness.
own
it
be
home,
work
throw
because
advice,whether
you,
I fear it may
could
you
for
don't
But
me
he
I don't
America,
to
that
me
he answered
go
to return
spring,or
back.
ask
you
mines, or
Well
Whether
unwilling to
Now
enough.
Jozef told
....
you.
is
Judge
us.
among
WRCBLEWSKI
action,for
is
him
I loved
cause.
such
But
dear
now,
to
seems
earth
to
you,
native
upon
your
some
money
to
school
As
you
Lord
again in Lapy.
have
they
there.
was
whole
Waclawa
no
The
even
I walk
from
the
rides also
begin to
soon
their
on
go
photograph.
walk; he is somewhat
worse
be
beginning, but
was
ill;but
clever,and nobody
goes
to
fields;
everything had
was
favorable.
bad
for such
We
walk
well to make
in
got 23
did not
grow
to
now
alone
one
for
so
many
we
the pasture
our
only
not
were
for which
road
Edward
father's enclosure.
about, which
a
In
season.
with
there
ones,
already
are
dry
near
but
23 young
Nobody
some
stupid; all
the others
laziness,stupidityand
Why,
Transfigurationof Our
in the
summer,
ones
worked
the
the
on
brought
time.
Edward
from
some
it.
so
during the
geese
It would
make
not
are
grew
6 geese
big enough.
to
had
the weather
They
roubles,and besides
went
more
if you
this year.
herewith
you
summer-grain
more
wagon-load
tended
of them.
once
And
he will
Now
this year;
mediocre
are
crops
places they
a
look
he
digging potatoes.
dug
home.
does not
He
but if the
money,
dry
everywhere.
send
It
above,
you
in
all grown
harvested,because
some
has been
dried up
I wrote
penny.
pleases.
opinion.
my
preferto
a
he
he
be stillbetter.
summer
him
there
been
without
even
horse; he drives
is not
foster-son,
The
has
had
rather
would
you
see
perhaps
much
that
you
the water
the young
if you
pocket it would
in your
Edward
pasture;
as
for his
this,and
what
afraid to write
even
even
country,
I inform
Now
with
cover
bark
him
do
not
be the best to do
that
to me
seems
were
am
that it would
me
it
because
brother, I
him
this,let
of
I hate
now
stranger would
even
Well, enough
345
brothers,but
like all my
meanness;
brother.
SERIES
darkness
will
are
a
make
never
so
better
thing
any-
good!
Now, since the Japanese
but I won't
relate it
to describe
you
now
know.
You
all the
without
censure.
here,because
all that
ought
papers
there is much
war,
is
going
whole
on
to subscribe
write
more
here.
would
newspapers
If you
in the country,
news
read
at least to Gazeta
truth, because
they
be
papers,
sary
neces-
surely
Swi^teczna,for
are
published
346
Up
to
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
farming alone,and
in
Sunday
and
plows, he
He
there with
was
photographed them
carts
of the
children.
my
in my
I received
BROTHER:
Now
I inform
unless any
about
that I intend
first,
you
house.
my
bought
it yet.
I do ?
circumstances
bought this
garden. As
could be done
in
some
Last
exchange, but
I could
And
year
I send
Lapy,
tower
both
say
is
Lapy
it.
upon
go
for
where
rosary,
to
me
convenient
wishes,either
one
When
Lapy
to
in the
now
I inform
not
that Roch
you
spoken with
him
to sellit.
not
the
thing
But
what
yet, but
with
to
small
the churches.
it is
Plonka;
work
my
chapel in
building now
are
or
have
we
the
I enter
One
chapelto
home
some
that he
peoplesay
brated
cele-
pretty.
very
came
in
near
evening rosary-serviceis
I have
Tomaszek,
Now
now
returningfrom
because
pots
kop [5X60] flower-
to sell.
him; but nobody wants
[tohave this lot]near the garden,
photograph. They
It is very
directions.
the
some
useful
its
short of money,
growing continuously.
you
this year,
nowhere
be very
arms.
your
often
I went
I have
also,from
at home
other,if he wanted
or
way
than
more
year
1906
29,
letter
I do
happen.
somewhat
am
it would
because
Although
to remain
to
can
WROBLEWSKI
misfortune,the bruisingof
your
unforeseen
for my
can
about
house
my
second
your
....
was
day
same
October
I learned
and
church
the
On
26
which
him
manure,
new
W.
DEAR
hear
how
But
on.
goes
work.
to
I don't
weeks
ago.
I have
capturedwhen
was
will
expensive,because
again and
Pilat.
there is
there to him
went
sold the
She
cow
on
me
nor
on
buy something
a
small
having
[Feliks],
also which
She
in
went
father before
father gave
like
things to Jozef
them, because she
sold her
swine, because
leavingfor those
she
forests.
called
That
is
WROBLEWSKI
she
just where
of
something
honest
No
an
punishthem
don't want
cursed
they have
with
done
have
would
much
347
to
before,and
ape
person
how
And
ought
SERIES
and
me,
was
altogetheran
they did.
as
She
men.
Whose
father!
ape.
fault is it ?
God
May
not
and
They think only about a fortune and money
and fasting,
anything else;they don't regardchurch-going
for it.
if
If it goes
far away.
in
Now
pogrom
as
the
like this
on
disorders
country
our
shall have
we
still go
on,
write.
papers
Now
have
we
proclaimedthat
of Warsaw
governor
state
whoever
of war;
does
localities where
the
of
state
And
subjectto court-martial.
probably,and I won't describe
It would
country and
what
that he is married.
news
not
does
not
DEAR
.
are
very
letter from
1
in the
and
his health
Perhaps on
success.
that account
r.TT
,,,
I learned
about
1907
which
the misfortune
today
and
misfortune
and
us
I learned
is
marked
handworker
I got also
you.
that you
much, and
all very
happened to
....
There
a
dismayed
news
is
somewhat
are
always
latent in all
like Wladek.
For
the character
of the
Vol. III.
There
sense
know
write.2
This
to you
the practicalattitudes.
is
[W. WROBLEWSKI]
BROTHER:
Typical expressionof
latter,see
in
happened
we
to
his native
February 24,
.
the
come
is you
about
thought sometimes
wrote
at
come
for 3 months
that
added
court-martial
general
it
be well if Kostus
brought the
has
exists whoever
war
the
not
ic
robberies,
sometimes
call to
Roch
in the winter.
water
no
sometimes
a
live
is a proverb, "Whoever
and by marrying he
comes
under
gets married
to
the influence of
a
an
largeextent
is justified
by his family-group,
additional group.
348
better,and
I learned
him
also your
letter of
other
misfortune
letter
and
that it would
have
send
chosen
If I made
cannot
get along
wanted
to draw
for
it,and
But
what
does
happened between
mind, let it be
as
anything
want
did not
do it.
you
from
take any
of it.
him
other
but
so
you
Then
remarks
[itwould
be
difficulties in
any
As
in
I have
does
Well,
never
you
either,and it is
any.
what
none.
writing that
none
benefit
father,I
pay
can
that
said,it is possible
and
will have
us
one
no
us
among
I cannot
....
were
you
neighbor. And
We
anything
should
we
which
some
quite ridiculous.
in your
bushel of corn,
is
us
But
among
a
letter
own
unless he has
difficult,
If I want
like any
it is
Today,
you.
that nobody
possible
out
that
write
not
I made
would
expected
whisky.
or
had
you
known
has
it,and
beer
idea, that
no
could have
it,and therefore
be useful
I know
to send
send
from
would
sending money.
without
singleday
also had
useful].2I had
that you
wrote
back
you
wants
You
your
condition,I
who
if I had
me,
reproaches,
your
in
keep company
some
I received
tell about
you
in such
....
to do it.
me
family.
Believe
anything, but
him;
to
came
great displeasureby my
you
were
you
to mention
not
anythinglike this ?
induced
when
reach you
his
4, in which
February
you
littleminer
photograph of
us
that
that I caused
write
that I gave
"
him
also from
only,please,let
"
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
to deliberate as
it is necessary
soon
as
about
can
we
father and
the
farm.
Now,
not
as
before.
of Lent
Jozef,he got
to live with
want
of Stas
to
Gembiak,
I have
I
am
father,but he rented
where
left my
home
married
and
he
moved
with
lodgingin
his wife.
about
He
buildingmy
W.
The
'
common
house
serving as
the first day
house
WROBLEWSKI
him.
new
is
since
employment already,and
will think
the
does
He
of
some
money
which
Antoni
owed
29.
like
hint that
Walery
was
from
profiting
the
350
PRIMARY-GROUP
Bialystoksent
also
parishionersare
church
could
Now
hope that
Kostus
he has
for
do
How
himself
or
he
care
brothers
no
Now,
trouble about
it.
are
necessityI
food-stuffs
hi
or
as
But
also
helped me
if there
than
more
yet I defend
stop and
once
dried
go
to
he
And
because
he went
he
to
go
to
Ziencinki.
for
That
is nice,what
said,
If you
brother
has
altar and
only since
the weather
work.
Jozef has
If the weather
progress;
go
to
to offer
make
be.
not
to
and
he
with
railway
there
to
go
why
for.
It
his faults.
and you
put your
your
nothing
was
us
among
Narew
him
some
his whole
amend
giftto God
peace
But
with
he is doing!
his eyes
Lapy by the
Somebody asked
said there
He
church-festival
repent and
want
it may
whomever
here for
came
directlyfrom
Jablonowo.
came
devilish not
"
because
by preparing mortar.
the work would
rapidly,
in
I learned
more,
did
pieceafter
advances
to other
then
somebody preparingmortar
were
Now,
yourself any
myself againstpoverty
well to do it now,
often
the walls
good and
were
7, 1907
either in
interest,
and
now
building,the work
be very
I must
favorable,but
least the
at
since he sells
as
to my
as
It would
St. Michael.
give me
field to sow,
Now
can.
that
once
ask father to
can
our
WR6BLEWSKI
that
to
as
for
more
October
....
does
Why
perhaps remember
29
is
Is there any
live there?
Does
could
leg?
your
you
us
He
country ?
our
about
brother, how
dear
father and
before winter.
mention
never
hurry about
will recover?
you
father and
in
be covered
I ask you,
In
roubles.
100
not
ORGANIZATION
remember
forgotthis for
that your
offeringdown
brother,"or
he does
it is
Because
in
not
near
the
general with
want
to .see,
his father.
only his brother,but even
Perhaps he will yet change
his mind, but I doubt it,because in his letters to Jablonowo he wrote
not
againstfather
only curses
Now
to
as
to
our
and
father,you
against me.
wrote
that Kostus
advises him
to come
with him.
WROBLEWSKI
This
that he would
know
himself
to work
he part with
I have
Although
be.
won't
not
And
go.
his
on
not
351
it,I
why should he
his
praisefor having
taken
but he
of you,
care
give him
could
farm, we
SERIES
P1
Kostus
work
might
can
deserves
himself hi
as
"
receive there
would
you
only 5,
and
it is
moreover
send 5,
you
money
we
",
TTT
W.
WROBLEWSKI
N6vember
30
DEAR
....
building.
I have
for winter.
I pass
the
to
rather
bitch,so
did not
to
mention
banns
When
fortune.
of
anything
to
their
us, but
on
the
father.
our
All Saints'
Day,
policemancome
law-suit.
who
testify
dry
[money] for
it
for
to
We
wants
the
and
she throws
and
drew
her windows.3
to
this
the
somebody
begged
our
refused
me;
was
performed.
We
did not
know
to
not
she had
there will be
no
witnesses
to
priestto dissuade
6, the wedding
the
her windows
broke
and
not
tried to
persuade her
I also
profitout
we
he
suspicionupon
verbal process,
children
heard
we
But
marry.
father from
man
that
banns, he did
tried also to
this time
how
wife
Her
us.
secretly. When
not
up
father
dear
our
About
the
be made
to
went
broke
plowing in
took
He
did
that
in order to rob
came
father gave
father,we
our
she
from
our
you
my
work
[widow of Franciszek]Pilat,that
Franciszkowa
speak,because
I end here my
is clear and
autumn
I inform
news.
about
arrangements
some
The
and
10, 1907
you
there is yet
and
[ironical]
got married
Klimusia, or
is near,
winter, and
before
the house
Now
winter
because
field to be done
around
inform
Now
BROTHERS:
....
of
difficult to get
so
the old
ber
Novem-
anythingabout
or
PRIMARY-GROUP
352
it,but
it.
On
the
new
the old
saw
the very
day
couple and
: They
[proverbial
and
evade
time,but "Promise
and
us
us
will turn
did not
also.
We
and
cultivate,
So he got rid of
he do it black
get it.
upon
ourselves,
cunning [avaricious]
She is a
marriage almost
father
Of course,
I wrote
you
his eyes
meanness.
to
to
go
one
except Feliks,because
we
that he
in
was
that he had
leave
with
matter
there
was
for
for 4
his
That
?
.
news
which
more
than
expectedfrom
with
once,
stubborn
then
alone, then
to us
and
with
tried to
I have
in words
'Expression
things secret"
peasant family
but
sown,
of
the
is clearlya
no
member
have
We
to make
refuses to do
he
jumped around
him
I don't
know
how
us;
him
only
with the
he
sow,
to
priest,
took
wildly,like
I intend
the
division of the
some
Szalajdy to
will.
[written]
1908
called upon
anything for
called upon
the field in
25,
waitingfor
was
frightenus;
gives us
father.
nothing. We
and
write,as
Jozef,asking him
he refuses
his Klimusia
our
WROBLEWSKI
March
31
I did not
is also
.x
W.
....
went
our
BROTHERS:
it
family and
days and
weeks.
how
with
Jablonowo
He
.us.
among
is the
from
things secret
He
it,we
white [in
only about
not
care
for this
us
be satisfied with
won't
we
not
to leave
show
DEAR
their heels
to
that he could
saw
to
face of
out.
already.
that
it went
lots to
guessed
good morning
say
man
in the
old woman,
to will
can
we
for you
toy";
lest Klimusia
you,
old
Uskowizna.
is a child's
stronglyas
as
for
writing],
violence.
and
church, and
that
so
to
the
Jozef to
felt it deeply.].The
the riverside
will insist
with
went
we
from
back
greeted them
we
promised
for himself
coming
man
next
ORGANIZATION
an
a
but
ax
man.
mad-
Jozef
myself to harvest
it will be
later.
Jozef
have
any
secret
from
people
proves
other members;
there
are
no
purelypersonalmatters.
2
the
with
personalstandpoint.
the familial,
WR6BLEWSKI
advises
this,but it seems
to do even
not
me
will sell
he
would
not
Trusie
[the stepmother'sfamily]away
had
speak; if he
to
if his
children
own
dear
not
are
to
be
bad,
but
gave,
also drove
We
we
the
father's
Now
at
would
newspapers
be described.
spitupon
all this,
let him
to waste
be
all
it;
waste
for
him, only strange children,
to
strangers.
At
from
of Fortus
son
father with
under
from
write,whole
is determined
readily.
more
necessary;
this,so
to
that would
me
saying that he
familyalready.
be much
would
There
often.
353
to
afterwards
himself
justify
take, and
SERIES
the
his Klimusia
hedge.
The
was
next
left out.
Although
Gozdziki, but we were
he always keeps away
father [in my
invitations],
from
overlooked
never
from
from
as
us,
enemies.
23 in the
March
to
village
Somachy
Porowskis.
"They found
the
Porowski
attacked
revolver-shots,
they wounded
family,they
knows
next
saw
took
where.
This
I made
after
from
The
the
They
head
members
find and
and
of the
fled,nobody
The
frightened everybody.
the house
of
and
Porowski, and
have
I learned
about
Matyski
to
grants health,we
home.
on
the other
evening
....
frames
God
blow
could
they
in the
came
family at
a
bound
terrible incident
coming
window
with
and
this accident
the whole
killed him
and
of robbers
a score
been
in the
spoileda
near
spring,if
the house.
Work
[3
approaches, and there is nobody to help. Although Michalek
of his
years old]promisesto help,stillI don't believe in the efficiency
help.
him
the
grosz
to
Lord
God
1
The
about
something more
poor.
He
asked
let your
him.
Mother
why
order
pray
recover."1
Now
foster-father in America
magicians
"
bearers
of
either
beneficent
of God
personifications
divine power
"
or
give a
that he may
tales most
laid upon
at
or
our
he
act.
religious
of the saints,
or
least instruments
In
good
of the
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
354
asks
often,"Has
very
good health,himself
pretty well
The
Jozefa as well.
and
already.
foster-father recovered
my
Edward
latter
school in
to
goes
He
yet?"
read
can
WROBLEWSKI
May
32
DEAR
first about
Lord
health,that
our
God
the
health; for
in rather bad
work
Highest,and
much.
She
strengthto work.
wish you
we
than
more
cannot
all in
are
we
the
also
you
Only
same.
today
our
wife is
my
able to
she
medicine
no
to
been
either; therefore
coughs incessantlyand
She
8, 1908
good health,thanks
year
much
eat
inform
always, I
As
BROTHERS:
book
Lapy
W.
....
is in
has
no
help
can
her
We
"
"
divinity. The
function of the
almsgivinghas
beggar is to
and
pray,
not
only his
but also
prayer,
acter
charmagical importance, compels the divinity. This religious
of beggary is shown
beggars in
towns
around
stay
the
meeting-datesand -places
of beggars, that "miraculous"
Cz^stochowa are the main centers of
be
accounted
for
This
beggary.
partlyby the fact that hi these placesand
may
these dates the largestcrowds gather, but this does not explainit completely.
on
The peasant gives alms more
frequentlyto the beggar before the church than to
the street; more
the beggar upon
frequentlyduring a parish festival than on an
in a miraculous localitythan in an ordinary church.
ordinary day, more
frequently
placeslike
This
is evidently because
prayers
and
of his mediation
to the sacredness
that which
than
the religiouscharacter
determines
one
on
before
the value of
week
ordinary Sunday, in
God
the
a
day, during
the saints,increase
and
The
place.
A
mass.
mass
proportion
is exactly the
principle
said
parishfestival
miraculous
in
on
of his
same
valuable
more
valuable
than
in
than
as
able
valu-
Sunday is more
on
an
ordinary
locality
character of the beggar is proved by the conditions
locality. Further, the religious
a
more
an
the
or
requiredfor the acknowledgment of his occupation. Only the old man
cripplecan be a proper beggar, not because of any consideration of social utility,
less consciously
these features are considered the marks
but because more
or
by
The proofthat no utilitarian reflections
which God destined them to this function.
though less able to work, do not enjoy so full an
play here any r61e is,that women,
of
their
function
the men.
The woman,
indeed, can
as
acknowledgment
begging
of the congregation or a divinity(saint),
but not a priest,
mediary
interbe a member
an
both.
The
women
beggars are, on
witches.
mischievous, magical character
between
bearers
of
the
"
popular stories.
contrary,
The
often
the
religiouscharacter
(Cf. No.
261, note.)
WROBLEWSKI
springdoes
the
today, and
Some
in
feeding
Moreover
they froze
but
in the barns.
my
house
new
today to
even
building;
something
to
old
my
and
father
our
for]is wasted
keep
few hot-beds
fortune
our
"
in vain.
garden at home,
But
out
runs
the
what
"
care
of
can
be
do
all [what
know
whether
spent, no
needed
so
will
that
you
could
extricate
to
time, and
much
father
has
money
I mentioned
At
bring a law-suit.
by shifts and
himself
which
the money
bargaining. When
me
29"
seen
I got from
end ; he told
not
be
can
worked
WROBLEWSKI
all the
Although
recover.
he talked without
that he
she
improvement
I inform
Now
wife is unwell
My
....
feels
now
June
BROTHERS:
one
33
DEAR
to ?
have
we
have
only had
they amount
after
of this
I should
in different ways;
us
can
I could
Lapy, if
from
what
now
because
I cannot
W.
been
and
....
commenced.
thingsare
themselves
seeinghow
at
to look
us
don't
hay.
no
unfavorably.
on
goes
barns
my
better,for
on
employment, but
if I could
These
to sell.
it will go
many
so
....
oppressedinside
among
Everything
perhaps
blossoming.
....
to the
move
of
debt],because
return
think
[day]
fields are
my
....
to
I wasted
all sides.
St. Stanislaus
There
was
stock; everything is empty.
flooded the potatoes in early spring
my
water
afterward
Now
from
blows
don't
blossomed
had
the orchards
ago
and
stillblack
are
355
have
favorably. We
progress
the trees
years
Cold wind
not
SERIES
he
last he
paid
it,
saw
it back.
what
That
money.
is the way
Stas
Laba
on
with
selling
anything,for
which
surelyfellinto
borrowed,if he had no
money
it goes
or
not
us.
And
he could have
borrowed
from
him.
100
paid
roubles
But
this
of Klimusia.
356
PRIMARY-GROUP
he would
a
also have
lot for
got
roubles;
100
roubles,but
100
ORGANIZATION
not
remonstrate
rids
about
upon
and
The
broke
the
from
and
Jozef came
back
and
more
as
which
if for
recover
now
rich from
which
not
he is
no
it,seeing how
he think
his
give us
not
wants
helphim
of the
this sorrow!
In the
I have
spent all my
family]also
of the
house
E.
already,that
granary
and
barn
they remain.
I know
how
much
alreadywith
but if God
be done.
adorned
be
moved,
must
There
work
will be
The
it costs
all Ziencinki
much
in
to build a house
building
worst
health,with
us
house;
with
it will be very
work
the
1908
grants
because
22,
about
you
People praisemy
I have
J. M.,
Wroblewskis
the granary
move
money;
painseverything will
said
to
One
grow
A. A. W.
and
spring I intend
we
and
us
[Sends a photograph
First I inform
covered
from
shall
What
profitfrom
....
house, that it is
there
now
griefand
WROBLEWSKI
BROTHERS:
to
this
of his
buildingand
dying
November
is stillmuch
am
fortune,
lucky,for
was
were
34
of my
to claim
not
us
that it
strange people
labor.
of other members
[initials
DEAR
are
we
in this way
of this
more
our
act
be best to
W.
said that
Does
if you
even
people not
there be
the fruit of
I told him
care
Perhaps it would
bear
cannot
him, and he
time, but
do other
possible!Let
does
the wood
he wastes
father would
hunger. Why
do
after
us
joke [solittle].But
dear
our
to
He
that he
so
wrested
man
roubles?"
too
live better?
justlybelongs to
[our own
money] until
old
The
was.
yoke
there at that
work
my
which
from
it
told how
and
They almost
his
and
not
was
to
yoke [forcarryingbuckets]
forward
Jozef went
so.
brandished
man
they separated.
so
"Why
may
old
fortune
says
dear father
our
time.
same
the
Jozef with
him,
bad.
pole.
the
Everybody
this way
In
father,for wasting
sold somewhere
for 300.
one
400.
of it at
big a
so
us
he could have
or
moving
and
many
is that
some
have
The
it
inconvenient
them.
to do
Now
everything
358
PRIMARY-GROUP
As
have
I wrote
beg you,
that
if you
I should
it for me,
because
the
moving
and
lend
borrow
I must
36
how
wrote
Jozef had
be
buy giftsfor
that time.
don't know
health.
she
once
If
could
2, 1909
which
you
according
it.
to
were
it
was
shall be able
Meanwhile
that
you
how
we
much
now,
which
sent
you
useful to
very
perhaps to
remain
we
I, Olcia and
"
indebted
us
our
prove
and
to you
more.
did not
we
very
hope
18 at which
permits,we
way.
you
it.
32
....
I inform
Christmas
paid
it to you.
January
you
If God
all thank
he
acted
we
WROBLEWSKI
letter in
the
and
children
my
some
send
on
I thank
Now
Now
we
for which
celebrated
was
roubles
80
difficult to send
somewhat
gratitudein
we
those
use
Jozef.
at
....
suit made
America
which
to
received
BROTHERS:
bank.
cash
February
DEAR
In
now.
somewhere
cannot
100
So, dear
though
W.
to
about
[thismoney].
me
But
of the barns
situation.
it is difficultfor you
for
not
to
soon
do
obligedto ask
I shall be
case
bad
very
moving
probably
But
can.
obliged to borrow
the
could
you
in
now
am
shall be
and
money
brothers,perhaps
I
already,I
you
spent all my
roubles when
ORGANIZATION
my
expect her
long it
will
only move
wife
to live
will
here to the
from
never
new
have
more
house
[before
dies].
1
This
of
anticipation
in
Death
is
normal phenomenon
perfectly
in the naturalistic,
but hi the sentimental
predeterminedsocial and
it has
It has
sense.
religious
meaning,
so
not
only
established
perfectly
and
reaction toward
narrow
field of
69.)
would
(Cf. Introduction:
make
connection
of death
"ReligiousAttitudes,"and
note
and
to
WROBLEWSKI
Springwill come,
to
it away,
great task
to accomplish.
everythingout of this place before the sowingorder that nothing except the ground may
be left here.
in
I want
359
to clear
I want
season,
and
SERIES
the
move
barns,to
somebody
to
who
will take
to
these which
and
nor
ready either;there are neither ceilings
floors,
also not quite ready. But if I can. prepare
the middle-walls are
at
house
new
least
is not
for summer,
room
one
can
we
And
I have
There
of the carnival
the end
from
expenses
now
if God
But
on.
and
move,
stillthreshingenough up
will be much
allows
everythingbetter
neighborhood,with this
that
everything,
and
had
have
clear:
not
were
"It
of the
could
we
some,
would
many
about
the
[adjacent]
and
street
enumerate
weddings
the end
because
if there
even
neither
are
and
here,but of which I
winter is steady,cold and good sledge-
I cannot
The
enough
work
to
to
us
barns
we
be
not
and
visits,
nor
carnival
not
is
probably there
[Meaning
ourselves.
amuse
And
approaching.
should
suitable,"or, "We
not
be
able."]
W.
March
37
DEAR
BROTHERS
Sunday
I
....
Antos.
God
for
post-office
the
once
What
is
misfortunes
and
paper
puttingus
the test.
to
people? Still we
"Oh
Lord, here
you.
I went
I received
the two
you
know
cut
that
me,
our
here
Lord
the Lord
took
the
other!
For, as it is said,"Whom
bears them meekly, becomes
for
our
sins
or
burn
God
me,
in
inflicted upon
he became
away,
but
for the
happy."
it is said:
eternitypardon
St.
Job such
lazar,and yet
blessed
Evidently
God loves,
sins of other
God, because
to the will of
submit
must
after
one
came
Lord
the
Kostus,
I knew
and
He
And
I thank
for which
letters,
sad
your
dear brother
you,
1909
from
by the writing that they were
you,
for
I was
had at once
not mistaken
a bad
foreboding
I found
about the breaking of the legs of
such terrible news
letters at
and
to
First I inform
21,
W.
be His
he
name."
me."
terrible
said:
"The
For
what
360
PRIMARY-GROUP
have
we
from
our
of
our
Lord
the latter
own
God.1
And
stillanother
great
Hardly did
brother
our
only
her bed.
for the
from
now
this,for
her
like
Twice
eyes.
I must
now
I must
am
wife.
only
I
am
owe
planning now
am
It will
stands.
And
alone.
to
requirework
this makes
to send
[my
reward
and
where
will
[my
leave them
for my
Write
with
now,
money
shall have
and
But
be]
that
children
and
now
go
barns
to
where
the
workmen, because
do
I build
this
bury
to
it is difficult to do
I shall live my
Everything is
will
said Christ
spring,and
dear
1
to
This
our
I remain
Lord
world
to
in
in
his
will
and
rejoice,
disciples.And
the
heavy
world
sorrow
so
you
it
rejoicesat
will
weep,"
happened
the
with
coming of
of
person
me.
"The
everything
because
me,
31, 1909
Jesus Christus!"
BROTHERS:
DEAR
how
I don't know
March
be
if
nothing. Perhaps
last years
38
"Praised
do it
I cannot
here ?
own
house
new
everythingas
W.
No.
already to
[money].
him
time
sad, and
very
money
Surely I
sorrowful,for
me
children's property.
my
the
move
upon
so
short
soon
so
alreadywe
stillgreater debt
very
....
try
look
we
we
contract
My
skeleton,and
I do ?
can
home.
autumn
there remains
now
the sickness of my
buildingand
up
another, one
in my
on
since
God, and
what
if it is necessary,
needs, and
it goes
now
dried
But
But
sides.
two
way
few
Antoni, and
brother
about
misery when
one
and
Lord
long ago.
think
live,we
same
has
our
takes
brother's misfortune.
our
when
time
of
out
years,
She
besides
sorrow
In the
is if God
man
him.
get
befell him.
still,
health,everything is
for
misery
the worst
from
and
Fortune
Nothing.
[health]away
I have
worse
ORGANIZATION
There
are
few
mystical subordination
to
Cugowski series,
WR6BLEWSKI
March
On
died Anna
31
wife.
God
brother.2
him
unto
of
when
he
further life.
gets
left as
now
the
as
Lord
our
ice,
to be
not
bad,
I will
before intended
with
it will be
perhaps somewhat
with the
garden
Now
When
I refer to
wife
my
difficult
now
end
sick neither
was
that I
is
if God
also.
brother
our
children
my
what
was
of living.
possibility
disposedhe is toward us all.
showed
his Klimusia
nor
selves,
themAll
they did
[him]. That
renounced
1
us
The
not
is
God
good father!
also,because
notice.
he would
The
funeral
disowned
not
speech,the
second
us,
to honor
come
is evidentlyimitated.
of the beginning of
has
He
call.
burial,although I asked
come
am
belongs to
and
way,
in
better
he
some
are
we
well
father,how
our
It is true
his
do
we
We
give us
will live.
with
When
better.
this will
and
wife.3
my
is the condition
that if
perhaps keep
to
life.
grieve about
us
us.
live in
can
could
we
in such
be true
us
everythingthere
because
....
are
Now, although we
will grant
God
let
of eternal
not
my
befell you,
hope that he
him
by
which
what
there is a
support with
some
this world
crown
can,
you
misery, let
grants them
of
me
of this
out
will find
if upon
give us the
will
He
leavingof
health,whether
Perhaps
good health he
Gonsowska, having
the misfortune
to a
Kostus, write
is his
Antoni, how
And
indeed
us
death, and
brother
Dear
of the
news
grieved about
puts
our
Wroblewska, born
the sad
stillmore
am
361
today
you
SERIES
The
part is
he
but
Him
has
in the
firstpart reminds
typicalofficialdeath
man
With
brother
would
creates
or
(Cf. No.
note.)
35,
This
feelingof
the Polish
that to husband
frequent, were
of interests which
explainsthe
or
peasant,
an
wife is not
it not
an
attachment
to
exception. It
strengthens the
mere
sentimental
the husband
or
wife
This hint of
stronger than
the
personalsentiment
to
his wife.
new
and
marriage connection.
one
in No.
43
are
the only
ones
made
362
Holy
most
Sacrament.
believe it ?
him
that
wind
so
The
waved
least
at
saw
it for almost
But
muttered
He
send
even
for the
wishes
you
that
DEAR
WROBLEWSKI
alone
and
moved
built
floors
ceilingsand
winter.
in
the
The
sties are
to make
brothers-in-law
make
before
he
came
to
if I make
fence from
whether
and
help;
has here
He
no
it
to
the
opportunity
My
you
He
at any
rate
too
now
bought
ours,
not
much
behind
shall
we
cross
but
Now
....
luck also.
Before
plant flowers
1
This is
Pentecost
in his
garden.
was
I inform
relative not
it and
I don't
then
know
WROBLEWSKI
you
13, 1909
that I had
some
I did not
to
from
us
invited
assist at
too
the barns
June
40
BROTHERS:
and
no
a
at once
W.
DEAR
have
stripnear
not
refuse,but
shall
we
to drive
way
the road-side.
....
gate-way
everything. Now
Plaksa.
it
cross
barns
he did not
....
I will
no
both
I put
now;
will send
are
before
If I have
chimney and
some
done
the
the
I made
them
at once,
good
very
house, I
for
had
we
disputewith Kazimierz
littleroom
and
....
of the field
come
house
away,
Although there
between
of the
helped me
his mind
up
edge
photograph
and
the
cleared
house
new
buildingslook
the
on
place; everything is
shall move,
here
....
live here
we
we
farm
My
because
house
new
bare
on
there;
are
the
to
move
16, 1909
Holidays [Pentecost]we
the Green
In
BROTHERS:
to
be
me
or
on
holidays
May
stoves
the
will not
they
39
barns
I told
something, and
W.
stands
can
when
approaching merry
I know
Resurrection,because
intend
who
know.
did not
[mourning]banner
the
days.
two
know.
Lord's
merry
alone
villageknew, he
whole
it ended
our
He
perhaps he
I cannot
of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of.
mem
WROBLEWSKI
of my
work
going
was
the
carriage.
me
We
ran
the
them
the
he had to
give what
I wanted.
road
had
he
him
I gave
Pilat
to
give me
my
road
bed
the old
house
the
bad
place there
for
borrowed
and
roubles for it
exactly as
for the
moving
minors
who
rather
I did
I have
praisingme
and
be
that
I shall
I live
the barns
road.
in
as
look
good
and
....
there
people
small
bought
do
to
The
house
bee-hives
of
and
veranda;
other side-wall
7
about
two
upon
windows
and
ordinarywindows
rear
big ones
near
of
it;
by
also two
the
wind,
windows.
in the
gether
Alto-
[News
the door
weather.]
[Two letters,dated
house, the
minute
my
in
W.
new
all
"
turned
vanes
in the
and
the
have
fruit trees
few
still
already
are
The
manor.
had
this
fourth
70
therefore,the
have
this year;
it
paid
it,because
want
also.
from
cross
had
ridiculous;he
"common"
bought
He
property;
now
be his
that I would
order, but
proper
gate
had
considered
It looks
it.
in
the
Pilat's
to
bought.
want
saying
look bad
well
he
everything
and
idea
I did not
But
not
old
He
have
[in
part
not
opposite the
he would
was
keep what
and
me
does not
have
his house
expensive.
combination
proposed
before
then
enough
my
rather
"
is
56 roubles
he barked
Though
common.
hillside
to
up
had
He
it is
the
near
grown
grant
I had
some
anything, because
it for
God
without
him
pain. May
are
with
us
have
Upon
I sold
me
weeks
else it will be
or
directlyback, because
Kazimierz
Piotr
took
leg. Three
my
without
left
brother-in-law
from
he
overturned
upon
house
trace
no
more,
man
priest'scoach-
....
hay-harvest,
new
the
and
walk
cannot
the work
and
priest'ssister,
away
terrible blow
livingin the
I gave
much
the
bring
to
mare
before
recover
nothing
of
I got
finished
363
....
are
and
the
and
passed
to
Lapy
to
Suddenly
home.
I had
When
own.
SERIES
transfer
descriptionof
new
May
of
16,
the
and
June
barns,
house, etc.]
an
exchange
of
moving
land
with
W.
into
the
Plaksa,
364
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
September
41
DEAR
BROTHERS
I had
waited
Kostus
has
carried
half of it!
these
are
know
how
There
in
probably about
than
it will
If it
her.
alreadyinstigating
do
with
the
because
other
death
that when
there
would
would
be
be
it will be.
To
anywhere
into
leave these
if it were
remain
alone with
the world
little ones
at least
have
his way
he
of
is in
be
can
this farm
how
be bad.
To
could
farm
not
go
I
upon
without
He
for
which
there is a town
could
to
good
And
sold most
near
me
permission,but that
state
it,whether
enough
further and
manage
and
bought, in what
Kostus
there
be
can
gather money
how
The
know
I don't
along,though
asked
agricultural
products ?
before and
garden
lived,it
had
way.
to ask about
if the
better
this.
I want
good sale
possible.
before her
me
to
us,
whether
country it lies,
a
people have
any
been
about
[writing]
If she
nothing
of my
priestabout it.
situations and
property
Now
often talked
as
impossible. How
could live
one
long with
told
now
will be
There
alone ?
the
possiblein
it is not
it is.
also be
I shall
everything looked
and
so
People are
soon
would
it is now,
as
is possible. I asked
such
And
as
it and
I don't
what
be
won't
difficulty.(Peoplehave
been
house
new
terrible envy.
only half
surely she
7, and
7 morgs
know
so, I don't
happens
I built the
these
to extort
sleep. My
not
with
the
even
I have
can
And
children.
people want
Envy does
Olcia
be, because
and
much.
very
fortune,or
morgs,
even
that brother
news
pleased me
such
60
places; and
40
curious
I have
Could
you
This
big farm.
away.
are
more
the
I learned
long, and
so
bought such
almost
am
received from
:....!
29, 1909
the
town
also it is necessary
to
buy such
pay
is not
farm,
And
the rest.
far away,
to cultivate those
it
can
plants
easily.1
has bought
farm
creates
W.
WROBLEWSKI
between
the brothers
new
community
of interests and
letters
are
omitted
animated
here).
as
it
In
was
spite of the
at
the
passage
beginningof
correspondenceremains
separation.
of time, the
their
as
366
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
have
horses,one
two
calved now;
for
calves
....
old,two
6 and
I send to
which
I get 6 roubles
Lapy
I have
7! roubles,
I got
both have
cows,
monthly,
old
sheep and
and that
turtle-doves,
....
ones,
Now
there
are
new
house, Boleslaw
one,
Jan Gluchy
America,
to
is in
still have
new
where
there
there
Now
if she lived.
of debt.
be
can
new
place.
new
nothing,there it is.
was
comfortable,everybody says
pity that mine [my wife]is not
roubles
few
built
Roch
one,
it nice and
only it is a
manor,
there is nothing,and
I have
Now
one.
village;Jozef Laba
our
Gembiak
Stas
one,
new
new
Roch
and
it was
Where
in
changes
many
But
the
bad
misfortune
it looks like
that
there
and
latter would
for
that I
be
me
trifle
with
the
W.
WROBLEWSKI
April 23,
44
BROTHERS:
DEAR
....
I received
....
for [Easter]eggs,
picture-patterns
no
such
America
yet.
sent
was
sown
me
too
much
not
help.
as
we
of it.
1
An
in
are
with
you;
invent
the
have
we
anything.
called
seeds
has
"pop-corn" which
yet come
up, though it
not
her
mother!"
work
no
disorder
is work
instance
She
a
He
from
are
not
doctor,he
says
gave
medicine
"May
and
it not
women
nature
at
home,
of the
and
every
what
does
advises
be
enough for
coughs
said to me,
He
In the introduction
does different
etc.
health,prosperity,
condition.
my
good health,but
lack and
There
about
with her to
I went
there is almost
At home
more
you
since carnival.1
her to work
her
crops.] The
to
letter with
long ago.
that
I wrote
thank
we
sprang
I inform
Now
is
for which
your
1910
with
Now
moment.
will
there is
introductorynews
come
nobody
about
WR6BLEWSKI
367
SERIES
less,althoughwith difficulty;
it is indeed a misery; there is nobody either to govern
to
but now
or
I give directions and leave the house; when
I come
work at home.
The one
cannot, the other [the boy] is too
back, nothing is done.
good health,we
going on
were
or
more
W.
May
45
I thank
BROTHERS:
DEAR
somewhat
clearer to
what
letters,
at
am
there
home
absolutelystrange
reasons
we
see, there is no
to
if this idea
Even
and
sexual elements
He
average.
that
Olcia
as
His attachment
peasants.
by economic
of
men
sible
pos-
of such
sometimes
panied
accom-
are
the
degree of love
some
in
are
culable
Incal-
an
of the unlawfulness
mentions
two
is
because, as far
hardly absolutelylacking;these
were
only
me.
is less probable,
supposition
mainly determined
was
are
at
He
remarry.
such sentiments
There
itselfopenly,because
inferred.
be
can
to
to Introduce
Olcia,or his unwillingness
any
express
wish
to entertainments,ceremonies,fairs,
etc., and he had
sentimental
and
not
peasant'straditional attitude.
example of
feeling.Still,it
her.
he does
that
trouble for
the remembrance
hesitate to marry
him
your
locality
you
It is bad
much
Too
he does not
to
by
the
to
his attachment
"
element
because
why
be interestingto know
deterred
not
certainly
from
debts.
graduallygettingrid of my
is nobody to keep the house.
It would
much
it is
to eat
least I
are
Now
and in what
prices,
the
i, 1910
letter.
I learned
America.
there,what
grows
settled.
enough
about
me
for your
you
....
are
,T7
TT7
to
must
look upon
man
have
idea and
her in
new
way,
as
if we
developed,particularly
its expression
in words have
upon
woman,
remember
upon
what
and
an
the feelingsof
the peasant.
Some
death
He
in
indications
a
much
mentions
this may
have
more
can
be found
informal
personalway
been caused
of his wife.
than
Walery
for
feeling
Olcia
to will to him
was
only half-conscious.
368
PRIMARY-GROUP
what
But
would
else can
be
Now
and
better order
what
mention
all this
even
so
[my wife]were
If mine
be done ?
well,and
is in
farm
ORGANIZATION
me
rejoices
not
buildingsnice
the
about
wrote
you
living
everything
much, althoughthe
the
of
comet
Halley.
the
people also
us
moon
moves
know
miles from
50,000
does
one
harm
no
other; what damage then can the one bringto the other when
from
miles away
the earth?
of Halley moves
the comet
3,000,000
to the
sky,but
the western
live next
learn who
of
what
is
us
so
after sunset
it any
see
here at the
Perhaps you
about
had
You
it above
saw
the sun,
appointedtime,and
the equator.
nearer
we
more.
wrote
you
....
I will do
year
don't
we
now
Now
it in America?
in March
it is now;
where
I don't know
very
so
see
if
we
shall
we
good idea,
this tune
but
be
it cannot
now
Now
to
as
the machines
which
you
bought
and
which
are
so
know
has
and
more
difference
hi
it makes
pleasure in everythingand particularly
old age; you can live more
easilyto the end on your own
IlandJ
W.
[Letterof June
WROBLEWSKI
in
46
January 8, 1911
[Usual beginning.]The
BROTHERS:
DEAR
holidayspassed,we
children had great joy.
questions.The
your
the
and the
[Christmas]
pine-tree
I answer
to bring in the hay.] Now
[Difficult
decorated
to
them
of books
to
consult
map,
of reference.
by askingsomeone
measure
the
lengthof
shadow.
It does not
because
When
or, whenever
occur
possible,
by observation and experiment.
WROBLEWSKI
What
income
well, if it
pretty
be
can
afraid of
the
under
were
done,
for
not
darkness
our
also
Perkowski
angry.
and
it is not
and
pumpkin
which
upon
Now
to
as
probably be
for his
was
written:
the
autonomy
no
shop
pears
grow
than
W.
of
Kingdom
a
upon
and
is
with
to work
God
to work
helpsyou
If I had
fine,but
much
so
more
upon
of my
so
came
land
own
myselfto
if it
Even
I think
such
[themortgage],it is the
I commend
situation.
nor
upon.
to pay
....
poods,
"
will
willow
[Proverb].
always so [as this
how
it will be
upon
shop
this farm.
something
are
Poland, it
They
the autumn
In
which
of the
instruction].
opened
"Village-gardenerW.
than
sooner
Roman
Lapy"
prosper
Jews?
going badly.
weighed more
....
him
I gave
the
to
go
in
It would
[lack of
The
year.
Association
the expenses.
peoplepreferto
in his house
''Consumers
name
covers
scarcely
if
369
is Kazimierz
village-elder
shop in Lapy
but the
exists,
SERIES
most
it is also
farm.
If
Lord
our
pieceof
sure
bread.
to
agreeable
in
am
feel
bad
inheritance
heirs]. The
of the
worst
the affairs
manage
what
hi
another
think it a
freely. Even
would
man
is that my
do in my
I did not
pitythat
hands
now
I do
situation
go earlier to
Now
tied,so that
much, for
WALERY
stork's nest
fell down
last summer;
I cannot
I don't
know
[probablyless]. Now
America;
difficult
The
are
it was
at
present it is too
WROBLEWSKI
rotten
with rains.
March
15,
there is none.
47
DEAR
weather
BROTHERS:
news.]
Now
as
farm
and
the
Pope,
gave
an
PRIMARY-GROUP
370
does not
we
happen
eat
can
to be
the
On
meat.
than
ORGANIZATION
of
eve
all the
holidayor quarterlyfast-day,
some
eat
can
meat,
all the
On
more
once.
the whole
publishit;only when
to
habit
proclaimedit.
it secret
keep
they
meat, only
about
and
Tuesdays
in Lent
Thursdays, and
Nevertheless
milk
eat
we
the other
on
days
fast
we
WROBLEWSKI
and
temporal life,
her
and
It is sad
going.
moved
been
instead of
For
to these younger
Now
because, thanks
so
to
there
are
intend
Laba
there
almost
it,we
this funeral
as
moreover,
do
can
the house
and
spring comes,
this ?
more
And
of it!
will be
nothing
can
from
me,
my
but
late wife
it
was
home,
I must
do my
is
typical. The
fasting remained
shows
old customs
after
the
as
Olcia
among
she
whole
without
modern
any
influence upon
independence of
the
And
Barwiki
and
her, but
not
was
full
peasants is very
evolution
away,
Feliks
I believe
formerlyreceived
Stalugis
wanted
to bequeath it to
of the church.
much
work,
roubles
from
Stalugis
possible,because
not
of fasting. The
matter
as
[nothing]
of
persistence
'The
us
will do
Who
60
sad
her.
without
work.
the inheritance
church,
Oh, how
back.
....
often to
went
has
farewell,not
us
much
than
more
that the
to claim
at
who
one
are
I bear
time
easilydrive poverty
more
will cost
rumors
is empty
also
we
this
bade
ones
it is to think
which
Even
painful
Olcia ended
the second
me
and
morning,our
eternity,toward
news.
sad
today
you
is left to
What
mother
to
sorrowful
painfulblow.
such
to
announce
March
Today,
16, 1912
Jesus Christus!"
be
BROTHERS:
news.
This
March
DEAR
old
Sundays, Mondays,
on
48
"Praised
the
keep
we
W.
for
impossible
fasts in
21
well shown
attitude
old.
in the
in the church's
custom
years
from
toward
communities.
the sanction
WROBLEWSKI
But
far
as
and
half-brothers
the younger
to
371
I have
as
SERIES
half-sisters
W.
May
49
BROTHERS:
DEAR
I inform
Now
housewife
new
home.
at
the house
Perkowska, from
Anna
Plonka.
her from
I took
Horko
where
is the
she
longerthe
can
one
same
as
her
buy
to
dresses
new
of interest
nothing more
a
from
the
May 7, on
good enough, although not
her.
the order
no
letter from
had
happened with
of St.
eve
home
only that
be
he grows
in
taken
WROBLEWSKI
Less
better,because
marks
have
change
Now
up
to
at
this time
is
little money
and
is somewhat
more
result.
to see
it will be
Now
something.
lazy. Perhaps
he
more
It would
will
not
improve
up
ceremonial
marriages,but
that
May
W.
2, 1912
wife
new
was
easilyfound when
again. Although my occupations
position
a
somewhere
go
when
marriage
our
Stanislaw,and there
I wrote
numerous,
easilypossibleto
long time.
is
I have
big wedding-feast
is somewhat
bad; and
very
"
better,I hope
I mention
that I had
since I took my
necessary,
more
me,
for
no
am
home
you
at
the present
August
had
are
Although
at
to
up
50
BROTHERS:
She
sewing-machines;
two
W.
DEAR
is Miss
Moreover,
enough, for
in the house.
to write.
performed on
was
And
it will be
She
old.
years
glad of it,because
am
already
soon.
terrible confusion
I have
1912
formerly lived.
than
more
Now
stock of
Her
and
becoming different,
there has been
it is
me
long ago.
was
be sold.
even
need
no
14,
that I have
you
....
W.
and
less social
importance are
and
WROBLEWSKI
always attached
of any
arrangement.
wedding
to
second
ments
announce-
PRIMARY-GROUP
372
ORGANIZATION
October
51
DEAR
BROTHERS:
Now
in Plonka
consecrated
window
have
next
of the
shown
which
rather
or
such
been
at home
it does not go
she has
as
[roubles]
every
I get 30
....
at home
and
the chancel
also with
She
the
children;
had
never
bad;
by sewing
digging,
weeding,harvesting,
for the
WROBLEWSKI
March
52
BROTHERS:
DEAR
....
there will be
write,this
then?
misery
is unavoidable
shall all
We
long enough
to
see
about
news
These
such
30
is bad
at
roubles
And
home.
be
living.
I became
farmer
clothed
I got
nor
and
as
son
my
is
calve.
Only
shod, and
family.
own
that, if God
it,for he is lazy in
hard
us, and
allowed
times.
every
Now
me
be
are
left.
don't
give
enough for
And
If I
to
not
then
she
cow;
everybody
count
saw
is no
that my
way
son
out
our
of it.
would
be
possibleto
am
live
we
shall
we
go
shall be
we
obliged to kill a
line,careless.
when
we
been
I must
we
still not
are
a
moreover
two
now
even
papers
you
monthly
earn
if
is
that
shall
way,
together,and
from
none
I have
now
the slave of my
and
get
all
Where
awful
some
misery awaits
singly,but
which
Even
terrible
later.
or
it seems
that, as the
seems
Although
ourselves and
expenses.
it
sooner
come
but
Now
soon.
very
perish probably hi
it
but
[war]. Everythinghere
somethingnew
We
wrote.
you
7, 1913
We
....
perhaps soon
see
by the
for herself
earns
W.
others,for
now
to pay
we
[More farm-news.]
etc
as
the
my
month.
have
I do not
and
one
also,but
money
from
once
for
before,and
than
it will be
roubles
150
1912
ances.]
acquaint-
....
compared with
as
than
chemise
munificent
about
church
new
villagegathered
praisedmore
all cleaner
they are
Our
ourselves
priest. Now,
have
we
year.
new
have
we
[Weather,crops, prices;news
21,
bear
it.
Wherever
at home
But
he
I don't
goes,
he becomes
he
still
PRIMARY-GROUP
374
Edward
ORGANIZATION
standing or lying,
and I, on the contrary, see him always flying. Yesterday also I saw
the first stork this year flying;surely he will bring something this
every
Such
year.
My
he
is my
luck.1
more
miserable
is not
work
enough,
lazyfellow
keeps well.
these older
childhood,and
since
and
boy
strong
because
energy,
is
Waclaw
youngest
will have
and
sees
year
even
ones
BROTHER:
I thank
you
for your
time.
It
pleased me
....
grieved me
described
you
true, but up
the
at
something about
so
you
are
to
How
times
(in this
to succeed
could
the
discover
all his
them
voluntarily.
let us
But
is
talk about
not
us
he
wishes?
going on
as
It is but
enough
hi
particularly
1
We
have
other
At
first it would
the health
instance of
an
very
The
children
this
to
what
laziness of which
have
inherited
is
interpretation
toward
and
how
he
weak
never
very
competition.
at
if we
that the
if
man
Is
everythingwith him
seem
to have
to
Let
ourselves.
we
could
say
idea of his
an
appear.
There
This
is
yes.
his children,
to
and
know
are
who
or
success.
bad
omen
belief is the
code
whole
of
be avoided.
hereditaryphysical weakness
omens
others,
certainly
try to shorten
prescriptionsas
are
sufferings.And
"
that if
nearer,
people,only about
Walery happy
danger
say
those
should
it is
long ago,
even
looked
he would
Is
look at
to
once,
here
and
you;
series of
because
not
enough, if we
one
at
sufferings
see
it
I may
than
I learned
grieved me
about
could
because
help you?
only
think that perhaps there
life),
well
of them
one
I knew
10, 1907
which pleased
letter,
and
unhappy
more
hand,
own
I could
can
first sightseem
life of every
your
situation.
truly your
unhappy
hundred
same
from
you
imminent.
was
is
WROBLEWSKI
Tuesday, December
and
in
55
DEAR
bad
at
W.
been
now
if not
Perhaps
have
clearly realized by
is usually one
peasant.
of moral
a
The
The
But
attitude
condemnation, unless
priorioutside
of any
social
WROBLEWSKI
not.
me
to be in his
ten
Americas.
or
not
about
to
his wife.
to
who
connected
say
that my
we
me,
come
I have
the
Konstanty.
shoulders.
our
I considered
made
marriage
have
know
We
To
live alone
difficult duty,
idea about
any
it.
most
condition
shrug
can
I and
you,
experiencedit can
has not
It is not because
are
Then
business.
no
me
nobody
but
happy? Certainly
somebody ordered
if
But
As
you.
seemed
much.
"
about
"
know
Feliks I don't
About
375
Marysia, in
Further, was
SERIES
is the
bad
it is far from
worst, but
being good,
Let us mention
skies,instead of brightening,
get clouded.
only one, the least important question. Every beast has its lair,
wander
about
the dog has his kennel, while we
must
strange
the
and
and
corners
depend
dream
even
about
the rest.
There
write
You
the
landlord's
kennel.
And
upon
our
own
remains
condemned
well,but
from
it is useless to
I don't know
Konstanty.
caprice,and
cannot
we
speak about
how
he succeeds.
believe that
I cannot
man
really
happy.1
I
astonished
was
whether
I had
longtime
longtime
not
to eat.
know
probablyfrom
one
and
another, "one
my
sisters would
be
when
our
us
"
question,
equal to forgettingfor
in every
brother's letters
our
your
In
Particularly
now,
our
own
reading in
forgotten you.
one's brothers
when
near
in
possibleway
ought
we
if
be united
to bear
as
us,
you
be, all of
to
And
"
we
us,
cannot
spiritually
the burden
of
[JOZEF WROBLEWSKI]
showing the nature of the peasant'spessimism.
Whenever
theoretical reflection takes the placeof action the practical
optimism of
the peasant changes into a theoretical pessimism; the less of active energy
we
find in an individual or a group, the more
pessimismprevails. (Cf. Osinski series*
No. 78, note.) But religion,
tudes
where the practical
rather than the theoretical attifar as uninfluenced by the Christian terrors
are
as
expressed,is optimistic,
1
The
of God's
*
letter is fullof
meaning
as
wrath.
A good
expressionof
the
peasant'sown
conceptionof
familial
solidarity.
376
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
56
BROTHERS:
write another
and
a
it is
to you
smaller
soon, and
week, but
every
sometimes
Is it not
true
is easier to
on
the
in
nice,but
was
together
"
he
ago,
for
"old
now
the
not
question of that
earth,or
even
the
from
the
it rained
related
simply
in their
And
thus
wife would
and
home,
own
we
he
can
a
come
and
church.
to
But
we
And
you.
if both
of you
"Odpust" means
punishment for sins
1
talked of
12
years
people
be
can
no
upon
he would
shall have
I
now
we
peasant
time
renew
back
went
at once,
each
my
there from
comes
enough
to
request
be suffered
on
earth
Hence
conscience
confess and
the identification of
excludes
If
total remission
commune
"indulgence"and
perform
"festival."
conjugal infidelity
absolutely. (Cf.
series.) Besides
it
in purgatory.
or
Kostus.
to
literally
"indulgence,"that is,partialor
to
Ignacy
way.
build
when
therefore
the
hell,"and
odpust
for him
arrange
"Dante's
hot and
and
how, about
In
of
and
when
parish-festival
same
time.
"
come.
autumnal
together
come
now,
it in fact.2
merit
true, for
it is not
were
regularly
may
I,Franciszek
come.
Franciszek
times."
back
came
promise
day.
morning
seldom
we
had
we
St. Michael's
it will be
winter,because
Wednesday
Last
in Plonka,
[parish-festival]1
course
her letters
is goingto America
village,
our
work.
weather
yearly
says
box
impediment
some
much,
came
or
I would
me
difference.
no
I shall write
change
may
cost
for
pay
myself whether
know
I don't
He
same,
America,
to
something
for if you
of letters makes
largernumber
or
It does not
doing it now.
am
probably the
wife that if I go
my
in my
I wrote
murder
and
the
wronging of
almost
WROBLEWSKI
here
for
ship-ticket,
me
have
he must
ticket,
SERIES
377
that if one
peoplesay
without
goes
200
show
ship-
50 roubles
I should
auction,and
at
leave
would
is
for work
if I don't
going, for
then, I should
$1$
earn
America
It is a
I should
is no
Kostus
And
But
son.
my
thinkingabout
be worth
not
wife and
it is worth
advice,whether
all.
like that at
not
like to have
for
day, it
pity that
piece-work,
too hard
never
JOZEF WROBLEWSKI
December
57
DEAR
BROTHERS
proved
same
of
going to
as
nobody ever
or
who
man
As to
another.
me,
I don't
....
and
whether
In
I shall be
silly
to go
during
beyond
10
years
controlling
my
work.
always have
Piece-work
PerhapsI
could
when
I had
The
real intention
your
was
the
sea
broken
far from
to
feel
have
become
impressionthat the
quite another matter.
not
the best
visit you,
would
attract
be very
me
much,
to
it insufficient.
it still and
want
about
anybody's
I should
possible,
boss considered
I
to
something bad
unaccustomed
if I worked
Even
beingfullyrecovered.
in search of bread
truth,day-work does
Now
pot
I shall be able
all,for
the
is
proverb:
then a "something,"
letter,
but such a "something" that
word, like
able at
tell the
To
the
but
beginning,
now
myself when
know
made
God
am
for
comes
stupidwho
not
I received
usually,
got
throat,headache.
sore
when
stillthink of America
for with
still,
way
was
At the moment
me.
and
you,
call it
we
while I could
which
with
true
man
shoots and
"Man
The
13, 1909
always.
find it.1
As to the news,
On
there is
piece-worksee
sad
Introduction:
"Economic
fence
Attitudes."
near
his home.
378
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
is
it
And
Stefka
news.
was
G.
of
would
but
people
if
got
for
sick,
not
was
did
not
even
been
it
We
find
and
shorter
more
zation
and
of
more
peasant
in
letters
many
ceremonial.
less
its
the
social
life
in
character;
general.
that
statement
It
is
an
mediately
the
immediate
it
shows
the
that
his
truth,
was
it
more
enough.
WROBLEWSKI
marriage-festivals
sign
left,
There
cold
was
the
leave
the
There
JOZEF
to
hours.1
tell
none.
beer
without
as
12
To
in
soul
strange
stupid
so
persons.
had
What
o'clock
10
gay
wedding
us!
pity
at
last
not
60
even
God
began
was
also
The
But
there
there
is
Szolajdy
It
for
brandy
There
man.
Advent.
festival
general
in
better
be
from
who
groom,
of
bottles
boy
evening
whole
the
Thus
only
beer,
the
an
now!
are
the
in
10
course
beloved.
were
at
honest
such
before
there
and
except
Sunday
marriage-festivals
morning,
was
married
last
the
on
he
for
pity,
marriage
progressive
are
ing
becomis
losing
individuali-
STELMACH
perfecttype
a
who
man
without
he
life,
position.In
to
tion,
instrucwith
satisfied with
perfectly
his
the peasants in
owing
some
to be
seems
is a
letters,
any
definite class-consciousness.
of country
writes these
peasant farmer,with
of Galician
indeed,but
SERIES
and
greater national
Poland.
German
freedom
and
because
Perhaps
of the
most
normal
and
interesting
varietyof the familyproblem.
We see that the Stelmach
family,except for some
slight
harmonious
remains
much
so
more
misunderstandings,
There is also
an
"
or
the Osinskis.
even
But
this does
not
mean
with
joy his
givingadvice. He welcomes
although the way
daughter-in-law,
limits himself to
unknown
379
380
PRIMARY-GROUP
in which
the
ORGANIZATION
performed
marriage was
the traditions.
He
asks his
never
for money,
son
he knows
of the
desire of the
all
although
sufficient understanding
children
other
to
contrary
was
get better
to
individual
rational
more
find
holding to tradition,we
with
the
's
in Stelmach
of the
knowledge
THE
attitude
of
Instead
American
we
find
STELMACH
J6zef
Jedrzej
}"his
sons*
Piotr
Wojtek (Wojciech)
1
Kaska
"
_
his
daughters
.
Jadwiga J
Sobek, the husband
of Kaska
Julianna (Julcia,
Julka, Ulis),the wife of J6zef
Julianna'sparents
Makar, Julianna'sbrother
Magdusia
/
Hanka
Julianna'ssisters
Stelmach
Stefanska
Jagusia Sasielska
Zoska
of Ewa
(Zosia)
(Wojtkowa)
born
stubof the
proof
conditions)has
Michal
the
Perhaps familiarity
attitude.
FAMILY
in
acknowledgment
emigration (ofwhich
of
phenomena
an
its power.
of
limitation
inevitable
others.
in many
family than
Stelmach
self-conscious
and
|his daughters
382
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
and
up
moisten
and
it is easy
sad
it with
difficult to find
good health,but
all in
are
glue
to
of the seal.
and
thief.1
condition
our
is meanwhile
little
because,as
lacking. So
the
warm,
So don't
it
it is nowhere
We
to open
it becomes
to
because
When
If it won't
and
arm.
your
you
we
the end
at
of
The
strangled
pushed her
chain
So
had
honor
cow
be
not
had
torn
had
pulledthe chain,but
cow
The
in those
sorrow
have
He
may
her horns.
with
was
we
other young
cow
gave
the
strangled.
was
it,God
had
took it away,
and
us
Walkowa
Stelmaszka
It
you.
because
was
there,and he
if you
1
old
The
him, he would
whom
the whole
the
to
or
had
this
whom
neighbors,or if the
To
if you
But
many
letter to read
from
often to
some,
very
large,extent
if there
privateletter,particularly
thought that
strong feelingof
addressed.
refusal to give
he
of
means
that there is no
e.g., the
The
and
greetingsfor
case
work
no
him
upon
The
peasants.
among
be
evidentlyused
has
man
be remembered
but it must
fellow-countrymentumbled
was
to
came
many
This
news
craze
is considered
are
was
almost
rarer
The
offense.
an
the news,
more
ThP
According
relative.
fftnr""l" '"
But
to
f^prrty th^ar^f
the
there
the relation of
group,
duties
too
many
every
claims, and
exists
solidarity
toward
ihp
dpatji Q^a_rhilH
should
principleof solidarityBorek
only secondarily
and
individual
are
aftpr
among
the group
individual;but
individual
an
received
as
have
whole
members
and
individual
the individual
of
the group
the
has
duties
as
mally
Norand
group.
a
toward
his
whole
the
The
has
another
STELMACH
don't wish to go to
farm
only we
more,
make
you
don't need
you
write you
SERIES
greet you
to write to him.
warmly.
very
May
We
won't
Lord
our
God
dear children!
our
you,
383
Your
parents,
JAN and
And
brothers
also,your
we
and
EWA
sisters,
greet
STELMACH
brother
you,
and
sister-in-law,
very warmly.
aunt
household.
new
September
59
SON:
DEAR
We
....
write
we
now
again to
and
you
before to you
wrote
to
her 50
aunt, and
to your
We
aunt.
your
before
wrote
each, and
your
aunt
have
them
[thismoney], or
here to
to collect these
give it
consul
beg
nicely,
If your
us
won't
in
will collect
aunt
instead of
givingit to
it to
So when
us.
because
they
individuals
duties
abroad.
helphim, each
to
bear
it,and
pay
we
aunt
gives
by the consul.
beg
whatever
you
very
it costs.
letter,do
receive the
as
far
as
your
both
are
with
as
your
members
each
best,because
of the
other.
same
group,
Therefore, when
give
we
not
the
measure
they
are
cut
off from
the
the burden
Raczkowski
aunt
to be real,just in the
social norm.
than
and
so
money,
to do
name
basis.
common
our
give
come
to your
If your
of attorney certified
power
will
not
mother.
your
immediately connected
are
are
cease
to
i.e.,
you
to
now
she won't
I wrote
to
crowns
100
certifyit without
aunt
your
to us,
And
crowns.
100
crowns
[toher],because
it will be lost
give[thismoney]
to
were
But
are
our
to pay
and
27, 1909
of
supportingmany
who
are
after his
in
difficult condition.
marriage.)
(Cf.
384
PRIMARY-GROUP
send
letter to you
best,that
and
and
aunt
your
Zosia
ORGANIZATION
another
give this
may
us, and
to
money
60
what
Lord
our
God
but
on
was
....
We
Here
and
Urban
has
wrote
young
STELMACH]
I did not
would
Urbanowa
married
at
in the house
once
who
Rozia
Krzysztof Zak
wife.
put it there.
100
write
Rozia
askingher
25
crowns.
these
crowns
as
dare,because
He
gift,and
A hundred
crowns
heavy payment.
of the land, and leavingthe sum
is
would
mean
disavowal
not
similar request.
of the daughter.
He
would
The
too
small
"Economic
That
to
it was
them.
part of the
comparison with
her
were
real,e.g.,
gave
also to
mother, but
to your
was
the
probable
certainlynothing but
aleatoryelement hi economic
Introduction:
triflehi
her at all
wish to omit
to
give together
intended
value
your
[Stefan-
if Stefanska
mother
received
Rozia
will
glad
crowns
this
They
your
100
ordered
But
and
[othersisters],
Zoska
be
is the
cash].
near
gulden each.
They would
Aunt
[who
put it,because
won't
now
Stefanska
Aunt
heirs in
bank, and
Maruta
Wola, and
the government
hi
the other
Jagusia and
give these
to
speak
you
of Lukaszek
worked
But
them
no
is also dead.
because
directly,
her
answer
gulden, i.e.,100
needed
our
will pay
The
have
we
field
M.], that
of L.
grandfatherhad at
ska],but finallyhe
they are to pay to
in
the
hi
money
5, 1909
village,
[the crops]. Wola
are
you
you
asking who
to us
main
make
God
May
[the daughter
see
EWA
take it away
[God's]punishment,but
glad that
very
evil.
dead
Jagusia
are
us.
any
did not
He
us.
gave
last year
to
gathered from
We
CHILDREN:
DEAR
50
not
November
....
he
do your
you,
[JAN and
to
beg
We
aunt.
to your
to
cede her
piece of land.
of this element,
Magical Attitudes."
STELMACH
[thetwo
givethem
one
to
good,
You
to
had
had
you
answered
there,but
come
him.
not
If you
until
spring.
striking
; well, that is funny !
already they don't want to
work, and now
[workmen]
that
that
us
let him
could
you
say
....
Not
....
"have
or
[son]wrote
Michal
it
But
to them.
this money
think
word; perhaps
[illegible
they
wronged"] the aunt, so she ought not give
of them.
slandered"
"have
will ask
You
inheritance.1
385
SERIES
no
are
repairedthe stable;
work, but requirea higher pay! We have now
for the horses,another for the cows.
made two stables,
one
People
we
where you are there is a big stench,the whole
say that in that town
is covered
town
smoke
with
with clouds
as
EWA
JAN and
STELMACH
January
send Michal
answer
and
If you
me.
money,
you
You
or
at
ship-ticket
never
say
well
one
for the
which
both
in the
ship-ticket,
aunt
your
sent
of them
If he
same
you.
So
to
You
if you
now
It would
you
at least
word
of
praise,that
worked
each
back
sent
it to be
it is
you
other.
then
he could work
be well if you
understand
so
at home
not, and
sometimes
you
little
them,
there to you
as
have
even
of
and
came
way
any
did not
one
least to
in Prussia
succeeds
is passed in vain.
summer
to America.
them
to
I should
whether
me
send
may
shall go.
one
to Prussia
Wojtek
to advise
you
....
30, 1910
the
back
better,on
that
side
Zosia
The
are
cousin.
upon
the
situation
the
The
own
has
of
additional
sisters of Aunt
Stelmachs'
nearness
an
interest from
personalrelations.
not
the
upon
but
family-relationship,
386
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of them.1
If you
had
taken
perhaps better
and
she does
gulden. Think
to
live and
on
well."
so
that
well.
on
her
paid,and the
But
Now
and
CHILDREN:
DEAR
did
you
think
not
that you
us,
because
evening.
there
are
this
they
parish, so
Christians.2
1
come
we
Many
send
mere
of kindness,but
of familial relations
home
money
the rest
only
for
Christmas.
you
to
This
connection
Prussia,they
cold
annoys
labor
long in the
wafers.
Although
in the
of
registers
are
you
but
Christians,
are
"
certain individualization
Indeed, by sending
by this distinction.
America
reach
to one's relatives is
sending of ship-tickets
than
the
more
so
sending of money
familial duty
be manifested
significance.A
between
an
and
we
tumbled
here, because
from
them
because
it is difficult
The
entered
are
August but
winter
from
come
consecrated
you
in
as
frequent. Not
was
to
seems
the emigrant
family-member
not
one
did
[there],
yet
this in
31, 1910
22, and
boys
send you
family.]
our
to work
brothers
adds
you,
because
pleasant,
It is explicitly
stated here that the
act
writing to
and
rise at dawn
must
also wafers
risk
we
since November
falling
children,we
Dear
now
is not
The
they will
that
them,
been
anywhere.
out
go
wrote
not
who
to you
wrote
somewhere
condition
have
snows
so
moved
have
Our
upon
and
answer,
you
to
We
....
you
STELMACH
November
....
is
will get
you
EWA
son
62
But
the whole
JAN and
Gud
hundred
advise your
from
[Greetings
be well.
paid,and
her sad.
will earn,
only
to be
of
country hi order
our
makes
can
you
in
for
brother
twelve
on
easier
debts
sister and
interest
here, you
"Sister,
come
everythingmay
The
This
been
contracted
we
to work
it is necessary
this is past.
have
to
wrote
never
how
also,it would
her, because
get
of
interest to be
72
for
not
husband
[son-in-law,
if not, then
Kaska
same
religiousvaluation
from one's
is true
own
of any
particular
importance in
old custom
of emigrants and
and
parishhas
patriotismis
value than
object of religiousor
other
this respect
wanderers
local
more
to
was
carry
attached
a
one
very
from
magical
to earth.
little earth
It
of their
STELMACH
forgetthat
don't you
As
God.
long
believe in
why
wanted
you
when
don't believe in
absolutelyto
you
to go
and
to the
Lord
our
God.1
I asked
of the Stefanskis
to
wanted
mother
your
and
us
387
to your
God, but
to answer
you
speak
you
Lord
our
from
evident
as
Christians
are
you
SERIES
and
....
at
answer
mines, whether
and
once
had
you
write
to
work
no
where
....
rather to another
move
city
JAN and EWA
63
STELMACH
March
When
CHILDREN:
DEAR
long a
time
Wolka
from
we
how
my
son
married
ran
away
son-in-law
"One
had
you
write to
and
away
run
their heads
them
in the grave
played the
in
r61e of
him.
talisman
I intended
and
buried
were
said,
thought that
of his sons-in-law
case
about
which
peasant
this peasant
daughter." Then
[tolearn]which
so
said that he
He
I knew
And
daughter.
his
from
in Wolka
Maksyn
his
how
me
write for
I asked
you.
gettingon.
was
[Maksyn] was
I said that
Wojciech Maksyn
did not
you
....
....
28, 1911
had
to
was
to
run
be put
their
far from
native village.
1
The
real
very
unity
psychological
drop the
connected
him.
who
man
has
easily,because in his
more
than they
are
dropped
changed
or
exert
real
upon
one
conscious
own
reasoning they
any
influence stronglyindividual
seem
more
the
toward
an
against the
socialistic ideals.
by the
life while
among
real necessityand
believed connected
to
Thus,
rejectedwithout
feeling,
simply because they are
rejected as incompatiblewith
behavior
dropped
many
be
may
the evolution
traditions
toward
others
various
On
individual
the
who
that he must
prepossession
were
other
has
man's
own
logically
hand, the
dropped some
dropped all
have
Sometimes
a
here.
states
explicitly
of
this prepossession,
dress,
change is sufficient to arouse
very trifling
e.g., a change
of the old way
of farming, the dropping of magical beliefs,
etc.
traditional attitudes
"
as
precisely
Stelmach
388
PRIMARY-GROUP
and
away
to
from
and
us
much
very
already to
you
advise
and
they earn
and
intends
reaches
to
you,
his work
good
well
he
when
try
as
you
then went
And
get
you,
then
the blood
there the
be His
and
the
returned
in
so
to
you
if you
and
to
grieve. And
bind
don't
much
as
as
they look
that
themselves
don't
So
nor
much
so
up
tightly,
so
grieveeither
took
the Lord
gave,
healthy
work
and
will
grief;you
illness.
nervous
where
dear
with
have
stench
no
and
gas.
of
intention
sun
The
never
that
away,
praised
shines
brightly,
healthy life is on
most
going on
farm, then
at least
JAN and
EWA
64
STELMACH
[May, 1911]
DEAR
[Thanks
CHILDREN:
....
for his
name-day.]
We
had
little
sorrow
you
have
country
our
neither
are
you
was
But
which
sick from
are
you
they
Lord
has
goodness here,because,
The
is dead.
son
when
in
name
There
move
and
him
it is strait here.
time
no
this letter
Even
women
like wasps,
is checked
little
your
will have
you
there
and
iron-factory
an
yourselfto
hi
good health
might succeed
Trenton
help against a
can
in
would
There
people in Trenton.]
you
are
you
I wrote
I
before
again,because
doctor
Commend
squeezed up
in
in
with
were
when
illness,
for
tightly,
works
Julka,don't grieve,for
no
can;
you
not
and
We
Brzyskiis now
leave
not
country there is no
our
who
those
nervous
worry.
as
from
so
of other
anything
to
to America
sick,and
you
back
come
know,
you
find
him;
wife.
Trenton, N.J.
to
does
He
home.
so
before
to
to
get information,
to
....
wanted
write
comes
there now,
written
Pittsburgh
Chudzik
If he
[Gives addresses
wages.
must
Kuba
home.
could
you
left your
our
enough.
come
wife
have
you
who
you
that
your
now
health
no
from
with
people from
are
it is not
have
you
away
move
But
daughters.
that
that
move
to
you
Trenton
of his
alreadyknow
we
pity you
which
ORGANIZATION
to go
to
because
and
which
hi
ones,
and
so
the
summer
will pass.
sent
week
three
Wojtek
Wojtek
the smaller
one
were
was
But
more
sick
he could
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
390
65
February
We
CHILDREN:
DEAR
much
so
learn
will go to
that
see
But
are
autumn
have
March
there
taken
the
to
about
grow
they
The
weep.
the
is to
be
militarycall; 206,065
The
people
Sokols
in
present.
villagesare
beginning of
war
her
"
but
will
ask, When
also
now
Jozef come
to
us
to
come
"
formerly
them,
to
absolutely
want
would
not
be homesick.
war.
But
who
you
Wolka
least
her children
and
to
cheeses
he
is
farms
The
emigrant who
reasoned
home
write
America.
to
then
two;
even
If I
war
dowry
with
enumerated
and
among
him
his son,
I would
knows
he will
Julcia'sfather.
and
has
one
little. One
man
another
said
to
gift at
whether
was
daughter
told
that
in America
as
you
go
he
become
me
farms
farmers.
And
will
never
(Cf. in this
return.
series.)
so
general among
experienceof
there
cost
fanner
well
much
send
about
pretty
on
like to have
becomes
fear of war,
had
I asked
so
who
But
respect Wr6blewski
The
the
home
people at
far.
getting
at
It is perhaps because
avert,
You
perhapsonlyafter
through him.
walk
I cannot
he
be better
if my
[married]rich,and
it may
later
or
your
few
that
that
them,
her two
....
and
told
who
called
of
one
Here
knows
stronger and
were
send
graph
photo-
you
to
Well, I
had
our
tremble
they
boys
an
in
letter and
that
wrote
do not
you
received
we
daughters. She
two
often
them
upon
Stefanska
aunt
your
of
go,
be
to
are
even
afraid that
so
called in
soldiers
for
waiting
are
they
us
among
the
In
up
to
insurrection.
reservists
kept
but
war,
fear.2
From
the
you
up, then
about
here
been
the
When
and
war
lightly,and
war
that
war
army.
country, but
from
of
afraid
so
people talk
they write
there
farm.
children
your
country
our
hi America
even
had
keep
you
when
glad that
very
if you
as
pigs,and
farm
is
pig; it
to
you
poultry and
are
....
....
23, 1913
war
an
which
undetermined
war.
upon
old,only half-
the calamities
is
then
not
on
that
account
trying
God
more
one.
every
War
Sunday
is
to
awe-inspiring
STELMACH
know
SERIES
to have
which
391
daughter come
one
greater efforts
Poland.
3, 1913,
in America
to meet
EWA
do
church.]
new
April i,
CHILDREN:
DEAR
I received
....
Wojtek
went
for the
amusement
an
[season-workin]Prussia
to
you,
the papers
....
four
whether
make
not
acquaintances from
66
received my
you
from
you
March
on
1914
I wrote
19;
letter.
it to
I wrote
you
to send
from
Write
....
answer
you,
wrote
send
to
you
because
been
lave
won't
be
.2
healthy, but
healed, and
[Weather.]
Dear
and
'russia,
id drives
others
healed, they
would
be
here in
our
glad
see
people
into the
away
"Zmijecznik" is
It is
The
manifests
arinciple"
expresslystated
as
recorded
one
and
worse
have
work,
dies,
worse.
land.
Many
of them
some
go
fled to
housesf
cost
disease,painfulbut not
particular
sick,or will die within a
seriously
case
in
cause
that it cannot
it will express
the
it
Sidor
patientwill become
itselfthrough
that
say
If the "evil
before she
you
wife of Wawrzek
very
before.1
magical remedy.
The
as
people
country it gets
of
home
comes
say
to
is called
many
Prussia.
to
vhavebeen
Turza
my
which
good health,now
America,
no
from
or
many
lusbands
now
mother
son, your
Wolka
has
if it is
but it is difficult,
because
Tow
from
mother
your
....
medicine
a
"z*mijecznik,"
me
"imijecznik,"if anybody
to
STELMACH]
in America
sons
efforts to build
Describes
America,
one
[JAN and
[Letterof May
from
our
of
be driven
itselfin
out of him.
it has taken
If hindered
in
greater harm.
materials where
a
that
we
find bad
from
Association
economic
home.
conditions
Other
in Warsaw,
cases
but it
PRIMARY-GROUP
392
living.]Dear
you
because
If
have
may
would
because
suffice,
wanted
Lord
their wishes.
God
as
[forany
he needs
misfortune],
their
live
be
to
modestly, in
So
can, that
you
wasted
have
counts
even
satisfyall
to
and
It is best to live
much
as
hour
on
millions.
waste
this world
imperfect in
insisted
black
for the
help
some
is
man
man
ORGANIZATION
satisfied he
order
that it may
when
manors
they
May
health and happiness,the best possible
grant you
as
can.
you
JAN and
EWA
our
STELMACH
67
ask
[Beginninglacking.]You
house
who
of that Ludwik
the Dawik
[visited
both
but
had
[son]Kuba
the
he married
girls].Yes,
died, and
the Ludwiks
who
whether
in
who
Dawik
called upon
in the house
Kuba
girlsof
all the
J^drzejmarried
of that Ludwik,
married
Dawik.
that
The
the
Jadwiga
others
like
are
in America
to
grandmothers. That Zoska who was
got married
[aman
from] Korowiska, and she is alwayssick. She has two children,
only she
buy
to
kind of
Dawik
her.
than
nothing more
The
who
only
she
does
milks
them;
bottle and
man
her
gave
bear
married
the
not
and
cow
her
with
this
got littlecomfort
which
money
them,
nurse
she
earned
in
America, and keeps until his death the field which she had after her
he dies,Zoska
will have the field.
mother ; only when
When
make
weak
health.
So
[farm],and this
am
if I
as
mother
your
one
so
where
we
MichaL
Wojtek
to you,
crowns
1,000
To
Jadwiga
in
3 morgs
and
ill,
willed
sit,and
crowns
1,000
make
to
were
and
buildings[contemptuously],
small
pay
had
him
two
Zra.bki. If
we
are
in
morgs
he is to
well
and
Pelka's
near
to the
1,000
to
also
has
and
Zra.bki,
keep us
to Piotr
not
field
that
had
We
mother
your
we
will.
these
end
crowns
and
to
[farm],to
get along well]
Urban's
[do not
debt,so
we
are
to work
togetherand
are
the
cause
of hard
was
drunkard
times husbands
to pay
or
and
this debt.
Perhaps
you
good-for-nothing. If external
wives may
ally
separate provision-
SERIES
STELMACH
think, the
be
don't
misery
the
throw
buy
away;
perhaps
our
country,
pig
for
and
May
as
Lord
our
Walek
God
forget
don't
America,
and
write
them
because
us,
you
but
speak
his
wife
they
don't
know
I
is alive
but
to
that
old
long
as
as
because
us,
whether
they
write
nobody
changed,
Even
two
alive
the
in
never
time,
next
died,
family
from
[Greetings
so
sons
they
the
among
older
got
misery.
children;
your
until
more
you
suffer
have
even
are
the
economize
alive.2
they
to
seasoning
and
are
we
or
killed
for
with
must
America
people
you
to
America,
bacon
work
son,
we
have
you
children,
bless
in
South
buy
we
always
as
write
and
us
envy
here
because
happy
won't
is
nothing
here
everybody
make
it is difficult
brought
So, dear
age,
when
hand,
on
[J?drzej]
he
So, dear
from
You
old
your
and
Maryla
to
for
can
you
is
but
much.
do,
we
kill, but
prices.]
[Enumerates
much
is
not
so
high
as
are
small;
pay
food
meat
did
we
to
can
Argentine.
i.e.,from
yourself,
food.1
and
because
worse,
even
able
seldom
prices
is too
you
what
very
The
to
be
because
us,
more
paid
won't
he
with
angry
be
is to
that
complained
even
as
which
sum
393
the
whole
family.]
and
JAN
complaint
This
food
buying
and
old
the
development
1
This
which
all
be
the
and
phrase
up
used
real
connection
by
toward
one
of
remains.
and
and
the
whole
farm
to
with
old
an
relations.
of
the
of
signs
are
emigration
form
the
a
of the
children
to
ceases
be
obligations
cease
to
be
of
having
feeling
but
of
him,
become
with
as
the
well
phrase
broken
sentimental
member
relations
social, and
tinuing
con-
importance
profound
The
active
toward
of
of
industrial
peasants.
nothing
an
only
whose
The
the
old
that
so
individual
family,
the
Until
fact
necessity.
it expresses
people,
man
for
the
difficulty
Galicia.
in
disclose
letter
STELMACH
peasant,
growing
the
seems
has
cloister;
other
rich
relatively
life, particularly
the
entering
from
land,
equilibrium
becomes
rest
of
economic
The
blood
prices
the
connections
family-group,
sentimental
the
high
division
forms
restores
giving
could
the
of
EWA
as
only
the
real
family
are
his
tions
obliga-
moral.
OSINSKI
In the
of
the
life of
neither
of
present series
above
interests
peasant
an
below
contains
letters of the
Of
men
should
not
written
expect
to
the
German
Thorn, in
and
emigration
disintegratingand
of
felt.
this
is
strongly
situation.
Where
old forms
has
emigration
industrial
and
everything
into account,
powerful
The
The
and
cultural
profound
her
first
who
died
the
under
some
land
simply
than
that
forty letters
of
when
probably
was
she
of
system
or
common.
money,
four
was
familial
her
but
many
Wiktorya
are
left
present
394
influence
normal
individuals
serving
pre-
exceptions.
are
of Polish
taking
and,
incomparably
mother
dictated
is the
to
her
old.
community,
case
married
years,
precisely the
is the
years
in any
from
Germany
modifying
is
lives
more
emigration.
She
name.
raised; probably
never
this influence
we
munal
com-
miles
to
is manifest,
centers
husband's
for
of life today
important personality
most
Osinska.
own
and
is
and
family
not
complete.
family, and
forty
families, and
Communities,
perfectlythe
this
But
The
less
The
existed
the
because
women.
of familial
thirty or
have
sphere
life of
season-emigration
America
to
The
interest,but
frontier,some
which
whose
by
life.
one
"
represented
dictated
modern
by
family
level,and
primitive peasant
typicalimage
peasant
localityin
or
without
not
life untouched
near
modern
the normal
not
are
is
full and
very
particularly well
are
this
course
nothing particular.
is
of the letters
most
find
we
average
nor
woman
SERIES
husband
the
Wiktorya
by her,
real
in her
proprietor
her parents,
by
But, of
this
course,
question
brought
property
first Baranowski
is
is
also
now
and,
OSltfSKI
woman
Her
"
from
son
Osiriski.
She
is
with
laborious,very religious,
for her
395
present husband,
death, her
after his
SERIES
seems
the
be
Her
with
one
husband
Antoni
strong familial,rather
to be
seems
fathers
other
some
without
than
egotistic
(cf.for example,
less
his
of will
sons
or
Markiewicz
series).
haps
egotism in a very high degree. Perdissolution of the traditional
it is a result of the partial
solidarity.Michal is reallyinterested in nothing except
his personallife;he is an egotist
in a passiveway;
he does
No. 103)but neither
not claim much
(cf Wiktorya's letter,
He
does he give much;
has real
he barely writes home.
for Jan,but no familial feelings.He has departed
friendship
His two
show
sons
further from
else in the
life as
in
groom
Aleksander
manor
anyone
house, and
his
early
earlyemigration.
"
form,
are
directed
in
practicetoward
take
ends.
egotistic
396
PRIMARY-GROUP
This
is
tendencies
and
to
the group
and
refuses
Jan Baranowski
of
partialdisintegration
is stillattached
individual
live within
to
of
frequent type
very
the
solidarity;
wants
ORGANIZATION
to
make
any
be
rather
man.
unequilibrated
He certainly
not only with
gives proofsof true generosity,
regard to his own
family his mother praiseshis good heart
the family of his wife.
but also toward
(He married the
to
seems
"
"
daughter
that
seems
(cf.No.
lack of
72).
the other
On
consideration,
as,
Frania's
marriage, and
his effort
his letters.
to
get
nothing very
point of view, it
attitude toward
one
much
as
money
toward
to
possiblefrom
matters
prejudicialfrom
is contrary
get
to
the
the
attitudes,and
for
individualistic
familial
hand, is
the other
us
of inheritance
spirit.His
stood
to be under-
familial
of attitudes
in
seems
broad
"
individualistic tendencies,
some
the
outlines
wife.
she
influenced
which
daughter, is, on
character.
This
typicalforms
psychology assumes.
harmonious
which
occasionallya
of the
Frania,
as
shows
standpoint. It
elements coexist
Jan contradictory
in
sets
of the old
then
he
different
its main
as
the
basis of familial
course,
hand,
some
Frania, on
from
only
generalthat
not
exploitedhis generosity
even
has
but
for
series.)It
that
See
Kozlowska.
of Franciszka
Her
the
is,of
disintegration
partial
contrary,
psychology
rather
is determined
in
But
the
instruction
make
her
well
as
every
other member
more
of the
munity,
com-
consciously,
398
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
service;he would
in addition
hired
in the
villageor
same
received money
have
taken
would
have
settled upon
would
parsimony would
this problem was
to live
If
on
have
many
married, in
would
he
farm.
as
Aleksander
in
dowry
some
of them
One
have
would
did, others
spiteof
the
dowries,
years,
attained almost
and
great
level.
But
work,
the
same
fundamental
advance.
been poorer
have
and
parents, taken
Of course,
bought land.
each of them
his
parents'farm,
the
returned
neighborhood;
land from
or
and
have
served
the
as
have
his
own
not
all right.
was
It
tendency that of advance.
is evident that the old organization
gave no opportunityto
advance.
At best the next
generation could attain the
this was
level of the precedinggeneration,and even
more
But
and
now
more
the
comes
new
difficult. And
organizationis requiredto
longer upon
mere
"
it is also evident
meet
the
that
problem
new
familial arrangements
but
upon
new
based
the
no
idea
to
according to
is left
spare
the tradition.
to
the cost
But
him.
Michal
of his
living;in
is
no
way
sent
the
other
to
manor
than
serve,
he
settling,
tion
emigra-
in order
to
develops a
OSINSKI
psychology,
different
knowledge, and
calculates
as
well
acquires
his only
so
useful
no
technical
is also America.
recourse
out, and
breaks
but
399
But
he
his time
SERIES
deserters,can
When
return.
in America.
littleproductiveutility
to them
gets
be of any
enough
to
in the
old
little technical
Jan, classed
nor
as
hand, Frania
he
On
the other
but
instruction,
she must
be
not
provided for
members
and
members
under
two
"
Frania
help
become
and
it would
from
the
or
The
The
others
two
parents
if
even
to
situation would
be
not
better.
In
once
they
no
They
the group
separated
are
get
late.
too
isolated from
of their children;
two
get it
or
group,
remain
to
their country.
America
more
Aleksander.
have
forever from
do
and
serious
from
which
went
and
and
to
the
traditions,
this way,
through
mis-
necessity.
THE
Antoni
FAMILY
OSINSKI
Osinski,a farmer
Aleksander
Frania
"x
? s"ns
Of Antoni
,
and
liri
Wiktorya
,
(Alos) J
(Franciszka),
daughter of Antoni
husband
Frania's
(Adas) B.,
Marysia Kozlowska, Jan's wife
Adam
.
and
Wiktorya
PRIMARY-GROUP
400
ORGANIZATION
wife
Aleksander's
Julka (Julcia),
Uncle
and
Aunt
or
Wiktorya
Antoni, their
son
(Anna, Anusia)]
'
Anneczka
70-106
Nos.
from
are
68-69
whom
to
the
to
are
authors
in Poland
Osinska
Wiktorya
from
is associated
her
to
of the husband
name
Nos.
them
inclosed
125-28
kowy
of the Polish
and
send them
parents and
I ask you
But
to her
when
farm
this
So I
(i) Shall
information:
much
(2) Shall
at
20
is over,
war
beg
you
I receive
for
I lose these
cents
value
I have
the reward
?
letter and
that these
myself
to
and
answer
to
you
which
I have
regard
your
ho
and
send
me
to have
BARANOWSKI
to
Japanese war
letters from
your
and
and
letter,
demand.
my
I send
you
parents
are
Most
7, 1914
after
....
generosity
your
These
detailed with
this
or
each
I received
myself to
keep,
for better
I should prefernot
letters,
December
it I commit
to
get
advertised
beg
69
SIR:
is
ment
advertise-
JAN
RESPECTED
perhaps
your
for
as
has
or
hospital
some
money
written
old
parents
my
who
that,as
for each
cents
20
in
it is true
they have
For
unhappy
to take
to
brother
the
the nature
letters from
100
Zwiqz-
letters from
lies wounded
or
23, 1914
to demonstrate
dear
my
whether
than
from
10
Their
in the Dziennik
has
address
more
whoever
to your
I have
people.
wife's
my
that
advertisement
your
country should
and
Frania.
he
by her mother.
129-38 from Aleksander.]
SIR:
The
signing,and
November
RESPECTED
They
to
68
in
from
are
Nos.
Michal;
from
are
with
Nos-
in America.
sons
the mother's
with
addressed.
are
as
Nos.
occasionallydictated a passage.
107-24
due
and
her
and
to
are
youth
informality
brevity
marriage she
Jan Baranowski, in
most
dictated to her
are
daughters
[68-138.
America,
.,
\ their
Frama
of them
res
the lett
very
are
good
from
t\
OSlfrSKI
SERIES
401
sister and
murdered, and
and
me
wanted
to be sent
perhaps
even
to
see
me
my
few
When
more.
of them
and
send
to
them
back
in
me
for
totality,
And
also,as I
inheritance [incash] or
remembrance.
have
to
an
calmed
wrote
farm
to
longed so
much
for
So I
beg
I want
to
in my
you
perhaps already
I wept
parents and
my
is
once
I read
to you,
brother
suffering! My
are
describe and
can
you
and
much
very
them
keep
in
I
preceding letter,
is
war
*
'
JAN BARANOWSKI
September 9,
70
"Praised
be
Jesus Christus."
I received
SON:
DEAR
healthy and
are
learned
said that
would
and
they would
die.2
But
I inform
Now
he had
ill,
alone.
The
sentiment
letters
and
dear son,
you,
be
to
are
In the
same
used
felt to be
way,
so:
of
member
does not
character
men
the
left,
of
connection
hinder
the reality
rupts
of the family hardly interThe
material
side of life
it acquireslater by antithesis
which
more
you
The
was
harvesting
When
of his claims.
father
the
rake, and
has originally
nothing of the "low"
The
to
improper and
death
[patients],
Your
manage
son, it was
evidence
as
to
women
cure
be either.
health.
our
I had
building,dear
business is not
of the sentiment.
to
about
and
to reap
men
you
crying and
them] or he
me
surelymore
are
his won't
spoiled,so
to
came
[intryingto
to the
As
it and
eyes
pains inside,and
some
I hired 3
to build.
learned
surelyspoilhis
glad that
am
got
....
that he
ago
and
letter
your
that you
weeks
two
1901
to
fightagainst death.
affairs may
in this lighta character of solemnity,
assume
trifling
practical
sanctity. Cf. Introduction:
"Religiousand Magical Attitudes."
most
almost
2
The
peasant
possibleto him
occupies the
outside
permit the
previsionand
habitudinal
of his normal
conditions
proportion between
cause
and
and
is particularly
strong with regard to the government.
everything seems
standpoint,and
Attitudes."
known
The
environment.
effect in generaldoes
given
cause.
not
This attitude
Cf. Introduction:
"Social
PRIMARY-GROUP
402
buildingstopped for
all from
sorrow,1
dead
were
you
worked
carpenter, the
In the
3d week
and
mason
such
with these
and
men
the last
on
building,cost
dear
about
day
fifth and
of
here.
were
the carpenter
sixth weeks
the
was
This
August.
alone with
father's work
Your
and
whole
work, harvest
still it won't
700, and
you
week
at
25
us
And
son
in the
worked.
men
dead
villagewere
in the fourth
And
Adam.
with
the
And
days
[new]house
sit in this
not
people in
if half of the
as
days
I could
weeks.
also.
father for
your
ORGANIZATION
for
year,
don't
we
big debts.
calf.2
dear
Now,
whether
wrote
would
I shall
keep them
dear
pay
for it.
words.
or
hire
Michalek
somebody
to
reward
also
me
and
health
you
in
any
pay
you
clothes,
your
father to wear.3
You
you
other
except
way,
rouble for my
with
do
to
to your
God
gave
what
give them
May
[reward you]
you
Jesus grant
to
son,
know
I don't
son,
me,
thank
We
with
dress.
May
by
these
our
Lord
for your
Heaven
you
not
can-
good
[WIKTORYA OSINSKA]
November
71
The
SON:
DEAR
....
....
we
remainingfurniture
except
the
roubles in
with
father drove
our
beds
Because
It would
the
and
worked
at
It is
an
inferior kind
build
to
house
horse
Clothes
or
would
cow
And
of property.
do not
the objects of
the individual.
good time
an
Cf. Introduction:
finished
us
1,000
primarilyby
"Economic
the cost
cover
house
the cow,
as
belongs
against
would
destroy
give a mortgage in order
action like that of sellinga
mortgage
To
the money.
on
consumption owned
and
valuable
It cost
the
cooking. The
All is now
But
on
the town
to
our
had
son
seem
land property.
to
him
1901
white-
of the house.
to
house
the
into
your
12,
sense,
Attitudes."
'
OSIlsrSKI
I thank
Now
SERIES
403
you
bought
you
me
I am
always remember
you with tears
very
that
are
acknowledges
good. May
everybody
you
very
in
be
America!
not
to
God
spoiled
May you
grant you
them
put
glad that
our
on
Lord
toward
God
first toward
always be good,
and
all men,
us, your
toward
God's
as
Mother,
have
you
been
OSINSKA
WlKTORYA
December
72
describe
write
you
could
condition.
littleof your
very
not
back
come
to
receiving
on
how
did not
You
if you
country
our
1901
know
not
were
we
22,
glad
were
....
write,you
why
We
SON:
BELOVED
DEAR,
but
letter,
your
to
up
Amen.2
the present.
....
then
to
even
married
[appreciated
you]
probablythey considered you a good man
So I thought
only as long as they did not profitfrom your work.3
he said the same,
and read this letter,
myself,and when Michal came
that you would have a good Christmas-gift
[inthe woman] ! We said
her.
But
to each
not
write
write
did not
write
the truth
us
[Michal and
we
your
I] spoke
She
is
to
be
got married
country and
our
only
on
women)
(particularly
the church
3
often when
going
and
as
the state
We
Shoes
to
church
put them
on
are
to
or
it you
habit
of
localities
in many
fair the peasants
only when
approaching
town.
The
treated
or
here.
to
their shoes
carry
earned
savings-bank. But
accustomed
And
Sunday.
don't
you
advise
we
parting. And moreover,
have any money
earned,send it to us, for
you
before
so
lost;we
probably not
better if you
be much
It would
parents, if you
here it won't
1
back
came
now
guessedit. Certainly
truth,stillwe
us
little money,
you,
the
us
did
you
but although
[how illhe felt],
then
even
and
in the army
were
you
moral
of things which
have
we
communal
goodness and
studied
the religiousidea.
in the Introduction:
This
is
"Religious and
Magical Attitudes."
3
The
because
they wanted
the condition
to
borrow
that he should
in generalthey have
not
money
to
him.
from
give her
When
him
unconditionally
America.
toward
to
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
404
keep it with
it from
you
and
you
steal it from
will
you
always find
will want
married.
get you
as
you,
to
friends who
will want
to borrow
and
[Greetings
army.
New-Year
wishes.]
WlKTORYA
January
73
DEAR
SON:
thank
We
us, dear
wrote
Christmas
should
holidays. I
This money
so
for
holy
Father
back."
If
remember
Lord
our
for
you,
Jesus allows
there
Year
inform
Now
whether
us
alreadybeen
in it
celebrated,whether
there
And
country.
much
as
me
as
[to write
for you
them
every
If God
The
how
do you
Describe
honestlyand
because
by those
prayers
like
America, whether
for
everything,
for
religiously,
going to bed
prayers
God.
to
are
she
Cf. Introduction:
reason
helpshim
break
grants
year
you
and
myself
dear
you,
I pray
Lord
our
rising
son,
to
become
which
member
to
you.
live in
Jesus
pen
OSINSKA
the harmony
like
you
it is difficultfor
write
mother's
shall
at all.
candle burned
is ended.
no
come
you
debts,we
our
WIKTORYA
The
that
so
are
me
day, when
festival.
when
70 roubles.
you
Year
few
country.
our
near
can
you
windows
to pay
income
are
you
as
since I cannot
long letters],.
I admonish
the New
Year.] Now
[Wishes for
this New
inform
no
Christmas
get rid of
to
to the
brought
He
once.
our
much
to
hope
we
for
your
amount
and
only expenses,
were
have
debts
our
us
8 roubles
as
at
at
here
came
owing
were
took
we
if you
back
gave
drum
creditors]
may
us
we
[toyou]: "Economize
so
[ofyour
one
them
the rest
and
merrier
to us, for we
use
Of these two
mass,
says
much
father gave
your
roubles home.
be
of
has been
carpenter,
we
you
tree
that
son,
3, 1902
....
it
OSINSKA
religiously,
of the divine
nity
commu-
him
406
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
only
does
to wait
years
not
when
go
he will be called
and
called,he will
during the
be
never
able
[and if he
third
to
return
his
to
country]
And
state
now
beg
Antoni
as
also
she loves
On
the
also and
us
are
girlcame
back
came
they invited
and
America.
But
probably shan't
in my
asked
You
cheese]. When
would
have
I send
they read
godly image
of the
have
familyI send
package
You
he sends
1
The
of tobacco
wrote
you
to your
these
and
words:
expression of the
and
marriage-relations,
at
the
mortal
Aleksander
father
OSINSKA
same
and
"
When
hi your
3
package
of cheese
from
you
work
Michal
every
receive
and
your
sends you
of
cigarettes.
he would send you.
Well,
asking,what
always the
of respect instead
time
gomdlka [small
laughed. It is true
America],but if she
token
25, 1902
So instead
sin
a
"Remember
norm
to
one.
bless you
this
small medal.
you
found
will have
you
"
it to me,
is
one
you
[a cousin going
she left
it,I would
taken
you
member
when
none
to send
me
....
that I had
They
May
home-made
was
they visited
household
75
SON:
you
there
....
WlKTORYA
DEAR
esteem
so
on
Sunday
holidays,
aunt, Antoni's parents]will go, and
place at home
my
for the
us
but
dresses,
parents
from
into such
enter
I received
to his
after Easter
nobody
to
her mother.
agreeablepeople,particularly
very
your
intend
Jesus. Then
day when
same
if all of you
as
Lord
our
joy such
if you
son,
did
only whether
dear
you,
the connection
presence
of love
as
between
of
God,
fundamental
religiouslife
ii
;
family life.
2
The
proofthat
the writ
her husband
on
one
fifth degree.
3
Both
the medals
are
image
have
Attitudes."
treated merely
magical influence.
Cf.
as
Introduction:
family-tokens,it
"Religious and
to
let the
Magical
OSIlSrSKI
and when
shall stand
we
economize
with
grave
much
as
death.
from
four whom
are
breast
God
guard
us
and
divide
it into four
If I
parts,
as
still[besides
those who
me
one, from
to every
heart.
my
love
[Wishes
greetings.]
and
[WIKTORYA
and
ANTONI
76
OSINSKI]
July 29,
SON:
DEAR
I inform
terrible storm.
thanks
dead
know
This storm
The
lasted
it rains often
long do
for those
pray
who
them
but
the
Two
and
money
one
who
brothers-in-law
another.3
May
believe too
much
in the stream.
and
trees
sink
was
to
no
kums.
this be
and
not
for
pay
rumors
the
in
to
other
him.
you,
my
to be overconfident
in
happen
America;
for
and
They
Ostrowite
for
accidents
what
away
killed
money
lesson
bad
America
how
us
even
son,
going
And
inform
priestsorder us to
[Referringto the eruption in
dear
you,
were
had
and
in, and
to
son,
for about
'in America.
men
dear
now,
America,
I inform
country.
had
you
is to
are
Martinique.] Now
our
ask
to be in
spreading,that it
are
We
intend
you
are
crops
1902
in Lasoty ?
Well, lightningstruck him
Betlejeski
his house, and beyond Rypin a man
killed.
was
for 3 hours; it lightenedcontinually.
burned
and
in 3
lightningstruck
God, without
to
do you
But
The
that
now
you
....
in
and
longer[inAmerica],
And
except
son
are
"Work
you.
dear
more,
my
Lord
our
calmlywait
Amen."1
nothing
you
take it away
could
you
send
can
divide
sudden
againsta
take
able to work
not
are
will
other words:
you
I won't
can;
you
407
judgment you
I send
Now
you
When
me.
I will
then
as
the last
before
SERIES
also
dear
himself,
even
were
man
of
one
son,
killed
not
to
friendship
[WIKTORYA]
1
standpointof
2
The
to
the familial
"The
from
verbal
rumors.
more
diately
imme-
personal
Family."
evidentlyderived
of the mother
chronicles.
The
news
is
408
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
October
77
DEAR
SON:
As
that your
as
we,
blessing. May
You
with
agree
it,if you
always live
cannot
think
lonely,so
so
parents,
your
wish, we
to your
....
27, 1902
parental
our
for you
be
can
we
inform
have
been
only
not
gladlytestifythat
child,so
from
are
you
in
willing,
everythingthat
and
of
good conduct.
OSINSKI
July 29,
DEAR
SON:
....
Sunday
We
....
with Aleksander
was
late with
are
the
at
parish festival
and
joinedthe Scapulary Fraternity,3
harvested.
we
We
The
by making
them
in
us, dear
son,
share
wrote
her parents
are
thus taken
June
in
and
to take a
at
had
at
on
for he
time,
no
father
once
maid-servant,
into the
once
but
Obory,
family-group
object is the
the
1903
answer
week-days we
on
the
later
so
can
village,
ANTONI
and
78
for
be
they can
that it will be
guarantee
we
all the
but
we,
wife that
to us, obedient
expected from
And
on.
Lord
our
family.
The
The
that
presupposition
which
presupposition
same
he does not
3
know
whose
Religiousfraternities
mediaeval
traditions.
first exists
The
but
are
They
mainly
the originof
allows
man
is
guaranty
in America
man
to
of his character.
bring over
girlwhom
family he knows.
a
very
of two
are
in towns,
old institution;we
and
types
"
with
developsmutual
find them
and
in the earliest
without
insurance
social end.
(sickness,burial
occasion
for mutual
individual.
and
The
perform
members
determined
they
carry
feretories
according
their adoration
"
to
during solemn
of the church
[moving
a
gather periodicallyfor
functions
mass
are
insurance, and
member.
common
divine
prayers
familial
and
services.
At
a
of them
or
adoration
a
solemn
procession
the
same
their particularreligiouspurpose,
object,and
means
of
OSltfSKI
Probably
shall manage
we
already help
can
sheaves
also works
Frania
whatever
send them
Michalek
was
As
he would
Now
sending money
for the
they
when
shall
back
come
you
illfor
was
we
week;
he
now
and
grieved,for father lay ill,
such is my luck, that I am
always at
was
so
work, but he
as
much
to
grieveabout
you
together or
and
can
you,
at
and
such
it will
reward
which
the
traditions.
get
heart is
probably
how
In
The
to America
wrote
proprietorgives after
that
to be
and
with
we
we
one
since
we
are
"dozynki."
as
not
are
might visit
there
is used sometimes,
him
me,
localities called
word
comfort
grief[homesick],
many
some
to go,
not
always answered
country, that
our
us
it would
he
You
for him.
to
But
son, ifhe is in
least all in
asked
journey,how
wants
care
persuadehim
to
means
heavily.
but my
You
another
all
his
about
as
him
by
obligedto work
be
he is ready to
you.
tried
Michal, we
to
I told
particularly
my
the
to the end.2
be up
all
"
grief. Such
in
and
work
journey
of
Aleksander
alreadyreach
can
back
Father
I
the
on
and
can
we
already recovered
has
work, he
to America.
back.
come
So instead
can.
any,
pull them
then
she
409
until you
willingto work,
will be stillmore
giveyou
alone
and
as
have
servant, if you
to be
in the heaviest
me
the cart
to
SERIES
It is
one
extra
successful harvest.
is particularly
other letters,
pessimisticview expressedhere and in many
life.
On
the
his
the
to
reflect
contrary, hi
frequent whenever
peasant begins
upon
The
undetermined
he expects that in some
optimistic,
way
sufficient
to be no
there seem
his action will have the desired effect even
if rationally
Both the pessimism of reflection and the
natural causes
to produce this effect.
attitude as the magical beliefs;the
optimism of practiceare rooted in the same
and effect.
peasant does not give sufficientattention to the continuitybetween cause
practicehe is usuallyvery
he
why
evil
the
as
So long
begins
causation makes
and
fact
this is possible,
provided only those facts
way
produce another
fact may
him
as
reflect,the
Magical Attitudes,"and
old-typepeasants
tend to
to
No.
see
connected
againstall probability;
70.)
There
is also another
emphasize unconsciously hi
hope
way
same
note
later,the peasant
attitude is evidently sincere.
we
some
see
idea of advance.
in
seem
he is acting,he is inclined to
if he does not
even
often
more
reason
modern
type
optimistic.Finally,
here
the
PRIMARY-GROUP
410
married.
were
ORGANIZATION
[Greetings.]And
is
year
for Michalek.
care
[WIKTORYA]
November
79
DEAR
SON:
received
We
not
glad,first because
very
at all.
the
you
You
err
in
your
name-day, because
promised
harvest
it on
to send
lasted up
in autumn
to
it was
day, but
we
were
father
had
we
don't
we
care
could not
We
autumn,
fair;then
that
saying so
St. Michael's
1903
wrote
you
much
photograph for
but
....
that Michal
wrote
you
letter
your
....
20,
no
was
send
ill.
was
We
time,for the
bad, and then
and
have
nothing
to
live,"or, "Give
that you
did not
worms.
Christmas
[Greetings,
work
me
my
for 7 weeks.
back."
money
But
wrote
always work,
must
we
You
like
wishes.]
OSINSKA
WIKTORYA
Now
[Inclosedwith the preceding letter.]
I, your sister,
did not forgetyou yet. I send you this flower as a token for these
....
solemn
not
about
care
which
you
for
we
she sheds
when
mother
can
weeps
than
that you
are
it ever
reward
never
More
I divide
you.
again,that mother
does
wafer
mother
I have
once
not
with
the
tried to comfort
tears
her,
in this country
[FRANIA]
80
May
CHILDREN:
DEAR
We
....
with the
You
joy.
not
see
and
photograph.
We
were
received your
very
your
Holidays
parents.
are
I had
always occasions
the whole
traditionally
also
on
sad
together
....
we
even
wept from
Easter, for
[sad holidays].1When
which
family ought
letter
glad,so that
had
17, 1904
you
did
arranged
to meet.
OSltfSKI
SERIES
I look
why
You
sickly[inthe photograph].
so
nobody
was
only we
Not
and sad.
411
also look
you
have
seen
sickly
body
Every-
you.
"
sold
2
of them
one
calves and
cows,
Father
bee-hives.
there is such
and
present;
has
young
cow,
one
sowed
rape
for
humming
I inform
Now
deon.
and
This
peoplehave
plow, but
God's
than
it
Rye is nice
it has
been
for
everything,thanks
accor-
the
to
too
wet
the
to
up
they cannot
God
to
20
blossoms;
up
year
have
playing an
were
above, but
sowed
We
more
now
not
planted and
we
them, and
the crops.
nice
grainsare
summer
present some
about
you
old, and
year
if somebody
as
sick.
were
and
to
Mother
[WIKTORYA]
81
about
uncle Smentkowski.
and
aunt
I inform
Now
....
On
[their
daughter]and
in the afternoon
was
the
chimney and
it did not
of God
and
burn
On
Easter
out
someone
sanctifyand
tillthe
purify any
followingEaster.
festival. Easter
eggs
Swiqcone. At the
same
are
stove
At
and
4 o'clock
your
aunt
The
Moreover,
child.
the kitchen
among
work.
cannot
befell your
in through
came
lightning
throughboth windows, but thanks to God,
So we beg you, and they also,for the love
family [thechildren in America] about it,
their whole
them, that
old and
the Zwolenski
sittingnear
the house.
inform
ask
went
which
struck Anneczka
June 25 lightning
standingnear
was
are
she
the misfortune
the peasant
consecration,by
food
The
of the
same
also consecrated
Easter, and
consecrated
is
dairy,and
and
is often
aunt
during the
uses
sick,and
year
are
secrated
con-
which
is connected
custom
tune, there
your
They
come.
form
connection
with
an
family will
fasting: Lent
eat
spring
indispensable
part
with
alcoholic drink
the
of the
ends
on
be
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
412
will
what
write
not
after such
happen
now
from
grief,and
we
misfortune
Your
write
can
no
for tears
more,
could
aunt
....
drown
our
eyes
[OSINSKIS]
If I wrote
badly, excuse
you
for my
me,
hands
trembled
from
all
this.
[FRANIA]
82
July
Now
CHILDREN:
DEAR
inform
we
Zwolenski
child
[Anneczka]
Andzia
later to take
wished
took it and
Your
aunt
down
near
sat
to
and
her
Anneczka, telling
Anneczka
and
awaken.
And
into the
now
buildings] They
the
explainto
and
there
lived
did
lose many
not
Thence
And
hardly a week
they
I inform
moved
you
alive and
be burned.
called
diately
Imme-
them
you
in what
and
the Zwolenskis
manner
had
to live hi manorial
[longhouse
aunt
your
and
there
The
child,and Anneczka
she would
manor-servants,
were
and
Zwolenska
her,so
alone remained
or
room
dug
the
aunt
aunt
to go away,
[theZ's
there
were
when
Your
to
near
ran
want
her.
to
the
from
came
firewood.
brought
to go
the child.
uncle
and
home
way
it did not
your
in the
Smenkowskis
to go
into their
down
The
so.
it,but
they went
Anneczka
was
back
came
Zwolenska's
took
It
aunt
killed.
was
in what
you
....
21, 1904
for 8
families]
;
when
the czworaki
the
about
the
same
house
burial,how
burned
and
where
uncle
saved
them
the Smenkowskis
had her buried.
live.
It cost
20
roubles
Everybody
processions].
But
your
dowry
wept,
regret any
for
she
expenses,
was
liked
and
sayingthat
respected.
this
was
her
PRIMARY-GROUP
414
because
if
live,we
we
Your
and
you,
heavy work.
for
leave her
must
and
aunt
ORGANIZATION
uncle
ought
to remember
warm
Although it will
least such
at
token
Frania
own
children.
Auntie
old age
and
that Antosia
says
send
[money] for
her
WlKTORYA
84
DEAR
but
don't know
we
certificate.
wanted
to
but
must
we
it when
knows
Is it good
died.
years
owed
was
go for
it,and
it was
not
us,
son,
We
birth-
got your
family,about which
you
you
know
say
was
know
Prussia
either.
But
family-inheritance.
some
wish
my
She
that
came,
old when
4 years
anything about
not
father will do
Your
commune.
years
many
from
paper
your
worth
more.
1
Dear
can
family?2 I
says only that
some
there
to go, for he
my
there
money
was
said
nobody to
that perhaps
going for.
wrote, dear
You
any
How
1904
church-certificate,
Father
to my
ago
to
as
of the
your
some
And
the mayor
family for
whose
parents
asked
his
wanted.
you
not
or
he finds time.
about
one
8,
to
go
about
wrote
....
which
learn,our
know
can
You
SON:
OSINSKA
November
....
us, yet
[Smentkowska's cousin]greet
and
her mother's
cost
that
son,
were
shall not
probably we
see
I
grieved,and particularly
very
another
one
But
was.
we
tion
modifica-
of the
have
We
here
generations,
as
Roman
far
as
and
does not
depend
upon
the remembrance
of the
an
preceding
strange;
Family.")
he is influenced
reading),
unexpected inheritance.
from
only
good proof that the peasant family is essentially
as
his
or
In
the present
case
by economic
considerations
"
the
is clearlyfelt
(probablydrawn
hope of getting
some
SERIES
OSINSKI
shall
perhapswe
we
left
much
other.
each
to
they have
am
and
you
listen
make
glad as this
As to
only
Michal
very
r~
[for
now
that
son,
further
us
whoever
wrote, dear
You
bloodshedding. And
the cows;
it is said that
to this
to go
another
one
see
America]. Already
shall go to
one
had
if you
should grievestillworse
415
me
so
[OsiNSKis]
don't write
Michalek, we
to
write to
not
us
if he had forgottenus.
as
either,
December
85
SON
DEAR
livingwill
learningand
roubles,but
55
upon
so
herself,
supper
When
cost.
she
Gulbiny30
years
and
ago
Frania, how
her
sent
we
there,we
how
much
lives
was
in
now
we
shall pay.
token
some
Now
Antoni
from
Dobrzyn
parents, while
to
you
persuaded
did not
learn
,
she wants
other people
will be
perhaps you
so
marry,
to have
happier, as
are
-.
r.,T
[WIKTORYA]
86
February 6, 1906
[Michal]:
SON
DEAR
....
and
....
thank
we
came
young
men
to
no
Anything
Introduction:
but
also I your
the money
this money,
today
we
your
of it is destined
for most
sister,
He
Marrying
be
may
evidentlydid
comes
an
assumes
year
the
February
on
don't
girls
expected of
I learned
2, and
Cousin
[Smentkowska]
Frania
the government.
that many
to want
seem
"Social
assumes
kindlyand heartilyfor
parents
our
come,
there will be
There
received
We
.
[Frania]
me
you
brother,and
parents, your
for
of
them.
I advise
and
agreed
of the estate
manager
her
She learns
And
much
know
don't
about
the
with
now
we
ask
You
....
18, 1905
Cf. note
to
70, and
No.
Environment."
not
the girlmentioned
marry
often
an
when, without
in No.
epidemical character
any
apparent
reason,
77.
in
parish.
weddings
village or
the number
of
4i6
PRIMARY-GROUP
says
dear
brother,that
well.
Now
until you
marry
I
back.
come
And
learningembroidery,and
am
I have
ORGANIZATION
time
no
write
to
I inform
it goes
for I must
more
to
[FRANIA]
87
and
to go
few
now
here
we
be very
to sell [ourproperty]
us
glad to
see
to be
must
sold it and
then
placeto
Then
only a
It is true
and
the
fuel,and
persuades us that if we
[toAmerica],we should then have
that,if even
only two of
child],the two remaining would
one
that
father
your
say
we
and
But
admitted
not
were
go.
if even
you,
our
even
write
....
should
We
to you.
days before
it is
You
CHILDREN:
....
no
back
go
Dobrzyn
you,
pretty
on
longingwould
[one
went
us
be able
not
be still greater
[OSINSKIS]
[Letterof
much
it is a
as
spending of
the
and
money
Also
preserve
March
page,
America,
about
happen."
and
one
SON:
DEAR
....
for
You
wrote
you
asked
God
It is very
will be done.
for it
us
But
that
we
are
[inAmerica].
fortune and
into the
and
room
it to you.
and
marry
Lord
our
from
man
lived for
Gulbiny
only a
them,
I shed
with
where.
them,
he
how
wrote
with
year
look at
to
May
Cze/stochowa,and
whether
one
adorned
flowers; we
intend
1906
24,
be at your
anxious
He
send
of
cannot
we
that you
us
blessing. We
our
happened alreadythat
got married
might
copies.]
May
us
so
Swi^tecznaat home
88
come
accident
some
Gazeta
travel
to
and
you
when
tears.
[WIKTORYA]
Now, dear brother,I send
to send
it to your
marriage
reason
season
seems
the boys
or
to
wedding, so
you
(December-February)
a
little tobacco.
at least I want
be imitation,or rather
girlsduring
given period
"
passes
certain
a
it to
without
common
come
tinn
no
to your
name-
single wedding.
attitude
kind of fashion.
I had
The
developedamong
OSltfSKI
day. And
beg
send
you,
SERIES
the
me
417
watch, for
don't need
you
it
now
more.
any
[ALEKSANDER]
89
October
[Michal]:
SON
DEAR
....
We
glad that
are
....
all
you
would
that you
dear son,
their not
to
[allusion
dead
were
in
are
you
write
when
now
for
grieved,
remember
we
that you
to us
surelywe
see
one
that if
established,
was
the age
whole
he
penaltythan
these have
only
from
Dear
to God
not
so
prison or
This
big
is
serve
is of
for
his
still greater
the war,
to
[a reservist
for
The
pay.
did not
who
7 roubles
earned
even
penalty
money
must
roubles
300
come,
[who
before
away
war] has
up
we
your
forgetabout
and
than
now
you.
once
parents, not
to
It is very
hard
shed
we
Thanks
forgetabout
for
bitter tears
be with you
cannot
we
to be in heaven
are
you,
More
you.
brought you
at least merit
beg
we
won't
see
went
after the
he
years,
for Cieszenski
severe,
until
this,but
cannot
of
you
son,
for
some
painful
did not
army
pay
much
[ofprison].1
time
months
it is very
battalion.
disciplinary
America
duringthis
after
waited
very
back
written,
we
were
belongs to the
punishment is
come
who
away,
comes
in the
time
in this
anybody
called]went
to be
we
another
we
day and
Dear
evidentlyforgetus.
shan't
had
alreadyjourneyinghome.
were
times
ten
you
thought that
we
writing].You
read
we
....
letter.
your
something curious,so
us
thinkingthat perhapsyou
impatiently
So
received
We
....
1906
29,
us
that
that
we
May
we
together
[OSINSKIS]
1
Prison
administrative
chooses
When
state
sum
curious
occurred
toward
incident
four years
the expenses
imperialfamily, there
talk with the
condemnation
certain
imply the
punishment
offenses can
usuallybe
prison. A
the Russian
do not
serious
policeordinances,and
of social opinionis not
was
some
converted
for slight
in
commune
of the
provinceof Piotrk6w.
proposed to
commune
involved
hesitation.
others,stepped forward
Prison
Finally an
"
we
"
sit instead ?
some
4i8
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
90
CHILDREN:
DEAR
received
We
notification
Good
on
letter and
your
....
back
came
we
the postfrom
the
of Jesus]. So we
read
passion[service
commemorating the sufferings
only about your health,for we were
very tired for it rained the whole
week,
even
first day of
At
Aleksander
once
God
about
so
divine
Easter,after the
the rest.1
So
Sunday morning.
on
reward
Thank
God.
them.
We
you.
went
letter
thank
We
the
on
learned
we
the
tokens
heartily.May
you
our
remember
you
more
only
that
glad,dear children,
are
once
you
read your
we
for your
letter
nicelywritten.
Dear
to America.
would
But
and
we
3 years
helpus
God
[thefarm]; but
here.
him
so
could
we
militaryservice].Moreover,
from
back
bringshim
better,but
worse.
how
it will
the
chief of the
And
is not
it be left ?
the army
to
and
does
write
it won't
that
decision
Gulbinaks
write, he
know
don't
communal
if the
not
this
upon
ifhe escaped
[forever,
[service]
we
to have
district asks.
for
the papers
So
You
more
this army
about
there
no
whole
now
and
America
him
see
....
Michalek
would
if he goes
While
and
takingAleksander
now.
even
think about
our
we
keeps
he does
as
that you
write
children,you
"
be
yet
when
that
answer
[Aleksander]could
perhaps be exempted. But if people say that sometimes he [Michaof himself,then nothing can
be done, for though he
lek]sends news
does not
and
write
uncle
your
to
goes
himself,Ulecka
does
not
wrote
uncle that he
to your
to
us
at
home
there,
was
to
read
but
at once
[OsiNSKis]
The
fact shows
how
difficult and
much
familial attachment
important a
This must
matter
are
be kept in mind
to appreciate
are
and how
is impliedin frequent letter-writing,
attachment.
As in Russia
men
the number
of eligible
age, there
when
he is an
he is
supposed
only son,
not
to
or
are
when
of recruits needed
different kinds
he is the oldest
of
son
exemption.
out
man
is
of young
exempted
an
certain number
of the remainder
age when
is also
OSltfSKI
SERIES
419
November
91
CHILDREN:
DEAR
waited
have
that
decided
he
the matter
the decision
It will be very
children,that
to be
don't
well
painfulfor
no
will go
the communal
at
away.
meeting
and
me
more,
you
even
as
inform
often
as
tears
I bred
as
you
and
painful
glad that
we
are
beg
you
heartily,
in my
now
larly
particu-
I have
once.
know,
you
can, for it is
than
more
you,
We
us.
no
it would
It will be very
you
Then
so
him, for
cannot
I shed
you,
and
without
us
is alive
said it.
big money
it is
there is another
now
longer young.
write
us, but
troubles with
work
can
we
cost
hard for
no
enough,
forgetabout
many
are
we
alone,but
succeed
you
Now
we
he tried to settle
Smentkowski
uncle
possible;it would
be certain.
us
made
was
whom
and
came,
they
i,
for
answer,
Aleksander.
December
others
and
Particularlyyour
exemption was
for
On
of
our
writes.
dear
will become
serve.
away
when
the Gulbinaks
not
late with
are
went
and
mayor,
and
must
could do
Father
We
....
1908
15,
had
so
all of you
left me,
[WIKTORYA]
March
92
You
CHILDREN:
DEAR
write
that you
us
....
painedat
our
should be very
us, and
should
we
there alone.
accident
or
glad,but
Frania
your
also.
As
community
each
man
ought
must
are
son.
God
other.
Lord
grants
God
not
"
health
shall hire
he built his
and
serve.
because
eager
to
Aleksander
as
the
to
Thus
some
anyone
for the
fail,
without
commune
real
knows
reasons.
place of
other member
exempt
time, for
in the
certifythat
must
commune
for
life,
Ochocki, for
time
health
or
we
it is difficult to get
so
even
year
from
somebody
through
sickness
some
During this
us
We
if he remained
forbid!
be
now
be exempted
commune
"
to us.
exempted because
to
if
so
much
very
losses
any
Michalek
help each
alone,if our
the rest, we
each
commune
can
about
are
to come
to have
you
must
of the
two,
are
happens, you
to
servant
the
you
whom
Now
don't wish
we
9, 1909
young
members
man
of
Therefore
man
has
PRIMARY-GROUP
420
for
any,
either to
everybody goes
work.
And
Frania
married
so
America, or to Prussia
this year alone,for we
don't
shall live
we
although
this year,
ORGANIZATION
Aleksander
allowed
[boys]have
some
her].
to court
We
for
season-
wish
to
called
her
on
sad
too
are
get
now
help
dear
our
left
bless you,
and
you
Michalek,
son
that you
Mother
from
man
Frania
glad that
very
envied
find some,
obligedto
was
are
we
succeed
? rabbits ?].
[poultry
God's
of
Czestochowa,
have
you
keep
having
your
and
so
many
so
young
and
many
August
CHILDREN:
When
much
If you
to fortune.
cannot
back
come
bones
about
should
we
be
find your
and
the world.
glad
own
since,alas! we
weather.] You wrote
you,
Bendykowski.
K.
Zygmunt
to believe
Here
to rest
way
to us
as
everybody.
have
we
well
to
us
as
gift
Perhaps
for
May
tobacco
if he will take
took your
way.
time, if our
Lord
so
many
you
our
as
our
old
years,
so
you
Lord
God
and
help
honey through
will send
it is
now
work
[Crops;
children.
it,we
address,but
he will do
submit
must
like to scatter
together,dear
send
23, 1909
find another
some
not
can.
you
We
must
we
worked
our
be
cannot
Trabin
should
here,on
If he goes and
from
as
letters,
we
your
be done.
be pained for
must
we
Although it is painful,
God allows us to live longer. We
read
we
....
....
very
ones
[OsmsKis]
93
were
to
she had
them
Rypin
DEAR
begun
and
farming [literally:
country-housekeeping]
yourselfwith
occupy
from
and
children!
Dear
none.
us.
Zieleniak
you
some.
impossible
did.
[OsiNSKis]
1
were
may
as
ever,
Typical arguments of old people against emigration. This attitude,howcompletelyduring the emigration fever to Brazil. People of seventy
gave way
seen
explainthis difference.
it seems,
almost
emigrants
were
not
farmers.
In the
hesitate to go to America.
to
go.
Two
to
parents of manor-servants,
that series)do not
The
incitingthem
even
Brazil
same
way
were
reasons
land, and,
manor-servants
the old
or
S^kowskis (see
PRIMARY-GROUP
422
ORGANIZATION
your
another
one
sister who
your
once
more
May
God
than
usual.]
less formal
wishes;
Oh,
kindly
could
we
see
mas
[TypicalChrist-
grant it,Amen.
[OSINSKIS]
96
January
CHILDREN:
DEAR
words.
and
First,I inform
parts
or
[Aleksander].
while,for
worth
you
to
have
I often
weaker,
last hour
in
gettinghim
we
more,
would
Then
she had
already some
we
how
and
now
we
longer with
will also
require your
jaw.
Now,
as
us
me,
will
how
am
bequeath
and
half.
you,
with
none
us,
Alos
be
not
So I
beg
for I should
like
disturb
not
weaker
now
and
when
this
will allow
children,we
as
to succeed
me
beg
possiblehow
do you
advise
Frania
dear
so
children,that
she
once
you
decide
you
to
off,for
it would
might
you
Easter,
better
only a
answer
die, that
Lord
also know
have
we
you
our
parents, inform
your
she knows
whether
be
happens.
I should
I inform
of this
out
there.
you
sick,so
I don't know
free,but
it often
as
Now
comes.
after
this to you,
it would
money
all before
on,
fall
sending
to
came
you
[my will]later
me
to marry
perhapsyou
so
money,
1910
these few
you
somewhat
are
children,reflect and
dear
with
peace
that you
some
in American
much,
very
if it
For
you
to
of the
[your parts
intends
whether
you,
I suppose
earned
economized, i.e.,
you
it
I ask
money.
any
that Frania
you
this occasion
on
father,write
I, your
....
10,
do, for
but
ones,
educat
we
lingered,wishing to
us
[OSINSKIS]
1
and
The
letter is
the economic
wish to
various
important
situation.
dominant
assure
feelingsis involved
complicated,not
of family
as
continuity of generations,and
standing
in
the
village and
the wish
son
complex
(Jan)is the
old man's
community.
the
that
The
and
In this wish
is
"
future
family-lif
(Cf. Cugowski
have
it
series.)
moral
particular
OSltfSKI
SERIES
423
97
CHILDREN:
DEAR
You
....
send
not
about
you
have
we
ask
not
it is not
and
but
money
some
enough.
made
even
12
our
such
and
taxes
are
This year
so
money
we
are
nevertheless
from
nothing
must
we
they
our
own
sell
receive
only,so
while.
Therefore
can,
speak,half
were
this
debts.
in
here
built in
So
own
are
very
country,
And
much
have
we
you
at all.
help you
us, old
hired
some
not
dear
we
but
a
old,
send
can
you
money
it back
pay
would
you
it is not
worth
children,as
would
pained that
cannot
we
commune,
is 17 years
could
way,
others.
money,
we
share
We
our
stillsome
[indollars],
so
sum
our
various
happens. Moreover,
find your
must
you
the
also
us.
we
[earned]
this cost
perhaps get
if
then
often
as
for
could
We
and
interest,
farm,
our
easier
money.
at
to
for if you
30
it will be much
by borrowing, but
would
pay
we
servant, whom
but
"
yourselvesthat
fuel and
expenses
many
children,that
and
you,
could
we
economized
we
wrote
we
there is not
morgs
know
barn, as
different and
for you
own,
debts.
some
it is true, dear
But
built the
we
built
we
from
Why,
of
money
so
money
much
so
roubles.1
2,000
whether
us
....
last
our
had
you
you
paid
stillhave
trouble
You
forgive
must
ances;
people. [Acquaint-
weather.]
Now
The
both
together,would
twelve
2
All 'the
was
is easy,
on
in peasant
mere
excuses
are
very
4,000
greater and
greater
which
the
equallydivided, as
were
in America,
sons
a
good farm of
roubles.
trifling.The
expenses
enumerated
reallysmall.
old
wishes
man
separatingthemselves
the right of
sentimental
organization,could
remains
to
between
connection
its property
also.
individuals,without
explainthe family
after the group
preserve
from
in
participation
connection
never
before,are
Borrowing money
by mortgage
of paying the interest is hardly real
long term, and the difficulty
life. The
from
of inheritance
if the property
about
feels that in
themselves
have
country
our
probable share
is worth
morgs
which
the
is the
sum
in
that
you
spreads out.
movement
1
inform
we
hi its whole
is only
This
an
intact,and
separated
shows
active
group-
social reality. On
has disintegrated.
that
the
group-
PRIMARY-GROUP
424
are
few
ORGANIZATION
circles.
agricultural
into
Well, and
if somebody
in
comes
and
was,
the
his
near
The
palace!
[heir;estate-owner.
established
Half
everythingwill
they
Now
have
we
health
and
holy faith
not
leave you
and
beloved
will
news:
star with
Soon
count
our
the western
sky,on
common
bakery.
people from
t"
side.1
Remember,
our
Now
of interest to
nothing more
and
it.
ment
beautiful environ-
common
another bit of
happiness
our
Many
town.
so-called
or
under
dug
Gulbiny.
to
to build also
And
intend to go to America.
such
now
Trombin
intend
be like hi
have
they
telephonefrom
for
forge is fallingdown,
[the manor-owner] has
Piwnicki
Mr.
our
fatherland,then
Lord
our
God
will
help you
[OsmsKis]
98
August
SON
DEAR
....
much
It is a
news.
and
inform
us
him],we
on
for
that
us
that you
should
never
has
hand.
own
[JAN]: We
pleasurefor
year
Does
thank
us
know
keep
passed since he
he want
world,you know
a
paper
you
long for
son,
you
as
you
can
and
your
come
to
back!
and
also,dear children,to
to
drag our
intend
if you
visit
1
money.
old bones
us
to
This
news
and
us
you,
about
As
any
old
So
here
the
it.
see
ask you,
years
some
impressionof
son,
Why,
be
should
We
for
we
but many
more,
people it is more
we
for many
people come
weaken
us
his
to the news
write,dear
glad to
cannot
but for
to
with
?
[Health,
altogether
us
You
be
would
in America
is evidentlyadded
painful
we
the world.
Many
depended
few words
Michalek
see
[ifwe
us
forget
It is very
you.
remain
this winter.
wrote
different books.
fatherland
least don't
to Michalek
forgetabout
than
more
read
back
came
as
having written
at
anythingabout
weather; harvest.]
And
so everything is going on
of the
that you
alive,for
are
for
you
2, 1910
also
that
dear
such
glad
difficult
dear children,
.
still,
you
time
and
could
then
OSltfSKI
go back.
but
We
beg
be merry
for
425
dear children,
come
heartily,
you
it would
SERIES
for
if you
us
now
God
May
us.
to
can,
winter,and
grant it to be accomplished!
[OSINSKIS]
December
99
CHILDREN:
DEAR
inform
We
father and
I don't
[because Frania
care
I would
alone in
house.
our
which
Frania
could
still see
at
go
and
in my
Janek
at
but
"
what!
am
we
sad
Were
around, I
see
and
it not
after you.
I should
I did
have
live
to
[pictures]
you
speak with
probably see
I shan't
alone,
are
very
household.
I cannot
time, but
any
old age
hung there
now
once
children,that
expect, dear
married],and
is
more
any
that
you
....
5, 1910
you.
Michal
in this world
dear
Now,
painfulfor
to
us
be without
politeto
present very
photograph and
greetings.]
have
When
he
Frania.
took
her
It is very
away,
all
we
often,and he is up
to us
come
to the
for
They wonder,
us.
no
about
you
her.
But
wept.
inform
children,we
answer
[WIKTORYA]
i
January
100
CHILDREN:
DEAR
We
by
He
pray
to God
that he
grant
thank
We
we
you
for your
inaykeep you
be
must
the wafer.
and
guardianship,
if not
to be again together,
us
hi His
letter with
7, 1911
in this
one
since
another,may
world,then
to be
happy
am
very
another.
that
glad,dear children,
When
Janek
was
in the army
you
and
are
so
wrote
to
well-disposed
for money,
one
Micha-
lek
always spoke for him, that we must send him some, and now
Janek
This
got easy work for him, and you agree also with one another.
much.
And we beg you, inform us whether you have
rejoices
us very
stillmuch
to pay for your house,and how are you gettingon with your
we
letter from
inform
Alos.
you
He
that
and
poultry-keeping]
togetherwith
comforts
us
your
letter
[by saying]that
we
got also
he will be free in
426
PRIMARY-GROUP
October.
have
We
God
May
and
them
Christmas, called
on
and
remember
we
time.
[Weather.]
star-evening[Christmas
with
and
us,
then
your
on
[night-service
legendaryshepherds].
pastoral service
of the
always visit
week-days
on
this
to
the
On
in commemoration
church, we
at
are
we
so
the
to
Sunday afternoon,but
you
live up
to
us
[theson-in-law]were
Adas
with
went
When
grant
eve] Frania
mother
ORGANIZATION
them
we
and
also visit
they
alone,and
are
us
long for
we
often
you
Your
lovingparents,
[OSINSKIS]
[Letterof May
America.]
explainingagain why
1911,
10,
they
June
101
CHILDREN:
DEAR
did not
We
....
waited
we
cannot
have
that he had
and
sore
feet.
something
does
did
we
pained at,
was
visit
it,but
if it is so,
alone.
now
Even
said
he
as
sometimes,
has
Janek
I don't
then, dear
our
it is difficult to get
summer
us
said
and
help
know
son, it is not
us
mentioned
not
to believe
Adas
we
are
we
in the
now
learn
for
at once,
you
us
almost
there,for
and
and
not
to
come
17, 1911
saw
to be
me
to
I learned
But
Frania
Only
little. So
yet.
America,
to
went
another.
me,
him
it is difficultfor
servant
and
seen
not
boy
answer
go
learned
to
whether
very
swear
ought
pleasantfor
mother
your
[WIKTORYA]
February 17,
102
The
Jesus Christus."
wfiichfound
about
when
dear
Lord
our
Lord
wrote
God
life. This
husband
we
and
inform
we
good health
health.
God
This
gives you
at such
and
you
that
health.
your
And
you,
little son
we
sends
your
you
from
it
parents.
learned
we
rejoicedus,
bless you
And
letter
your
which
your
be
"Praised
letter about
received
we
success, and
rejoicedus
lengthin
children:
dear
letter to you,
our
Then
in
us
your
that you
our
of
first words
1912
children,
dear
success.
for your
also Frania
son,
May
further
with her
in
OSltfSKI
generalall
relatives and
your
SERIES
427
acquaintances. May
God
A*1611'1
[OSINSKIS]
February 6, 1913
103
[JAN]AND
SON
DEAR
letter and
am
son,
beg
DAUGHTER-IN-LAW:
glad that
very
to
disagreeable
that you
me
don't send
you
sheet at all at
home, for
much
displeasureto
would
be very
such
me
thanked
and
had
good
for happily I
letters,
learned
write
received
wrongly and
did not
quarrelas
you
when
this money
than that.
Dear
requiremore
son, you say
and you count
dear this farm, but if you
little?],
so
are
expenses
save
much
such
large taxes
school
more
Dear
and
[clothes]
get any
to, so
collected.
for
all,this
Aleksander
big
he must
now
Now
would
not
son,
give
don't
answer
letter,
even
was
so
without
1
An
his wife
helped
you
know
too
it at all.
small payments,
how
is
So
nothing to
envy.
all,for I wrote
When
it only
only then
angry,
dear
his parents.
us, the
God
mother,
OSINSKA
WlKTORYA
be
covering
with
got what
He
Your
Don't
what
....
this letter at
know
knew
living and
us
all,for there
answer
did,only he
he was
able,
so
[thatit is
possibleto
expensive,and
it
and
year
would
you
at
envy
beg you,
myself; they don't
from
one
Michalek,
is collected from
either.
money
also spare
here,dear
were
this
priest'shouse, then
money
must
roubles
30
Now
for if you
son,
not
fuel costs
did not
don't
were
larger. Formerly
everythingwas not
for
money,
built,and
was
farmers.
him
largerand
now,
about
if
dear
My
show
I did not
your
it is very
complainingletter.
it read, and
pained. We
asked
health,but
I should have
they had received this letter,
bear from them, for your father and Aleksander
much
such
I received
....
in
are
you
wrote
this letter,
got it myselfand
he
grant it.
and
children,for
no
you
this letter
for it.
money
perfunctoryletter
sending
my
written
by Aleksander
in the
name
of
greatlyabridged in
For example, the latter
comparison with those in the letters written by Frania.
enumerated
the
"relatives
who
and acquaintances"
sent greetings.This
always
and two
content
The
on
thg son
the person
and
who
end
here omitted
acts
as
are
show
secretary.
how
the form
and
428
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
March
104
DEAR
CHILDREN:
We
much.
too
Lord
barn
is
gram
us
what
we
do
and
have
we
threshed
develop
[co-operative]
shopsare
which
the
asked
you
let
reflect,
it remain
Why
should
you.
you
go
better
to
whether
to
are
visit you,
for you
Write
for
for
common
is in
money
give
to
So
year.
I ask
nothing ?J
I intend
to
me
whether
it is
ready
money,
and
and
cannot
than
more
will I send it to
only then
me,
for
Jewish trade,but
your inheritance,
whole
after
swarming
and
come,
I would
be
not
to
death
my
After
write
know
in the world.
more
Answer
to you.
before
you
bad, that
it,they refused
remained
[prepaid]ship-ticketor
myself to
see
to take
these roubles
for you
come
is
country,
our
yet
can
will prepare
glad
with
go
has
give them
we
work,
only,that industry
to kill the
after the
to you
I wanted
our
to
Now, as to
it would be well,but the
you,
When
in the barn.
you
in
more
they wish
money
advise me,
moreover,
inform
We
and
savings-bank,and when
any
in the field.
it will succeed.
to send
us
work
success.
our
more
set up,
whether
weather
so
don't know
The
our
get
there about
news
commerce
we
to
exceedinglycheap,
is the
to God.
already about
think
We
God
in the
enough, thanks
about
you
....
succeed well
us
inform
We
....
12, 1913
it does
it upon
pay
a
single
sheet.
[Your father,
OSINSKI]
ANTONI
September 3,
105
CHILDREN:
DEAR
....
hear
are
nothing. We
with
angry
Now
we
us
inform
don't
know
for not
what
having
that
you
here
promised to
a
upon
farm
come
back
could
we
to
We
....
happened
sent
the
is
farm
country.
buy it with
your
but we
letter,
Perhaps you
to you
money
to sell after
Szczepan
write
it because
So
if he
wanted
money
and
it certainly.We
our
to you.
1913
to
Janek
settle
Janek could
r
1
This is only
pretext.
The
real
reason
B.
pay
PRIMARY-GROUP
430
ORGANIZATION
money
now,
stillto
live,and
is
money
ro
her counted
re.
"'re
to
that you
dues
don't be angry
you;
w"
)ok after
as
^u
and
and
once,
this
few
So
sum.
beg
you,
which
products].
that you
still we
years
grieve. That
don't
all,for there
at
money
have
long we
[only natural
well
for
how
won't
shall be able
dear
my
is yours
children,
won't
be lost
even
at
rather
are
without
Aleksander
stipulated from
your
don't know
we
he is afraid to remain
Fr
to
that
don't
we
add
It is very
dear children.
can, my
painfulfor
to be able
not
me,
to h
Now,
bred
alone
sufferingand
my
I have
I
children,remember
God
you!
could,I would
to
is
us
see
through
So
by
beg
now
If
that
thing
every-
speak to
disappointment,at
once
this
nity
opportu-
any
bones
my
you
have
I not
May
paper.
I feel
I
children,
to speak merrilywith.
nobody
world, for
small
were
you
that,for all
shed
less diseased.
or
when
have
who
mother,
I have
tears
you
me,
but
you,
this
in
you
more
least
at
flyto
nothing.
least,your
at
many
about
to comfort
do
can
me
how
knows
troubles
nobody
now
more,
least
[WIKTORYA]
[GULBINY, September
107
I, your
sister
health
Don't
much
nicelyor
be angry
there
country
with
brothers,inform
dear
are
me
what
is the
to
He
miller mounted
killed,and
was
the
upon
so
for not
me
of
on,
windmill
and
as
continually
good
to you
beg
you,
country, for in
were
without
it.
He
Bozomin
In
our
Karpinski
accidents.
if he
cover
in
am
down
to
1901]
having written
in your
lies
date]
same
news
also that
you
frequent misfortunes
was
In
Franciszka, write
9,
fell down
soul.
the
tie
am
[FRANIA]
1
The
happenings in
the community
community.
people,except
The
town
and
neighborhood.
With
extraordinary
this anecdotic
interest in
teachers.
series.
OSltfSKI
SERIES
431
08
November
12, 1901
about
that I should
at least for
earn
it rains and
But
who
you
taken
was
cold
are
week
paid].
[Enumeration.]
the army.
to
second
there
dig,for
to
my
I earned
"
at
Now
am
[FRANIA]
December
109
dear brother
sister,
I, your
noble
for your
and
with
care,
have
can
him, began
and
watch
to
for my
He
cry.
him
sent
I inform
When
confession.
going
he remained
Michal
The
the
life.
learned,that there
with
was
festival
priestbegan
here
was
nothing for
was
promised him
to
processionin
beautiful.
very
about
you
Plonne
I inform
Now
sometimes
at
was
if
as
Michal
will be here
and
comes,
[Christmaswishes.]
cannot
you
in
was
he
me
was
death
to
whole
Janek, that
dear
you,
sent
you
none.
parish festival.
were
You
[youngerbrother]when
sander
at
heart.
Jan, thank
3, 1901
they
that
more.
mother
mas,
Christ-
at
Amen.
F[RANIA]
1
The
earned
money
destination.
particular
1
The
children
are
hired
at
work,
as
See Introduction:
taken
very
additional
"Economic
some
Attitudes."
upon
their
the
having holiday-clothes.The powerful influence of church-ceremonies
upon
in
And
child
is
festation
manithus
childhood.
the
excluded
from
not
peasant begins
any
standing
there is a gradually growing underof religious
life,
except sacraments;
of the ceremonies, but
has
some
character
taken
firstcommunion
children of
of initiation
a
particularinitiation.
is the preparationfor the
no
community
the
same
classes,who,
intelligent
social life,the peasant
than
only
importance
even
child of
if admitted
much
as
well
not
as
which
but, as
this,the
before
children
ceremonies, are
people. Here,
child shares
higher class.
to
process
first communion,
has not
spheresof
The
as
for the
initiated
in other
PRIMARY-GROUP
432
ORGANIZATION
May
HO
Now
that I send
small
you
brother,that
glad
cross
be the first
I would
give you
to
something
I inform
Now
time
has
He
write.
to
you
it
Aleksander's
rabbits
help
and
you
wrote, dear
you
I should
heart,but
be
I have
in
everything.
wish
to take it.
you
our
I inform
token].
whole
my
sign. May
about
you
....
with
honey but
small bottle of
[tosend
more,
divine
sister,
speak to you
through [ourcousin],for
I,Franciszka,your
25, 1902
no
pigeons. [Greetingsand
wishes.]
[FRANIA]
only seems
try also
[JAN]: You
BROTHER
DEAR
to you
I write
so.
better.
to write
say
characterfully.But
I remain
with
well; but it
dear
you,
brother,
respect.
F.
Appreciate my
brother
Dear
Jablonianka gave
I had
to
writing!
Michal, I,
giveit
me
but asked
peace,
She
to her.
always
always for
that
you
address,and
your
says
Stefka
sister-
forbid!
in-law,but God
If I wrote
no
sister,inform
your
anything bad[ly]pardon
me.
[FRANIA]
September
112
Now
I inform
continuallybreak
burned; only
Not
out.
burned.
villagewas
dear
you,
....
Gunsk
In
5 houses
long
ago
In
burned
courtyard [allthe farm-buildings]
villagewhere something has not been burned
whole
you,
dear
they don't
remember
asked
You
journey.
Her
We
so
before
dear
me,
sent
health
....
such
was
good
commune
no
it cost
passport]
few
dry, and
days
is no
I inform
life
sent
[Smentkowska]
did
to
not
receive it.
Aleksandrowo,
her 14 roubles
When
the
ago
parents
our
Frania's
was
the
chapel are
And
in their whole
She
the
but evidentlyyou
letter,
she had
year
It is very
brother, about
you
for
police,
fire;half
on
villageand
Bozomin,
1904
country fires
our
Strzygiwas
the whole
left.
are
brother,that in
24,
sian
[bribingRus-
she came,
we
did
OSItfSKI
what
know
not
to
so].
her
honored
still we
But
place this
whose
killed,
cousin
nothing
shall be thankful
Mother
God's
send
to
you
whole
during my
one
read him
I will write
me,
he said
letter yet.
one
"God
about
them
I don't
But
that
we
and
see
may
When
jestabout
not
mind
God
Aleksander.
"Let
so:
gift.
your
reward."
and
giveyou happinessand blessing
to
glad and
[the one
so
for
kindlyand heartily
you,
to you
[we were
her
to
came
433
to seat
cannot
SERIES
it at
all,and
pigeons and a
of my
I will give them
a dinner
they only come.
of my
rabbits,buy a keg of beer for them, and bake wheatsupper
may
bread."
....
[FRANIA]
May
113
Now
I, your
I inform
you
....
words.
write
sister,
dear
you,
Michalek,
few
the strawberries
I made
which
you
the
brought
some
sowed
Only
the flower-seeds
I need
fence,for
our
to fall down.
wants
one
next
shall make
was
the Count
things,and
But
bring material,and
Dlugie [where M.
and
Dlugie
work.
is left,
we
money
from
me
new
shall
we
year
flower-beds
round
poultry spoilmy
shall build
in
small
that
to
17, 1904
year
So this
shall build.
we
Then, if
will go
the
away
in
July.
Mr.
we
Bozewski's
that
small
brother
[FRANIA]
January 18, 1905
114
DEAR
BROTHER:
We
....
which
much
found
of
in your
us
in
good health
difficultfor
and
received
....
me
to
see
what
written upon
was
first letter,
that mother
family,mother
but
....
tells you,
written.
should
don't turn
we
letters from
two
could
not
inform
as
to what
you
about
her head
you,
understand
that it was
you
her
wrote
parents
[worryher]for
the
PRIMARY-GROUP
434
is not
mayor
in the
in the army.
she
Now
walked
you,
our
myself,even
to write, for Michal
not
of Michalek.
address
and
brother
and
you,
sent
He
small
you
for each
I
is dead
villagenobody
about
10
send
and
were
Father
myself,
told
and
took
me
the
everything
cigarettes,
5 for each
of you.
can
it.
America
to
brother
gifts,
token, but
this
about
you
you
this letter
I write
went
will inform
handkerchief
satisfied with
our
Zieleniak
enough when
the house.
from
In
and mother
village,
I inform
Now
ORGANIZATION
You
be
won't
of
perhaps
nothing more
you
all went
to
the army.
Pardon
have
no
for
me
such
sending you
letter
[withoutstamp],but
at all
money
F[RANIA]
the
On
villageon
our
day when
the priest
went
letter,
visitation [kolenda],1
same
a
this
I wrote
_,
__w
Now
....
brother
brother
Dear
in
to you
and
heartilyfor
you
weeps
all want
to leave her.
And
although
__,
I say
us
I could
I have
not
much
gladlygo
to mother
and
up
now,
that I will
when
work
and
she is
livingin
for my
earn
..,__
gift,dear
your
I would
sister-in-law,
go, mother
old,we
thank
sister,
I, your
through
must
sit the
whole
[FRANIA]
Il6
January
[JAN]:
in a hurry
BROTHER
DEAR
at
but
once,
Czechoska
thanks
to
but
was
and
....
God, is
13 banns
were
in
our
only at
was
no
Pardon
.
with
then I had
parish
wedding-dressesfor Stanislawa
to be at the
of
having answered
for not
Czechoska,
was
Here,
wedding
except weddings.
news
that
me
24, 1907
On
asked
one
to
for if I went
Sunday there
every wedding
everywhere, I
Christmas
(i) Christmas wish, song, gift; many
songs have this
visitation
of
the
after
Christmas
word as refrain; (2)
probably
(originally
priest
during or before Christmas),during which the priestinspectsthe parish,examines
the parishioners
on
religiousmatters, and gets giftsfrom them.
1
Kolenda:
There
were
no
weddings
at
all the
precedingyear.
Cf. No.
86,
note.
OSltfSKI
should have
SERIES
435
left for
for now
at weddingseverybody
clothes,
enough,
pays largely[tothe bride's collection].I have indeed work
but in the country the pricesof livingare very low,so that my work
no
ill
is very
money
much, but
very
if I
that
see
brother
Dear
paid.
I should
it is not
worth
wedding.
here
working
help,I would
has
betrothed
your
like to be at your
that mother
married, so
Michal,
and
pleasesme
Dear
brother,
if Aleksander
to
go
but
you,
gets
I don't
when
know
[FRANIA]
April 25,
117
BROTHER:
DEAR
here
comes
with
should remain
an
with
it
As
me.
his fiddle.
old
girl.
is,I live
But
I have
nobody
I think
sleepearly,and
so, and
long for
pityour parents,
for I
you,
I should
and
little,
sew,
Well,I
least
one
with
me
of you,
go at
Our
can
for
will
head
of you
one
almost
weep
parents
to you,
once
enough
for with
must
weep
this needle I
I won't
everything. Now
at the farm.
to
go
If I did not
orphan.
an
every
old and
burst,I
were
I think.
grief,so
are
can
even
is it possibleto
But
to the mercy
will bear it as
I must
alone like
is needed
money
parents
consume
am
easilyhappen that
myself with
often that my
earn
our
prison.
until Michalek
marry
mind, if at least
speak with.
to
even
to
it could
so
never
in
as
not
me
But
day.
leave
write
You
1909
for I
don't
can
be angry
complain.
sister,
Your
FRANCISZKA
118
Now,
intended
to
remained
on
for I won't
brothers,I also
but
marry,
the
marry
farm,
a
[asmanor-servant].
1
Marrying
you
so
man
Even
manor-servant
who
that
write
I shall
has to pass
if he
would
words
were
be
be
better
now
from
if Alos
to you,
....
to another
manor
one
you
step downward
his
an
to
it would
probably come
But
manor
few
pen
for
farmer's daughter.
forward
dependence,is put
economic
matter, for
to
by the
craftsman
small farmer.
in
Two
436
PRIMARY-GROUP
settle upon
there is not
you,
for
their
to
So
gets
did2 and
us
I shall
to
Moreover, mother
complains often
earn
home
at
am
his
wife,he
back,
conies
parents
as
you
I have
bad
I must
always do something
for she is no
now,
the household.
I must
only enough
Alos
probably leave
little for
will go
brother
I wrote
as
with
dowry
more
Meanwhile
us.1
what
But,
parents have
our
when
perhaps
needed.
are
2,000
now;
money
If he
more
much
so
expenses.
with God's
ORGANIZATION
And
else.
longeryoung,
so
not
busy myselfwith
like to pay me
anything,for he pays the servant, while I always need
besides everythingelse. Now, if you have no money
a little money
Lastly I
so
show
cannot
you
yourselfanywhere, particularlya
always
am
it is very
sad for
alone,you
so
Therefore
me.
all scattered
are
find
I must
young
about
person.
the
world,
other way.
some
[FRANIA]
1
August
19
DEAR
and
BROTHER
visit
would
Perhaps
us.
cause
the
to
be in
will
you
great joy,for
me
wedding,
at
SISTER-IN-LAW:
AND
this is
to have
hope that
we
wedding
will be
husband.
He
is the
Michalek
knows
him
factors determine
this
wandering life of
community, with
our
in autumn.
(i) The
determined
You
to have
none
wedding
died, so
inform
who
you
our
school with
future
I invite
farmer
the
of Michalek.
him.
was
affairs
is my
Trabin, schoolmate
to
appreciationof
and
painful. My
betrothed
I must
for he went
3 brothers
kind
miller from
servant:
very
of my
got crossed,but
come
something
2, 1910
against the
as
is
him,
member
of
work.
1
For
this
the brothers
reason
husband, whoever
he may
Aleksander
want
course
no
take
to
Frania's
the farm.
her
brothers off,for
will get
dowry
the necessary
cash; but
we
know
the
in
may
peasant'shate
of debts.
2
There
reproaches
which
is bitterness
are
made.
is only sorrowful.
in this
The
phrase
letter contrasts
and
letter,although no
the preceding one
(No. 117),
in the
with
whole
438
PRIMARY-GROUP
bread
as
and
salt
token
already!
And
brought before
his arm,
upon
ORGANIZATION
and
This
was
was
us
and
progeny,
with
big kerchiefs,
very
If you
scene!
child,enveloped
us
the child
professorwished
our
had
been
there you
would
have
seen!
Then
inform
we
without
collection.2
any
in order
you
to send
After the
wedding
the token
you
wishing you
now,
you
in
night and
went
we
the
to
remembrance, which
and
FRANCISZKA
March
BROTHERS
letter
your
and
heartilyfor
cannot
this money,
to
prove
we
to reward
gave
a
you
brothers
once
[money] for
hundred
you
sister-in-law
for your
inform
we
we
We
good heart,
at the same
you
at which
holy mass,
thank
We
now
And
more.
will
beg God
our
country.
fold.
and
gratitude even
our
you
received
We
....
[wedding]gift
dear
27, 1911
SISTER-IN-LAW:
AND
your
....
senc
Yours, loving,
122
DEAR
we
good.
every
ADAM
....
day,
rapher
photoga
is
hi
nothing interesting
be
God
the
Alos.
are
rumors
to
May
war.
Merciful
about
also
the trouble
of land
morgs
and
from
the
buildings,
we
windmill.
250
us
in
life,
and
1
from
few
the peasant
proves
in the
This is not
attitude.
not
as
years
which
But
we
the whole
pointof
new
very
the farm.
This, as well
standing
roubles of debt
they willed
we
We
keep
view.
farm.
our
mills have
bread
been
from
away
took
we
if only
hope
to
over
our
make
shows
description,
As
bad; only
Moreover,
we
from
Lord
income
constructed
is not
old fashioned.
"
the millers.
you
have
We
stock,for the
some
steam
with
have
large,because
dwelling-houseis
have
which
were
God
grants
health
us
was
firstrate
high
community.
in accordance
collection would
probably have
been
felt
as
a
a
somewhat
advanced
humiliation,but this
OSltfSKI
for we
pleasantly,
happens, griefor joy, we
whatever
other, so
439
life flows
help. Our
God's
SERIES
love and
share
respect each
it
together in
concord
and wishes.]
[Greetings
DEAR
at
you
for
once
had
pretty well,we
in autumn
had
we
When
Our
way.
We
.
what
But
ones.
God
sends
grants
children,up
to
a
we
and
the
answer
It
going
was
then
suddenly
horse
died,and
do ?
It won't
misfortune
did not
back, and
can
health
us
1913
farming.
our
debt
our
Lord
our
of
paid a part
trouble with
some
fine colt
[-IN-LAW]:
SISTER
AND
July 7,
the
come
do
can
man
shall manage
we
life,
present, get
this
well
on
are
in
enough.
whole
our
124
DEAR
BROTHER
misfortune
some
SISTER
AND
with
the
[-IN-LAW]:
We
....
horses,as
4, 1913
had
this year
I wrote
you
We
wings of our windmill fell down.
have talked with each other,that
We
nothing could be done.
Lord
God
This
is
alone makes
we
our
and that up
respect each other,1
children
our
well.
alreadystands
send
you
As to
for
take
Now
If
to the
could
we
live hi
present
livelyand
are
get
His
everythingto
we
our
grow
some
will.
well.
more
Little Walcia
money,
would
we
their
photograph.
the windmill,probablyit won't be worth repairing
any
mills
are
They
alone.
steam
now
commended
our
inform
you
that
have
we
there is no
later,
colder,
only that
subordinated
to
such
mention.
norm.
once
milkshop
co-operative
basis of
not
everybody prefersto
and more
finelyground.
and
conjugallife.
It does
mean
more
And
in
our
it is significant
second, two
years
disappearedand
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
440
village. Adam
[Weather.] We
know
inform
won't
parents, and
about
you
dear
brother
particularlymother.
Write
own
you
me,
she
name,
despairsmuch
and
there at home
again and
she weeps
and
from
often and
not
her
she
for
and
I don't
now
I received
BROTHER:
urgent work
looked
it in my
When
which
hand
and
ship-ticket is
the
on
your
I did not
dear
with
Easter].
[I did
which
I read
whether
you
there
I went
America,"
that you
wish is
on
you
I would
letter
Gulbiny;
1
The
Aleksander.
mother
From
wrong.
holidays I
at
was
Sunday [before
the last
[ate]in
days.
But
not
was
go
to
America
after the
only that
the
whether
when
anybody got
than
from
was
I had
about
do you
our
like
country
married
in
in vain to marry
glad
rainy.
I told them
holidays,that
ship-ticket.Only
know
very
cold and
mother.
continually,
particularly
I don't
I know
him, but
rightor
inform
where
Now
leave,I told the truth
me,
the most
all the placesyou have been, in
[tolive]among
abroad
sick.
companion
my
to
and
or, "The
were
go with
I would
that in the
I1
called away.
was
for
further,
my
at
ever
When-
readingit.
to
instead
1902
I had
amuse
to come
thought that
justafter
I settled
They remembered
received
to
from
parents.
I arrived
always that
read, I
brother,I inform
our
not
began
I don't know
me
"Prepare
April,and
succeed.
Now,
home
in
letter
hindered
way," but
is going now,
write
well.
go
....
I took
how
FRANIA
DLUGIE, April27,
the moment
and
indifferent
125
DEAR
to
knows
who
as
comes
leaves at once,
nobody
anything is bad[lywritten]forgiveme,
often,so it does
I
our
comfort
When
you.1
there is
you
Now
ours.
ADAM
If
milk.
remember
sister,
littleand
to comfort
know
we
about
Walcia
for the
pay
political
questions,for
papers
your
to
treasurer,
than
in my
you
elected
even
there from
more
beg
was
Aleksander's
was
given to
coldness,comes
OS1NSKI
her
[or"whom
expectedin
you
SERIES
vain to
441
marry"] took
clay-dabber
some
[brick-maker]
MlCHAL
126
May
BROTHER:
DEAR
which
cannot
you
alreadytreated by
but when
I inform
to the
at
much
not
am
doctor,and
making],for
it is
I inform
about
you
be done
nothingcan
cold that
so
As
to
"
watch,
stop again,
springin
our
country.
our
sometimes, and
well,for laughing [lovesnows
even
for
the
not
....
better.
"
It is
villageDlugie.
our
trouble,in
to my
improve it
to
for it
anywhere
go
of this
....
it wants
now
bad,
out
and
brother,about
dear
you,
night it is impossibleto
Now
possibleget
as
Now
soon
"trinkejnglassBir."
even
indeed,but
it
I have
as
may
you
10, 1902
good health
you
....
happiness,that
Up
wish
....
O.
frozen.
are
spoiledthat
so
consideration.
village. First, card-playingwithout
any
time
from other villages
to ours
[toplay]. At the same
People come
drinking,fighting almost every boy with a stick in his hand, a knife
in
the
"
in his
pocket and
that
than
more
suspect
from
400
returned
roubles
exactlythat
the
did
who
man
he went
to work
are
from
me
and
so
"Social
going
once
as
and
that
[saying]
I shall
the most
who
man
usual
The
main
has been
cause
O.
of peasant suicide.
to
condemned,
He
settle in any
other community
or
opinioncan
become
the most
tried,for
even
can
never
try
to
tion,
of his condemnawithout
(Cf.
be
I should
MlCHAL
it is difficultfor him
to
America
any
seems
was
robbers
many
and
becoming known;
to
Environment.")
dishonor of condemnation,
suicide
[who
yet discovered
that he
man,
were
Suspicion,just or unjust, is
Introduction:
one
I don't
taken.
Dlugie,but they
from
him
brought with
the money
It is not
rate.
to talk about
Antoni
as
hard
for there
killed,
exert
any
were
and
tions
propor-
hanged himself.1
and
Everybody dissuades
America
killed and
was
neighborhood, at
Only don't do
have
from
these robbers
[Itassumes] such
in his bosom.
revolver
The
his past
peasant's
powerfulelement
PRIMARY-GROUP
442
ORGANIZATION
August
127
DEAR
BROTHER:
....
good health,until
But
was
had
no
....
hope
in God
I read
that
you
rejoicedthat
work,
and
see
Therefore
I asked
father to
give me
to ask
Warsaw, but father said that he wanted
roubles,and father and mother say that I could go
50
they preferit
to
going
my
America,
to
work, but
no
give it back
I dare
with
to you
I do in my
thanks,for
hope
also very
am
sit at
now
Warsaw, that
to
not
to go
pay
misery ?
If you
complain that
could),help me
in God
to
to lend him
you
for you
you,
say, if you
only to
grievedme.
must
for it would
before the
you
in
were
to
go
you
this
that
i, 1902
and
God's
I will
Mother
that I shan't
In
some
shall
perhaps find
have
some
if
way
Lord
our
as
go
and
trifles,
rejectmy
nothing2 yet if
"
even
the blood
each
other,I
Now
valise.
or
have
finger.3And
my
shared
I could
ought
to
members
is
economic
advance
the family
3
Alludes
his brother
*
as
Half
member
to
when
of the
familywho
is not
by hired work
necessity; but
for
productiveuse
most
everything,
you
brother,when
so, dear
earn
the farm
a
giveyou
see
we
will
when
course,
know, when
mere
livingas
to the work
an
the
aim, which
of each
member
more,
be
cannot,
as
once
If you
at least with
you
The
home
at
brother,don't
You
with
also many
are
dear
Now,
another,although
could,I would
from
There
time
I wrote
a
sewed.
health.
me
kind and
so
don't
[money] one
needed
you
and
prayer,
of
sort
some
grants
I must
am.
them
or stuff for shirts and have
shirts,
other
God
money
and
absolutelyindispensable
is relativelynew.
case.
to
Of
of its
It is the substitution of
whole.
the fact that he tried to
the latter
was
to
send
money
hi the army.
proverbial,
probably originatingin
the form
of blood
brotherhood.
to
OSHSTSKI
live there in
have
for
misery yourself,
myselfany
Pardon
for 30
more
now
me,
dear
beloved
to my
better than
even
But
am
I cannot
dress
recentlyto America].
went
what
me
I said to her
kiss you
as
kindlyand heartily,
well and
haps
per-
sweetheart.
my
MICHAE
128
February 21,
I have
BROTHER:
DEAR
her
on
something
me
and
you
working for.
roubles [a year]
I
her,to pardon
see
to write
I embrace
am
[probablycousin,who
Frania
departure,and
443
Please
you
what
know
thought about
and
For
luxury either.
no
SERIES
waited
for your
....
....
O.
1903
letter for
I don't know
what is going on
days,and weeks, and months
with you, whether you are ill,
or whether
you got so proud after your
marriage. I make different suppositions. Forgive me my joke,dear
brother [about the marriage; Jan was
refused by the girl],
ultimately
for
perhaps my
her name,
for she is in
be
would
America, and
ready perhaps
I inform
Now
me
could
have
no
hard
to hold out
to earn
look
my
as
work, and
others
littleabout
the
the
send
out
me
I shall
also
went
write well
were
hard,
be twenty.
soon
if I
keep
Mother
says
and
ship-ticket
mates
if I
enough. They
ought
to
I should
be
able
be
glad
at least to
groom-work longerin
head [upsetme]
be better if I did not
it would
if I
and
this
the top of my
by
you
prefer to work
world, for
to go.
me
who
bachelor,so
companions
my
I should
if it
even
do, for
it will go
allows
Those
I don't mention
yourself
brother,that
America, and
to
littlebefore
hands
Father
go
stilla
are
you
dear
you,
leave
and
me.
despise[reject]
beg her,she
will allow
me
to go
MlCHAL
March
129
And
now
beg
you,
dear
brothers,help me
at home
and
as
in
hired
some
O.
6, 1906
way
laborer,and
to
get
even
PRIMARY-GROUP
444
so
me
enough for
hardlyearn
or
money
with
clothes.1
my
When
ship-ticket.
all my
Moreover,
I want
going, so
are
ORGANIZATION
Dear
brothers,send
there,I will
come
ions
compan-
work
it back
thanks
ALEKSANDER
OSINSKI
November
130
I,dear brothers,bid
Now
for
kindlyand heartily,
greet you
will allow
us
about
parents and
our
day when
happen to
to
about
does
mother
our
there will be
about
or
me,
another
one
see
for you
know
beg
don't
you,
that there is
God
forget
hardlya
what
me,
will
healthyand alive,and
are
you
Lord
our
whether
you,
whether
more.2
shed
not
to comfort
nobody
I don't know
any
me,
farewell
you
15, 1908
mother
our
[ALEKSANDER]
I learned
BROTHERS:
DEAR
sent
me
roubles.
20
This
to
me.
at
once
and
Lord
thank
I inform
Now
will be
oath
brothers
to show
me
taken
and
to
The
army.
only on
America
goes
its
century,
on
where
(because every
communication
usually did
without
On
May
21,
is
our
our
typicalsign o^
in the
unit.
not
severe
often reallya
know
was
to
by letters
how
to
to
was
was
above
separationfor
the
possible.
life even
It
was
much
be
to
seems
to serve
At
if there
to
seven
social
fifteen years
soldier,who,
of
discipline
as
smaller than
no
war,
the number
now.
or
the Russian
moreover,
army
custom(
of the nineteenth
of
means
the
furnish
other,certainly
1908)and not only
was
when
in the
serve
any
the army
write,and
and unreasonable
to
(no war
than
expectedin
disciplinarypunishment brought
meaning because
community
absolute
more
such tragicfarewells.
peasant taken
when
more
service.
parents'account
or
separation,
is easilytraced back
source
more
the most
familyas
possiblewar
and
his
on
separationis felt as
of any
account
account
on
Perhaps
We
Russian
you
series.
Markiewicz
2
answer
we
sister-in-law.
my
....
but
useful
very
gratitude
my
about
you
of the
the beginning disintegration
not
you
....
The
and
letter that
they will be
for
rejoiced
me,
17, 1909
your
dear
you,
will allow
God
from
....
....
you
[SIBERIA],
May
KANSK
TOWN
131
and
was
meant
still
of recruits which
446
PRIMARY-GROUP
here in the
same
if
anybody
he
will be
killed
attacked
and
I inform
but it would
cost
to
much,
they would
living. And
beg
me
30 roubles
we
were
advise
here
me,
only
whether
alreadyfrom
home
now,
I may
to come;
journey alone,without
ALEKSANDER
SIBERIA, March
133
On
BROTHERS:
DEAR
....
roll-call I had
brought
already gone
I read
When
to me.
to
had
not
of the
so
Lord
perhaps our
to see
us
would
letter,you
another
one
sad
believe
not
sister will
our
school.
who. went
with
is the
of the miller.
son
did
40
from
home,
morgs
think
that
won't
come
earth
1
and
That
parents.
want
of land.
She
he
is
back
from
I know
my
how
is,Aleksander
did not
to
grant
Brz. from
also
was
well
[togive
won't
wish
years,
so
manage
As
it.
it to
to work
am
very
as
be
Trombin,
him;
he
from
man
more
far away
too
the
farm, I
earth,while
accustomed
to
the
to
me
knows
him, for it is
want
dear
[home] to
go
will
the Bible
as
and
young
to
Adam
there
the
Now,
father
more
any
under
holidayswere
my
that Michalek
Year
New
old
as
advised
you
I think
On
not
and
worked
I have
to
us
certainlymarry
in 3
So
soon
me
....
also,for
[Michal]
militarychief
1910
If you
roof.1
native
will grant
God
that you
commune
weeks
28,
[inthe country]for
been
O.
the decision
the governor
sent
to
for 3 months
leave
give me
and
been
is finished
for the
alive;
have
Many
convicts
you,
twice
home
prison
bayonet,and
harvest
And
already.
very
the
on
the
with
that
you
the
near
closed,and
are
return
knives.
to set the
They wanted
one
won't
with
guard
on
he
street
butchered
or
killed
We
the
on
stood
we
by day.
Now
go
Once
succeed.
not
himself
either shot
so.
In the
way.
shows
ORGANIZATION
am
so
to the
awfully
OSINSKI
for I
shown
[Moving-pictures
am
when
receive
you
this
447
from
away
the
I cannot
soil,
work
in it.
regiment.]
the
SERIES
that you
wrote
letter,send
me
help me,
can
few
roubles.
beg you,
Perhaps they
so
I will go
journey,or if not, then in the autumn
leave
I beg you,
dear brothers,don't forget me
on
dear Janek, who
have
served.
You
know
how
particularly
you,
it smells here; particularly
bad
almost
during their Lent
one
....
dies.
ALEKSANDER
[Letterof March
the
from
17,
did
army
shows
1911
succeed.
not
that
the
Letter
of
plan
have
to
January,
him
announces
1912,
GULBINY, February
134
DEAR
BROTHER:
....
I inform
you
What
parents.
was
for I know
that you
Moscovite
bread
not
to let
and
in America
to
America.
is half
whom
rich
been
owner] lives
what
only the
Uncle
Sm.
end
soon
that you
only 3 years
factorythey built near
you,
the
even
dear
As
....
farm-yard!
go
have
there
prettiestgirls
and
I could
to
here,bring
to
the old
old
know
does
all,dear
You
not
you
there
I need
come
All the
here.
news
to rise
so
to remain
me
you
of this
Frania
Perhaps you
when
would
and
is
and
Siberia,while
girl,so
it to you,
I inform
girlfor myself.
some
is the
will
so
beg
jest.]
wrote,
you
probably he
for
this
dear
my
also eaten
me,
wants
stillalone.
am
So I
you
away
house, she
relate about
to
pretty and
I inform
he has not
her
describe
[The request
about
from
wife,and
to
came
have
married, only I
some
her to me,
Now
go
how
brothers,are
gone
know
you
won't
you
17, 1912
also your
and
slaveryand
it well,because
without
night and
somewhere
are
know
me
this
joy,dear brother,I
my
and
treated
am
want
day
released
home.]
arrival
that I
O.
we
don't
whole
but
[manor-
Piwnicki
him
and
his estate.
recognizeit.
the mill and
year
know,
Mr.
And
of the
end
our
not
people
What
that
was
a
forge
448
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
which
stood
from
have
inform
nothing
when
me
bring with
and
[Weather.]
that spot.1
Now
pulleddown,
been
near
will
you
If you
write.
to
how
and
back
come
perhaps find
I shall
you,
of interest
more
much
money
somewhere
you
can,
can
you
nice
piece
of land
Your
well-wishingbrother,
A. 0.
July 12,
135
DEAR
BROTHER
I will pen
....
at
present, for I
Do
more.
you
excuse
for I
me,
....
After
so
in my
hope that
to the
up
I will write
present I have
troubles
many
other
much
foot,for
on
also
I have
I found
two,
Bronislawa, but
of these two
Probably one
name.
words, not
I marry,
as
walk
the
and
few
soon
I must
now
out!
forgether
and
mine
my
girl,but
Bronislawa
named
one
of
the horses
alreadyworn
As
you
in search
ridden
yet married.
not
am
to you
1912
will be
next
wedding
brother,
well-wishing
Your
O.
ALEKSANDER
1
Rather
an
parents)than
improvement
of
expressionof
approval. The
of the manor,
as
factory,provokes a mixed
work, of admiration
peasants
well
country
accompanies
lord becomes
any
endeavor
into
make
standard
same
should
to
diminish
comes
and
or
as
"like
that ?
begins
his standard
classed
The
the
a
"
This
to turn
of life. Such
parvenu.
man,
half aesthetic,
from
the
expenses,
conversion
afford
of
tional
tradi-
of
of
number
aesthetic
an
not
argument
unproductive expenses,
He
be too
to
known
when
tain
mainmay
eager
to
rich enough to
values which
if not
to
attitude is particularlymarked
into money
tune
feelingof commiseration
same
household
The
Jew."
same
standing,to
of life as
The
in general any
money,
afford this
an
entrepreneur.
productive value.
the
opportunity of
new
aesthetic environment
an
at
of the
is slightlydespisedbecause
of
servants,
appreciateany aesthetic
purely agriculturalline,
the building of a
particularly
to
in the
progress
any
cleverness,and
greater income
the
as
ready
are
because
feelingof satisfaction,
half moral
value
commiseration
but every
and
to
new
proprietor
used to maintain
his predecessor
in the country,
is immediately
OSltfSKI
SERIES
449
136
September
[-IN-LAW] AND
SISTER
DEAR
....
that you
wrote
long in such
so
though
are
you
of the
name
write
were
rich
write
us, old
to
but not
now
few
another
quite
manner.
making jokesat
or
for
in order
me
as
don't
us.
You
and
farm, for
of
priesthood]
the
and
in Trombin
from
here
to
I cannot
in
act
on
the old
is now
September
you
you
dear
who
in Radomin.
[Weather;
Radomin.
destined
even
for you,
come
to
soon
That
soon.
will be
to
come
can
our
pity
I do ?
can
5oth anniversary[of
for
was
so
years
many
will
[procession]
company
farm-
brother,that
different way.
29, is the
priestF
country.
our
whether
you
that
you
now
the
wish
you
to be
not
know
know,
to you
come
people,
help, and
even
rich and
prison
first
sooner
the
in
much
you,
We
this
well among
very
from
grosz
from
justnow
came
you,
living,
get your
will receive
you
having
you,
no
boys, and
expected
in
cannot
You
[our parents
grieved that
country,
clothes to be made
some
in earnest
are
even
other
last among
much
BROTHER:
of these
one
1912
parents]for help.
I needed
even
We
but
in
letters and
free and
young,
[thearmy], I had
two
You
and
sent
for money.
asked
say]you
been
had
BELOVED
24,
work.]
The
worst
go
of it is
out
for them.
This is too
expensivefor
Your
us.
We
dig alone
must
well-wishingbrother,
ALEKSANDER
November
137
"Praised
DEAR
wife,to
be
be
celebrated
We
signedunder, invite
marriage-ceremonyand
on
16, 1912
Jesus Christus!"
BROTHER:
our
0.
Wednesday,
to
November
the
you,
togetherwith
your
wedding-feastwhich
27,
1912,
in the house
will
of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
450
Mr.
another
in
Bozomin.
in
Jur.,
describe
shall
to
life
our
you
with
remain,
for
respect
you,
ALEKSANDER
[Greetings
weather
on
from
the
sister, and
BROTHER
SISTER-IN-LAW:
AND
the
to
up
such
if
only
and
photograph,
beg
he
the
would
very
be
healthy,
to
until
with
the
don't
see
and
you
to
that
health
now
his
wife
seeing
about
you
before
great
The
the
invitation
date
offense.
of
is
the
evidently
wedding.
purely
Nevertheless
As
in
the
to
send
it to
all.
at
that
us
he
and
now
health;
me
America.
haps
per-
bid
We
tells
always
dened
red-
Julka
married]
[Weather.]
My
from
shall
live
they
wife
where,
any-
learned
wrote
[after being
hurrah!
with
he
full
got
opportunity
no
for
whether
talk
of
have
we
favors
moving
my
we
few
you
alone.
but
pardon,
and
cold,
anywhere
go
heartily.
pleasure
When
felt
of
you
that
she
Now
be
you.
and
ALEKSANDER
the
1913
I have
now
think
don't
health.
us
your
know
and
Only
Michalek,
Then
near.
kindly
me
about
us
is
glad
politely
together
stork
let
won't
letter, for
inform
write.
not
goodbye
very
work
soon
does
beg
also,
you
would
she
another
in
gives
you
on.
and
catastrophe]
some
that
we
perhaps
you
our
said
God
I inform
merrily
waiting,
long
Lord
[about
letter
live
We
First
wife.
my
present.
after
liberty
your
with
together
20,
pen
....
about
news
January
DEAR
0.
JULCIA
sheet.]
separate
and
parents
and
138
words,
detail
letter.1
We
us
in
more
formal,
not
as
to
the
letter
invite
would
JULKA
will
be
hardly
O.
arrive
considered
GOSCIAK
father
of the
of
taken
once
an
and
father
the
Galician
average
son-in-law
the
and
The
son.
while
family,
is
cordial
more
son-in-law
the
The
peasant.
of familial
standpoint
the
his wife's
to
is
writer
The
SERIES
than
that
evidently
solidaritywith
has
son
has
relation
become
more
GALICIA
TO
at
regard
less
or
FROM
139-41,
GOSCIAK,
JAKOB
SON-IN-LAW
AND
IN
IN
SON,
HIS
AMERICA
[1913?]
139
"Praised
be
DEAR
about
dear
Jesus Christus."
SON-IN-LAW
health,
AND
crops.]
success,
daughter, that
Czarnocin
but
....
whole
because
and
so
must
we
but
enough
to
they
say
have
they
now
proud,
tried
[crowns], but
7,000
that
to
find
know
very
crops
wait
what
be
it does
will
please
not
better
something
buy,
to
and
father.
that
in
gives them
therefore
It
this is
not,
or
they
pleases
He
and
women
it is true
further.
your
old
....
whether
beautiful
son-in-law
those
somebody
don't
we
dear
you,
[land] from
buy
....
possible
I inform
Now
[Generalities
DAUGHTER:
DEAR
YOU,
well
me
that
says
so
are
it is
worth
dear, and
little.
And
who
broke
write
to
us
that
says
people
Tomek
is
grove
between
the
about
ended, and
worth
something,
1,000
for
Patoniec
in
And
because
morg.
behave
there
And
?
the
it
so
are
was
write
Answer
that
land
land
now
so
America
arm
and
it is true,
have
we
words.
him.
Wojtek
Lesny
don't
you
So
you
don't
write
lawsuit
with
our
to
mine.
dear
here
not.
How
pine
lost much
alone
land
there.
answer
the
divide
We
is very
about
that
you
worth
or
came
and
and
wars,
will be
some
me
from
it is true
I inform
now
it resulted
even
an
that
say
America
ourselves, and
lawsuit],but
broke
it, whether
that
it.
man
young
people
about
say
Wojtusiak
here
anything
us
anything
[on
And
that
you
Wojtek
leg.
And
us.
I inform
now
They
does
is
ask
Jozek
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
452
And
now
some
Believe
me,
pig
for it.
Hejmejka, and
suffice.
And
took
did
cart
he
do
and
he
when
mother
to dare
not
with
once
to send
even
money?
[? ] and
told
it to
it did not
more
to
bought
there sold
any
would
describe all
to
me
He
of
none
money,
liquor
for this
you,
and
drove
he
lacked
and
mare
at
so
what
home,
went
drank
it he went
he seized
when
Because
When
did he do ?
gulden. What
25
a
JAKOB GOSCIAK
March
140
I sit down
law, and
you
write
as
you,
table,I take the pen and I greet you, dear son-inabout health and success:
daughter. [Generalities
my
and
write
you
that
say
that
there is
and
not
send
you
you
any
since you
ask
whether
walk
barn,and
to
they
no
more
And
spring yet.
token.
small
trouble
and
I hid
with
them
to
burn
would
what
bank,
And
us.
The
money.
to
now
lend
Answer
with
it?
it to
me
I wrote
and
it.
them, because
Hejmejka
you
anybody
because
how
now
sent
you
now
you
in the
[hethinks]
liquor,because
heller]for
father
liter.
said
do
with
to
and
ago,
put it into
or
village,
I should
long
And
he
this
now
savings-
let it remain
it.
was
that
to
but
God,
here
for
your
did
father wanted
your
money
I have
in the
And
them.
40
have
And
it is
we
we
to
me.
Whether
at once,
about
it gnaws
buildings,because
Bodziunys
shall I do
or
my
should
now
and
that
us
healed, thanks
obliged to insure
down
write
how
us
shoe,because
enough
to drive
to
It is
planks whether
[angry]. And
me
you
But
wrote
once
leg is healed.
a
now
you,
address; but
snow,
reach
not
write your
are
vodka
home
how
letter did
don't be contrary to
never
yet in
take them
to
Christmas
my
I had
know
so
no
any
those
ask about
my
have
we
wet
cannot
sent.] Probably
I don't
and
know,
1914
to the
letters received
since
10,
now
at
you
and
gruel
We
the
me
is
still
stupid
useful
to
But
words.
you,
it
And
of
enough
You
if I
now
you
went
want
to
to
we
for
you
you
lot
but
on
you
shall
money,
of
for
this
it.
sent
which
on
it
all
us?
to
promises,
man
And
But
help
you
the
will
money
be
also
write
tot
wise
while
you
nicely
very
farm-stock
buy
now
America
give
greet
to
And
this.
get
thank
want
The
so.
us
umbrella
have
nothing
I
her
put
work,
to
necessary
money
at
had
for
So
sent!
when
enough,
be
have
you
If
rejoices.
would
laugh
people
she
much
how
is
it
will
where
But
ashamed,
man
it
with,
for
work,
nothing.
really
are
which
need
won't
And
bread.
and
potatoes
lady
your
this
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
454
you
dear
you,
know
son,
that
you
land.
nicely
JAKOB
GOSCIAK
few
will
MARKIEWICZ
The
in
Markiewiczs
the
of the
in
country
has
which
the
the
Warsaw,
of
ancient
almost
from
come
difference
the difference
individual
differences
find
We
series,but
nowhere
rise within
to
tendency
family
to
rise above
Markiewicz
situation
a
their
in which
its fixed
classes
fluid classes
of
lower
and
families,and
Their
their
origin, the
have
much
important
more
ordinary peasants
justified. For
to
it
classes
and
happened
ency
tendinto
general
society.
society,with
together
is
in various
to
their
class
can
than
with
the
therefore
in
its
that, thanks
within
of the
society, with
new
frequently
455
the
of Polish
consequences
appears
of
in
in its
the
situation
of the old
the
climb
kept
familial
change
to
The
only peculiarity
tendency
is
when
mixed
are
much
fullypresented
begins
the characters
the
situation,
other
representative
of individuals,
proportions.
in
class.
own
is thus
middle
of the
family
their
the
generation,the
moment
class
own
faster
explain
feature
universallyand
so
of
seat
aspirationsare
situations
analogous
influence,
familial
fundamental
at the
interesting stage, i.e.,
most
It is
if this
and
in
Wroblewski,
the young
of character
the
Wroblewskis,
this may
whole
The
of
is much
of the
Walery
between
understood
mind.
Unlike
"climbers."
are
Life
class, and
same
attitudes.
of
Markiewiczs
better
the
Wrob-
neighborhood
river, is the
in that
than
the
on
part
cultural
from
movement.
This
the
the
lying across
and
like the
not
nest.
isolated
nobilityliving
Vistula
Plock, but
family
strong intellectual
rather
the
industry, but
no
of Plock,
of peasant
near
lives is not
family
town
family
province
their
lewskis
as
of
province
border
are
SERIES
as
the
especially
past that
456
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
of
branch
in wealth
and
and
education,rose
two
even
the ranks
to
of the
three
or
gradual advance
of middle
highest
noble
ity,
nobil-
families
in this way.
Even
if the
now
reputed to have grown
made
and acquired
a fortune
as
a whole
family Markiewicz
bility.
education,it would graduallyidentifyitselfwith middle noare
But
would
the
take
at least three
while
generations,
new
hierarchy
climbingwithin
be achieved
in
one
horizon
Thus
of its members
the
above
or
the
old
social group.
they
tendencies
unconscious
interests is
sphere of
do not
are
typical
completely inclosed
do
They
Jan,
not
understand
tend
to
rise
the conscious
his
of them
two
peasants whose
within
no
wants
"
upon
this aim.
as
their
own
much
as
money
possible,
and
that
well, but
want
them
to
make
good
matches.
They
MARKIEWICZ
provided it does
and
do
They
America
possiblein
as
money
and
farms
from
their own,
tragicappeal or
and
father
aim
to
generallyin
more
back
come
and
buy good
they begin to
girls. When
less
or
much
as
has become
either to
complete estrangement
son.
of
traditional
is not
Jozef and
with
circle,but
Jan, have
to
understand
their individual
no
have
turn
their love
and
pronounced
allows them
individually
better
gather
to
in
sons
in general to
tendency and seem
far-goinglife-plans.Their ideas
and
the
than
their
sphere of interests
the discoveryleads
mothers, wives
two
conscious
no
to
determined
such
order
different
The
other
first how
at
rich peasant
marry
understand
between
understand
any
457
not
not
have
can
SERIES
needs
and
and
to
pathize
sym-
their
new
tendencies.
of the children
Each
has
somewhat
different attitude.
is not
characterized
sufficiently
seems
to
but
be
more
or
peasant, without
Perhaps
that of
he is too
farmer.
less like
does
middle
usuallydo,
class
littleambition
the
to
he
maneuvers
cities have
come
as
no
back
His
hates
hatred,and
not
Wiktor.)
his father's
even
young.
He
in his brothers'
even
to
to think
whole
the army
try,
become
about
is interested
members
a
And
few
nothing
of the
sergeant.
in
He
lowerhas
so
orderly. At
Russian
farming;
becoming
only
is
tendency to advance.
sphere of interest is
with a trulypeasant
his
not
strong familial feelings,
and
solidarity,
as
Michal
letters;he
only of
purelypersonalclaims.
an
highest dream
He
has
love but
is
larly
particualso of
458
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
is also
Wiktor
father
The
his brother.
or
career
farmer.
he
But
him
the
tendency
to
he
These
peasant.
become
instruction,not
which
than
so
desires
that he intends
sense
stronger personalclaims,which
him
less
to
his
lies in
remain
has
from
between
much
peasant, but
to
tinguish
dis-
(i)
are
source
(2)a tendency
much
of
nism
antago-
to
general
(3) a
minimum;
the necessary
in
(evenif they be those with a Russian official,
relationships
certain
spiteof his hatred for the Russians),and to assume
of the better society. But this will cerforms and manners
tainly
after his marriage he settles down
be dropped when
well-to-do farmer.
a typical
a farm, and he will become
upon
in the beginning of
Maks
has littleof the peasant even
in America, and almost nothing after seven
his career
years
after
familial
members
(withoutlosingattachment
solidarity
of the family) and while keeping
"
tendencies
the
"
He
of his father,developsthem
typicalmiddle-class career.
Still more
varietyis shown
of them
Two
Alfons
"
and
individual
the climbing
line,in
new
the children of
among
Polcia
along
to
have
"
not
the
Jozef.
smallest
of
contrary, they
of
the
fact.
want
remain
to
But
since at
climbing tendencies, it
toward
the
who
them
contempt
is rather
toward
and
peasant life; on
time
same
the
that
show
is not
a
negativefeatures,as only
mother
proud
mixture
lower-middle
they show
father's
The
contemptuous.
Alfons,while
Pecia
the
the
seems
the
no
attitude
shares
Polcia,
of her.
of the attitudes
class,which
the
the
of
results in
characters
superficial
MARKIEWICZ
class have
of the lower-middle
in his
undecided
and
America, but
to
has much
regrets it. He
assimilated,and
Stanislaw
going
back
comes
459
is
hesitates between
life-plans.He
remaining a peasant,
he goes
been
lost.
peasant characters
valuable
and
SERIES
after
vanity and
peculiarly
marrying
America.
to
very
many
year,
Finally
and
then
strong personal
as
As
in Waclaw.
merely
external
the
Pecia, she
to
strong character
to
necessary
to
have
(dressand
distinctions
class; she is
the lower-middle
seems
assimilated
manners)
climb.
She
marries
of
the
a
man
generalculture,but instead
of pushing him in the line of a middle-class career, drops with
the qualities
him into the peasant lifeagain,and has not even
requiredof a farmer's wife. Her laziness and vanitymake a
littleabove
peasant
are
impossiblefor
career
Waclaw
most
Elzbieta
and
the
perhaps psychologically
and
morally they
Intellectually
the peasant class. Their sphere
are
interestingtypes.
completely outside
her.
of
and
"
"
basis of
to
life;they have
begin
imitate
business
regular middle-class
Maks;
Elzbieta
But
woman.
connections
ought
they
or
Waclaw
career.
to
do not
self-consciousness
become
do
ought
teacher
to
a
or
an
They
remain
and
economic
and
while intellectually
interests,
the energy
not
is
littlein
common
with it.
460
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
The
letters of Michal
fullythe peasant'sattitude
show
in
militaryservice,particularly
toward
to
share it.
to
Russian
still in the
shares
everyone
by
so
letter
is supposed
or
militaryservice is a great
the
army.
and stronger
letters,
Osinski's
That
the
annoyance
peasants
many
much
peasant'slife.
with the
It is not
the
difficult to understand
First of all,in Russia
the army.
peasant'shatred of
is completelyisolated
he
from
his
whose
different,
dislike him.
who
is driven
He
for it is a
often to Siberia,
to
the
scatter
fear of
the
Polish
revolution.
relative
policyof
soldiers
over
the Russian
life finds
harsh
and
continual
empire, for
is for him
himself
trifles which
Instead
to
in the
work, which
Russia,
government
whole
the
of
and
libertyof country
barracks, under
his own,
than
acts
never
of farm-
or
there
is nothing
since the
and
four
years
cause
oppressors
since in Poland
to
full of
compensate
which
"
he is servingis the
of his country,
this idea
was
any
no
cause
no
benefit,but
patriotism,
of the enemies
developed only
among
the
462
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
Weronika
his
Julka
daughters
Mania
(probablymother of Jan'swife)
Zi61ek (Zi61kowski)her husband
Jan Zi61ek,the latter's son by his first marriage
Grandmother
Zi61ek's sister
relatives in Poland, in America, in Prussia,in
Other
MEMBERS
FROM
142-225,
MAINLY
WACLAW
TO
ARE
FROM
MARKIEWICZ
PARENTS,
AND
JOZEF,
178-84, FROM
i87,FROMALFONS;
200, FROM
WIKTOR;
ANNA;
188,FROM
FROM
201-11,
142-71
ELZBIETKA;
STANISLAW;
FROMPOLCIA;
FAMILY,
AMERICA.
IN
MARKIEWICZ,
THE
FROM
THE
OF
Petersburg.
MAKS;
172-77,
185-86,
189JAN;
FROM
212-225,
MICHAt.
ZAZDZIERZ, January
142
SON:
DEAR
that you
are
felt and
in
went
be.1
and
As
shall
24
was
sold
We
there
address.
are
Shall
thank
God
were
for you
There
is
W.
God
to Bremen.
forbid,what
him
I
bought
of
ass, but
an
Now
[proverbial].
I write
meeting it will
You
expenses.
Thanks
of it this year.
dog's worth
towo
enough
earn
we
grinding,there is much
to
and
....
you
both
we
pursuitof her
the horse.
got
dream,
about
whether
we
dreamed
news
letter
your
good health,because
in
even
that
received
We
7, 1907
God,
to
asked
about
summer-grain.
I sold it at once,
that from
you
We
for it
Wincen-
dozen
we
....
some
young
Elzbietka
And
His
mill.
1
to avoid
is
name
Elopement
character of
has
3 rather
good hogs, 5
ones,
and
boys
from
so
is very
rare
among
push forward
we
time
Tokarski,from
to
time.
Rychlin.
our
One
His
came
to
condemn
there
winter
lot and
our
age.
if to the
as
sister says
its control.
Before
geese.
that if we
of the familial
severelysuch
an
attempt
MARKIEWICZ
[him],he has
want
SERIES
roubles
400
in
bank
and
not
please us,
not
either.
him
nor
that
he
shop
he
show
can
in Lodz.
But
call upon
which I wrote
absolutelywants
while
for
we
are
Stas
us.
did
you
to go
to you.
not
or
them
can
about
So he
Is it worth
think ?
do you
How
him
to
find
cannot
only said
hurry, we
463
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
DEAR
BROTHER:
Send
from
take money
with
us!
let it rather
But
Answer
and
at once,
about
In
Answer
at once,
our
because
I would
I would
wait
ship-ticket,
daughter of] Gasztyka
in
money
later
on.
going
am
there
longer
to
you.
than
big grinding,
day and night
because
little,
much
clothes,
linen,and
spend
not
else I shall
or
back
you
of March
the middle
the
pay
I shall take of
the middle
dear
healthy,be healthy[goodbye],
Be
to
what
there is
windmill
years.
or
ship-ticket
money,
journey. Why, there is so
remain;1
me
the
write me,
because
living[food],
Let
soon
I want
If I
Topolno.
and
son
of March.
dear brother.
to
now
As
[the
marry
succeed, I shan't
to
go
I shall go.
[SXANISLAW M.]
February
143
DEAR
SON:
thank
We
which
need
Goszewski
it
they refused
absolutelynecessary
was
moved
to
for not
you
....
January
on
gave
so
interest,
accept any
having forgottenour
satisfy.Mr. and Mrs.
to
We
22.
from
you,
peace
once
And
An
went
expressionof
touch, even
for
the money
their
up
did not
W[aclaw] who
over
to
them.
Pecia,and
We
In
baggage.
to
want
so
go
bring him
will
[more] money
when
now,
back;
we
to
a
comes
shall have
these debts
about
himself
the old
it
turn
once
I write to you
and
And
America.
now
to Bremen
will at
we
often Mr.
very
them
only thanked
we
Ojcow; he mentioned
[wooden]horse from
10, 1907
to
Teosia.
Torun,
Your
to your
of economic
qualification
"Economic
which
Attitudes."
has been
son.
uncle sent
uncle F.
quantitieswhich
The
telegram
we
have
peasant is reluctant
put aside.
But
in this
case
to
it
464
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
her
sent
in Torun.
the
photograph,and
It is said that
they wrote
letter to Brzezoski
for
come,
he would
as
like to marry.
son, send
Dear
to her father
us
wish
find anyone
ANNA
And
SON:
now
are
we
have
them
Lord
God
will
that you
happily back
come
may
althoughI
I pray
our
family home.
to your
oftener,because
letters to you
write
1907
your
all
now
10,
longingfor
are
sad, dear
very
....
such
MARKJEWICZ]
March
144
DEAR
of their
photograph
your
[JOZEFand
the
him
telling
it won't
be
We
difficult
so
and
"
received
We
next
day
You
ordered
dear
damaging
think
needs; what
that
send
you
ask
You
when
son,
about
have
are
went
away] because
"
says,
a
good
young
dear
you,
him,
help you
way
here.
This
to
earn
some
see
on
clucks
not
was
whom
hundred
roubles
the brother
an
have
economic
formed
We
will also
for
no
asks
bought
that you
a
may
good
Lord
our
find your
business.
Pecia's dower.
as
thing
Some-
It had
receive
cates
giving of interest here indi-
reason
boys
give her
May
in America, and
The
all
who
I meet
to the Vistula
the substitution of
[herman
Dobrzykow
for
evidentlydestined originally
to
for her
more."
spring we
looks in at
when
and everybody
possible,
happilyonce
in the
hen
regret much
the best
him
and forever.
weeps
Everybody
it
household
our
once
as
to
love,nearer
Now
money
does
wishes you
us
it for
Walentowa
another.
Pecia,and
some
She
shall make
we
you.
without
can
you
and
will take
away.
Stasio often
cow
God
grant
for
overcoat
ties
and
son,
God
May
she has
as
home,
money
America] ; Antoniowa
in
much
as
will be made
taken
very
grandmother.
been
[who
about
earn
you
perhaps we
now
....
her chickens
them
made
you
the
on
health,send the
your
Don't
safe.
and
and
sent
you
and
for the
buy
to
us
roubles which
100
to Pecia
them
gave
now,
day the
one
it at once,
bought
And
we
on
Under
the old
of interest.
MARKIEWICZ
Elzbieta's
kum
in
year.
said
[god-brother]
....
the
honey
one
we
So when
land]and
can
you
465
that he
got 80 roubles
Lord
God
set up
an
our
....
[some
SERIES
for
bringsyou back
orchard
hives
bee-
and
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
July 4,
145
in America
was
Franciszek
who
son,
But
marry.
great
know
the
everythingthe
it the best you
be
to
and
we
spend
can
and
your
If
marry.
"
If you
intention
that it is not
send
fact.1
in
surprised,that
you
of
with
spoke about
on
America].
want
girlwith
to
good
marriage is subject
pleasedyou,
you
their
you
newcomers
wish
only
Alfons
autumn
Mielczarek
years
young
May
the state
if she
But
then
our
it
well.
very
whole
heart
myself [wishing]
nothing. So
consider
the
If she is from
....
acquainted with
Be
not
of
think
helped the
In fact
only rejoice.
can
his
it well,because
best
might
don't
the
bless you,
God
son, be careful.
In
wife
not
us
don't oppose
we
Lord
that you
accident, that
train,and it is true,
Dear
fathers and
[many] conditions.
our
address
write
you
Consider
education.2
we
You
Dear
May
but
The
use.
no
you,
America] and
to
went
thanks
to
question.
is of
intention
him.
by
accident
keep you
any
intends going to
seriously
God
his
terrible
killed
was
buried
from
answer
about
....
Seweryniakwho
So
heard
We
SON:
DEAR
1907
here,and
them.
don't marry,
send
[tomarry],then
do
money
your
home, but
if you
the
have
not.
healthy,be healthy,dear
son.
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
December
146
DEAR
In
SON:
....
This
our
home
her youngest
phrase is ironical.
Alfons
everybody
is
daughter died.
is not
treated
5, 1907
healthy enough,
Stasio and
seriouslyby
any
one
Kocia
of the
family.
3
Showing how
relativelyadvanced
question of education
raised.
the writers
are.
In
no
466
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
Bialecka
ask
You
the
were
about
Teosia.
and
she is at home.
but
don't
She
home
came
only
weeks
quietlywith
very
her father
gypsy,
believe it at
Christmas
same
lived
god-parents. She
wishes.] And
he was
[hischaracter has improved]
as
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
147
We
received
healthy in body
and
soul,because
the second
is
DEAR
about
SON:
or
religion
whole
to your
And
I inform
in the
and
well,if you
Evidently, such
of the
Sometimes
marriage.
Probable
we
try
parents.
only additional.
do harm
can
you
best
as
reasons
God.
it and
Teosia's
as
only
ocean
to
come
If
us.3
flighthas
stirred up
irregularities
any
may
can
we
few
gossipand most
"God
meaning:
brings also
are
the smallest
mischievous
[a bushel]. Thanks
[children],
you
exceptionaloccurrence
an
it,for
is 7 roubles
leave
living[without saving],
in their
so
for
[property]
more
son, reflect
Dear
Consider
anything
of your
is
more
much
that rye
you
there is work
bushels
everythingelse
For
man.
family.2
now
God
thing,and
to be
you
don't mention
you
the admonition
Remember
Don't
to
first
wish
We
passingalready,and
church.
faith is the
For
be
year
letter
your
The
far
and
for other social units,as villages
or
less admitted
not
family for
to
as
attitude is evidentlynot
is stillmore
responsibility
religious
so
an
your
acknowledge
sins."
common
to
do with
of the
group-solidarity.
s
The
tendency
new
to
advance
as
by
family, which
servantnot
was
in cash.
as
was
and
too
poor
to
support
it was
livingis here
earned
member
his living
there
even
Even
groom,
economic
work
ago
mere
now,
condition
in the Osinski
But
here, with
re-
MARKIEWICZ
you
have
buy
or
few hundred
farm
SERIES
roubles,I
for you.
somewhere
[add]my
will take
The
467
inn in
Dobrzykow
perhaps somethingelse
in
I received
SON:
intend
to
back
come
to
in my. hand
trembled
birds who
dare
to hold
to the
or
from
flyaway
did you
until he broke
hand
my
in
shook
their native
this
At
You
taught you
never
I don't
Well,
mention
How
ought
to criticize
that
later!
even
back !
come
of
Europe
you
"
of him
don't
recordingit. Why,
[mean] words
are
the paper
moment
place stilldo
such wretched
1908
us
sale,
that you
off
make
for
29,
much
rejoiced
you
parentalexhortations.
You
became
cause
country.
our
to pronounce
clergy.
what
letter.
your
I will
MARKIEWICZ
March
good
the
is now
J6zEF
148
DEAR
and
money,
that you
know
forgot
about
is
pity that
useful to man,
when
your
And
with us it is
now
conjectural.]
don't absolutely
we
requireyou
money,
because
nothing more
I have
of
son
Jan,
went
family. Three
yourselffor
forgetabout
don't
to have
always
I try
to
to
of my
it has
as
to send
hundred
few
your
to
translation
been
As
when
any
roubles
on
to
cannot,
you
hand.
Only
later years
the army
sons
and
back.
come
you
use
you
the
there he found
Petersburg and
father's brother
are
Wiktor,
news.
there.
One
our
of them
I end
home.
as
to
why
son,
The
?
severely
gard
Waclaw,
are
you
the situation
angry
his income
of the
stillWaclaw
do it by working in America
on
so
May
not
you
nests.
J. MARKIEWICZ
and
why
do
you
family is
almost
us
answer
brilliant when
as
at
forget,even
that it was
so
girlswept after reading this letter,
by peasant standards,and
but live
these words:
swallows
Dear
letter with
my
to
losinghis time.
so
quite
measured
If he
cannot
ing
If he does noth-
468
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
to
And
that you
love your
are
to say ?
we
to us, but
back
come
we,
You
I believe
J
country
[YOUR MOTHER]
September
149
DEAR
And
SON:
for
asked you
we
September
Dear
7.
but
answer,
an
Then
name-day.
to
as
....
son,
answered
once
today,
day when we
complain about
did
not
none
at
letter until
no
not
was
had
we
you,
we
received
we
7, 1909
us!
I don't know
what
and
tears
Everybody
to you.
wait.
ask
begin it with
Maks.
They
allow
to read
us
With
worth
about
for
new
as
at least 500
They
are
all worth
don't
see
any
daughter]and
for her
old;
the
same
blessingof God
even
wedding
so
have
we
they came
horse,
roubles.
not
say
we
will add
Teosia
and
some
more,
Wacek
were
anythingabout
any
that
for
to
us
They had
them.
askingus
for
of land.
6 morgs
to Franus.
them.
only
hundred
loan,so
I
[one
[roubles]
her
For
the young
generation,cf. Introduction:
how
showing the
"Peasant
contrast
between
Family."
We
not
3 cows,
already,but
money
from
it has been
wagon,
some
give them
for
us
to
the letter.
given them
must
we
hard
was
have
with
of
100
law] is
We
word
giving any
roubles,a
100
but it
me,
happened
everythingis
us
what
to
said
without
somewhere
understand
tried to comfort
at home
father went
Your
I did not
tears.
see
result of God's
Dear
son,
much
very
Our
think
we
that you
work], so
no
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
470
Lord
have
it,for
about
much
work.
no
But
healthy,dear
are
you
Consider
nothing to do.
has more
than
[left]
there is
God
you
has
He
it and
don't
Be
spent.
grieve.
healthy,be
son
[YOUR MOTHER]
May
151
DEAR
SON:
You
....
roubles.
do harm
to me,
I should
increase the
neither
boy. But I
But
why can
Come
not
return
Right
or
land
to
buy
to
that you
I
so:
100
don't
thought that
and
bad, dear
have
you
not
is vain.
[offortune]does
have
enough
not
give it back
here.
will
We
roubles.
100
dream
If you
son.
Mielczarek.
well,perhaps God
"
whole
My
you
from
these
you
home, while
money
back?
come
It is very
journey, take
now
money
it is
me
I send
more,
enough
should
Why
once
send
live
to
here.
to you
others
even
for your
with
yourself.And
but to
those
enough
them
[1910]
no
give it.1
Your
father,
J. MARKIEWICZ
June
152
DEAR
In
SON:
home
our
and
....
rye
is average,
nice.
4
Our
the peas
horse
is
Plainlythe fundamental
the whole family,to arrange
type of
The
a
to
play
an
can
dream.
nice
cow,
as
never
have
roubles; we
man
to
field the
nice,the potatoes
before,we have
have
we
our
sold
one
and
cow
pigs,ducks, of
all
all hi
them
his own,
ciently
themselves, suffi-
solidarityamong
peasant
young
In
already.
ideals in harmony
instructed
father.
one
as
As
Elzbieta,she won't
to
as
views
good health.
cattle
attitudes and
very
nice,our
cows
got 60 roubles,and
of
not
is in
everybody
[1910]
20
and
life,
of which
an
old
MARKIEWICZ
have
poultrywe
This
work.
building
and
100
We
must
have
on
than
all.
is not
barn
Later
more
SERIES
made
471
pieces; there
a
is
often
help Pecia,because
shack
for themselves
nice amount
of
they are
of the stable.
hi
etc.
"
the
into
drug-storemove
and
enough;
wept
than
And
ever.
about
house.
our
What
[settled
in]my
it fell upon
now,
I do ?
can
eyes, which
about
care
want
I did not
she would
new
have
asked
You
grieved
are
worse
well their
own
write you
something
I have
now
what
for
so
him
with
be still had
may
scarlet fever.
hence
years
children.
father
it would
know, dear
You
to me
comes
Now, thanks
10
and
to
says:
they
if Wacek
"Ah,
themselves,
amuse
came
what
now,
joy
be."
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
August
153
DEAR
SON:
As
to
....
we
let
are
our
The
present
With
very
satisfied.
Lord
God
If
bless you.
marriage about
your
all wish
generation,which
we
find in many
as
you
which
with
avarice
and
letters,seem
to
the
norms
want
you
[1910]
you
wrote,
her
to
singlevoice:
unreliabilityof the
have
real
ground.
regulatingeconomic
be,
tions
rela-
individualistic stage of
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
472
"Whatever
consider
[Crops.] Your
wings
the
on
father
windmill;
flour,Alfons is mowing
the
work
farther
who
you,
it will take
wanted
the
married
Elzbietka,but
our
is
us,
Wacio, what
house
she
Stasio
about
But
she
did
not
is
grinding
all
push
She
has
whom
I wrote
him
want
occupied with
the
put
Broncia.
about
baker
betrothed
is your
Write
to
sewing a dress,we
write
You
She
you."
to
Franek
weeks.
some
Elzbietka
peas,
with
just now
went
on
grant it
to do.
intend
you
God
world,may
and
to her
in whose
uncle
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
[September13, 1910]
154
DEAR
stochowa] I
much
are
God's
grieved that
Mother
don't
son,
are
you
be angry
having lent
[talksmuch
as
well
not
in
healthyenough,
am
that
returning from
After
-SON:
with
good
for you
this loan
all.
to
roubles,because
they
will
from
will
we
begged
dear
now,
[fornot
aunt
in the
her your
and
And
your
but
home,
at
us
good health
success
about
us
all of
as
place [Cz"-
miraculous
right spot
give Pecia
40x3
Jakubowski
[YOUR MOTHER]
son, mark
Dear
it
should
in my
You
to
do penance
you
could
not
let money
get them
back
go
while
away
roubles from
1
There
The
is
happened
house
our
during
Stasiek
us.
letter shows
no
mention
how
at
and
about
month
the
to
more
not
clearlywhat
are
enough
few hundred
of
zloty
with
ago
that it is easy
know
put it together. An
who
Mroczkowski
Mr.
he
When
credulous,and
left he
now
took
I don't
15
know
family. The
"to consider
pleasehis parents.
is bread
advise him
totallydifferent toward
You
summer.
too
return
years.
10
favor you,
Here
it is difficult to
was
her personalityand
there ?
how
for
does not
me
gave
and
to
house.
health
well,if your
Compare
the
parents agree
the matter
stays
son
at
with
well."
home;
No.
145.
The
attitude is
MARKIEWICZ
when
need
If you
what
money,
She
any
for
livingwith
when
I did not
she met
her son,
bellywith
[orders].
such
more
Moreover,
filled your
and
473
don't send
you,
send it to you.
can
reproachedyou
forget
Andzia.
saying that
his food
if you
as
"
you
did
for
pay
beg
Mackowa
[ironical]
Mrs.
....
not
SERIES
Y[our]f[ather],
J. MARKIEWICZ
November
155
SON:
DEAR
....
his water
upon
As
winter
If not
surelydecide.
butcher
boy, a
him
whether
she will
know
don't
Well, we
day.
Elzbietka,she has
to
[1910]
how
from
it will
Lubien.
or
I have
for my
[sins].Always new
enough now
guests, always some
fashions,always these new
things,so that my income does not
trouble
new
suffice.
And
know
you
is not
there,we
if it must
had, even
dear
son, I
for my
beg
100
money], so
we
and
cattle,
Your
father
the children
[somuch
But
when
the
palm
speak to
200, but
must
nice
if I sell
says
or
cow,
that] it
aside.
put money
horse,but
some
it.
So,
of the hand!
I must
dressed,while
send it as
can,
hog, or
also
have
it must
gram,
be spent.
Well, we
We
gave
[must
have
nice
hogs, nice
work
crack.
If you
Bicia
to be
cannot
stillgive 200.
must
we
that my
so
father about
your
justexcuses
bad
in the
be
it must
He
and
says:
I may
"Then
....
only
shop, she
has
we.
must
work
pupils and
sews.
so
much.
Zonia
with
work
keep
?"
all this]
don't
is not
Bicia
will
thing
everyis
tinually
con-
help
her
and
presently,
that you
under
sometimes
But
thing
any-
aside;[yourfather
and
from
it."
"When
so:
very
because
possible,
as
be put
Pecia
do without
can
begins to overtake
it is useless to
soon
be cut out
you
needs.
Zonia
that
so
we
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
474
for
read
to
me
this and
unceasingHelp
forgetyou
not
flow.
tears
my
Mother
of
trulylovingmother,
Your
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
156
February
DEAR
SON:
bought
We
you
he
her
will "walk
whether
half
A.
the matter
that
you
of
for
anything
old.
year
be
in
wedding, but
America,
till
not
so
to
comes
wife]but
that.*
And
I don't
know
himself
when
don't
of Pecia's children
one
Stasiek is
he
remember
died,a
from
happiness
mind
out"
I wrote
received
when
own,
walking [insearch
and
for
one
to
roubles,and
Polcia.
[Sicknessof
for it is impossiblefor
[parents],
parents]. Let them rather set up a
[toher husband's
there
place of their
walking
brother
thank
we
and
to go
he has
for which
[1911]
coat
[sheep]
Elzbieta,there is
to
Easter,because
comes
roubles
50
....
fur
one
dresses,
children.] As
after
received
We
and
good
in
success
T.,3because it is of
no
the
married, don't
Get
year.
new
use
[MARKIEWICZS]
June
157
SON:
DEAR
We
received your
again 50 roubles.
and
thank
them.
We
If you
can,
The
Thanks
even
social
contrary, understands
real eagerness
1
It would
whole; he
the
and
very
form
family. The
sympathizeswith the
of the
well and
to start
Evidently
to
safe
woman
woman,
earn
place.
is here
and
their
own
look
as
home,
the help of
girl,and probably
one
if she had
whom
one
even
not
ifin this
on
seems
the
of the
members
have
to
general plans.
enough
earn
if
you
littleunderstanding
were
have
to
seems
member
be bad
roubles,
[Health,weather,
lost.
man
[1911]
of any
to contribute
be
but
they lack anything actuallyand individually,
family whenever
no
200
will put it in
We
attitudes of the
man
a
once
allowed
that He
it won't
most
of the
be to God
more,
typicallyexpressed. The
and
....
you
send
letter
went
to
live
the real
cause
son.
he did not
succeed
in marrying.
MARKIEWICZ
have
crops.] We
breed
pigs,22
....
than
horse,4
SERIES
cows,
young
475
a
cow,
bull of
young
turkeys,ducks, chickens;we
geese,
have
good
more
preparing for a
that Janek K.
at last marry
She did
wedding. Elzbieta will now
not want
him, but evidentlyit is God's will for her,for she despised
him, but he did his best to pleaseher again. But the wedding won't
be
100
than
sooner
We
can
buy
must
be done.
has not
He
ship.
government
grants.
September,because
the worst
thingfor
every
ask about
You
he is
are
we
far
as
Sandomierz,on
as
salary. It
her and
Pecia and
will be
give her
God
as
nothing
away;
Franus.
They were
children;they spent a
the
sick in
nice
sum
in
children loaf
shooing them
off.
Franus, since he
mounted
She
is
boat
the
always
of
Mrs.
Jaworska,is sailing
up to the present as captain. He does his best.
Perhaps our Lord God won't refuse happiness also to that other
for Elzbieta is a good, honest,orderlygirl. Nothing is
[son-in-law],
amiss with her.
We
hoped something else for her. Well, nothing
be done.
Polcia is also a good girl,
but surelyshe will soon
become
can
it is true,
a loafer.
They singin the church in the choir,beautifully,
but
I have
the
more
do.
to
Stasiek wants
mother
farm]. What
do you
to
this?
to
say
marry,
but
What
know
that
only if we
shall
they have
[the
will him
do?
we
....
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
158
[August-September?]15,
DEAR
We
SON:
and
Elzbieta
great
it.
We
had
above
has
The
if she
case
to future
for
was
be
times.
Janek, but
As
letters
your
Well, you
have
no
much
care
to
She won't
who
man
girlwith such
wonder
regret it
Well, nothingcan
despisethe
choose.
received
1911
prizesherself much.1
Even
now
she
he
of
has
girlis much
a
worse
in Plock
was
In
than that of
higher instruction
and
taking
family which
a
boy.
better
The
rises
latter
and
position,
476
business
lessons,so
God, Zosia
she
profitedonce
be done
can
As
somewhat.
more
work
Well, I
much
to
lap one
in,but
I have
it
spend
to
would
beg
helped.
the
or
not
on.
know
for
be done
can
be
But, unhappily
I must
so
I have
that the
so
have
other
enough
great detriment
put
some
things
to
you,
paid who
another
tends
the
familyand
the whole
calls for
cattle.
[have anything
about
anything
it,for
not
child,or
one
be
for
work,
roubles for my
few
must
from
[Greetings
in
if it would
if I breed
bought
boy
won't
for
you
enough
money
So
Even
be
must
what
another,but
over
and
teeth
my
to
our
for
Thanks
executioner
an
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
something else,
And
do
to
father
your
with]
all this.
are
America.]
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
send
[Przanowski],
waited long enough.
Maks
I have
those
me
beg
roubles back.
100
you
I think
that
much.
very
[I.M.]
November
159
SON:
DEAR
nut, but
eaten
in
gave
him
speak
to
everybody is in
home
our
home.
our
In
be
glad
such
health
lot
only
him
tired,""I don't
cannot,"
about
Don't
etc.
"I
working:
speak
him
to
in this respect
am
about
secondary
this
or
make
life are
find
difficulty
an
opportunityto
marry
above
of her
own
is that, after
fearingto
aspirationsare
But
to
marry
her class,as
above
an
then
good match
old maid
more
than
which
to
is not
does
marry
the
enviable.
not
below
come,
her
to," "I
to
be
done,
rise
diately
put her imme-
better marriage,
the conditions
a
to
of
girlwill with
also
men
easilyreconciled
well
girl cannot
milieu in which
waiting for
remain
in
worm-
somebody
want
theirs.
man
But
the way
if
that
But
matter.
etc.,but don't
as
It is not
but
to marry,
5, 1911
preferto
marriage with
The
usual result
she finallyresigns,
aspirations.These
478
1
PRIMARY-GROUP
60
January
DEAR
SON:
know
You
when
that
anything bad
big
cows
much
grinding,as
with
Pecia's children
are
neighborhood.
In
scabs.
is
him,
want
As
Well, it will be
lose.
and dancing
religious
Seweryniak,and so
Andrzej Kusio calls
and
another
comes,
as
from
top
goes
to
to
ask
roubles
Matusiak
we
who
and
cash
and
whether
been
and
boys
from
the
also,""And
don't
from
brother, I
about
sick for
in
out
our
sick with
has
smallpox,
than
more
in
don't know
We
have
at
wife].
sews,
When
Sunday
manor-farm, and
and
Pecia
it
or
sings
comes
little. One
amuse
we
selves.
our-
Elzbieta; when
she
home
have
it will
wants
and
cuts
of
to
up
how
[in search
to the room,
works
home
our
be, whether
and
helps Elzbieta.
teacher,but
new
Zonia
orthodox
an
and
sum
Write
to
the
us, asks
us
to
interest; and
whether
us
200
what
have
you
wrote
you
greet you:
"From
me."
....
YOUR
Dear
is,4
bigger than
learns.
are
spread
In
we
She
you
is
average
and
her moments.
them
got married.
with
any
has
it will
she has
upon
She
school and
so
[Russian],
You
army
there
grants.
she passes
the kitchen
the bottom.
how
God
songs,
the
Elzbieta,if anybody
to
I don't know
so
There
people lie
many
do
we
worth
are
are
justnow.
and
here
walking
scabs
later.
died
wife
Bulkoski's
the present
as
us,
lies almost
the liver
from
came
smallpox. Antoni
has
Maks
He
year.
Witek
news];
no
farm-stock
are
crops
ill,because
somewhat
Tokary, Dobrzykow,
Walenty's
Antoni's
Our
etc
Our
pigs which
cow,
young
roubles,geese, ducks,
100
there is wind.
as
calves,one
share it with
to you,
family.
your
have
we
thank
home
our
griefto
[when
you
good happens
or
In
sufficient
grieve about
all
we
of
cause
1912
we
....
be such
don't
20,
for which
letter
your
....
with you
be
received
We
but
heartily,
you
me
ORGANIZATION
am
addressingthis
and
PARENTS
letter in
of Pokorski
the
FAMILY
home
the tile-maker.
of my
Our
MARKIEWICZ
and
father
mother
betrothal.
The
SERIES
here
are
marriage
479
expresslyfor
is to
be
after
the
first
[preliminary]
don't
Easter, so
ShiP-dcket
March
I
SON:
beg
....
should
the
[STANISLAW]
161
DEAR
send
17, 1912
oftener,for why
house everybody is hi
you,
we
I must
not
the
eat
for
breakfast,
themselves.
[Markiewicz]
roubles
an
that
Well, and
Maks
has
to this school."
'yes'!" If
here.
engineer,and he
as
And
intend
you
Don't
father
your
to send
"Your
him
answers
some
money
squeeze
sickly
Jan
thousand
some
roubles,that he passed
10,000
says:
I must
now
already sent
examination
"
thick,"or
Now
boasts
I shall be
Waclaw
"
You
send it ;
is also
stupid,say
are
shall
we
going
place it
be
won't
do as your
afraid, we
grandparents did.
[Incomes and expenses;
weather.] And beware of these "engineers"
and locksmiths
and cabinet-makers,because both sides [the parents
here and
the
receive
and
letter,
worth
there]are
sons
read,because there
your
are
the
father is
When
same.
there,they never
alwayssome
secrets
that
from
"
him
to
engineer.".
.
.2
.
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
162
October
DEAR
thank
SON:
you
Pecia
resort
to
instead.
After
There
on
families,
hence
down
the
her
Her
score
rivalrybetween
[1912]
which
we
....
The
weight but
falls back
tends to acquire an
is evident
for
last letter
her class.
marriage Pecia
successful farming.
while Elzbieta
2
keeping
her
your
pained us [inwriting]that
heartily.You
lacingand
and
received
We
20
imitation
into
teeth
are
not
uses
the
your
external
ornamentation
peasant
owning
ideals of land-
of town-manners
is
cial,
purelysuperfi-
interior culture.
the two
of social standing.
Jan's family is
more
their
successful,and
"engineer," properlyapplied
used by courtesy of
higher polytechnical
school, is sometimes
graduates of lower technical schools,and hence again the irony and incredulityof
to
the envy
manifested
graduate of
the old
man.
in this letter.
The
term
480
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
home
was
very
was
sick.
I got sick
with
had
of
whatever
medicine
walk
can
from
bank.
We
pigs,a
has
you
once,
headache
head
pains me
With
the
put
Now
We
sold
We
sold
We
child,a daughter.
Be
than
more
you
will
whatever
you
can
earn
about
that
his
bushels
ask
always
says
America.
horse,
these from
[Crops.] You
here.
from
horse
littlestill. The
together
200
help
we
10.
field of
weeks.
two
we
If your
is
Seweryniak died.
lay for
the
on
....
it won't
He
in such
Fijolkowski[Fijolek].2
to
September
on
alone.
was
and
roubles
100
together.
god-son.
and
already;
come
geese, and
and
send us;
your
and
littlebut my
will add
cow
400
and
church
home
come
bad, because
very
from
little better,but
I work
roubles
200
make
not
but
possible,
was
I got
and
money
lent
I could
to
the way
on
so
Jankowski that
me
for it was
different,
it is somewhat
now
In
of
Old
pears.
healthy.
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
Dear
son,
need
you
[on account
fear
not
of
possiblewar], for
everybody here
is very
The
calm.
....
farm].
could take my
JOZEF
1
In
for
care
of
case
afterward
Jhe body,
making
peace
immediate
peasant is
with
God
not
and only
bringfirsta priest,
care
and it would
help. To
to
be
than
to
MARKIEWICZ
understand
this better, we
more
that
remember
must
tune
the old
enough
to
his dispositions.
make
2
The
Note
old peasant
fifteenth century,
adjectives,formed
the
their
names
were
never
from
But
the
this is not
done
160
the
man
"
or
names
"cki,
is called
"Fijolek."
which, dating
from
the
names
begun
No.
in "ski"
have
bourgeoisie)
names.
In
name.
ended
to
imitate
the form
in Galicia,
where
class-consciousness
to
is stronger.
MARKIEWICZ
SERIES
481
163
March
and
Love
happy.
in
added
Jan's house
one
you
Dear
what
beg
sons, I
to do.
Advise
near
you
much
very
my
now,
dear
sickness.
May
Wacio,
to send
Lord
our
have
God
reward
often to
to do.
Polcia,
Fijolkowski
then
send
cared
you
me
for
once
in
me
for it!
you
Your
Dob-
more,
as
Miss
marry
me
in,and
set
for Stas
care
what
us
Perhaps we
us.
healthy
for we
school,
formerlyin
intends
did
another
one
of the
one
don't know
we
saw
more
one
rowolska.
and
that you
another
evil,but good
another
only
God
another,as
one
love
thank
We
SONS:
DEAR
26, 1913
....
lovingmother,
ANNA
164
MARKIEWICZ
April 26 [1913]
Alfons
SONS:
DEAR
sold
that
old
horse
bought
and
....
3 years
one,
young
but
his
hip
somewhat
was
injured.
It
thing;
every-
difficult to
so
was
him
Surelywe
consider it and
must
gathered in all
sold; we
people, but
to
there
Jankowski moved
and
more
calmed
owed
will be
us
200,
but when
"calm
To
Survival
natural
survived
is an
in money
roubles
pay
borrowed
he
to move,
was
borrowed
was
made
old
we
took
with
and
us
in
only 4 roubles
2
us
When
yielded
productive purposes
greater than
loans,but is rare.
to
came
connected
for
roubles
100
and offered
back, and interest,
the creditors"
return
200
he
had
He
won't
product
expected, a
the Vistula.
shop is
Our
roubles and
100
beyond
the amount
Cf. Introduction:
agreed
"
more
upon.
Economic
than
This
was
custom
Attitudes.
"
482
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
how
astonished,
am
for you.
write such
can
you
father and
grave
things,that
care
[partwith] their
mother
chUdren
don't
we
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
165
July 3 [1913]
I
CHILDREN:
DEAR
will
her maidenhood
now
will
he waits
else,and
have
We
if for God's
as
great
alone, and
working
won't
[forour
So
perhaps
Polcia,she
to
hear to
anybody
decision]
Alfons
bought
when
pullat all,particularly
she
double
she won't
children,because
my
sorrow,
mare
mercy
As
have
we
here in the
was
know.
you
end
an
Andrzej,because
this
probably marry
to
come
betrothed
whom
Topolski,about
June, Edward
of
end
Elzbietka's
circumstances.
different
such
because
only now,
answer
....
going
has
now
begin to
my
strengthdecreases.
refuse obedience
November
DEAR
Thanks
received
SONS:
We
God
that
to
everybody is in good
working
600
roubles and
giveher
wrote
the
on
much
very
because
health
and
only one
her
to
27
the money
good health,because
in Pecia's house
also.
[1913]
from
in
you.
house
our
is still
Franus
and
are
the whole
100
refused.
is necessary.
in
are
you
offended
note
feet
to lend
me
roubles,so only 40
10
and
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
166
was
eyes, hands
My
Don't
roubles,but
But
you
are
think that I
am
her note,
so
she
right,quiteright,
not
good
to
little too
on
her,
take,
The
We
at the
were
Wladzia, Walenty's daughter, got married.
The
Swieckis' windmill
wedding. She married Guzinski of Plock.
back.
Maks
is burned.
[Przanowski]has not yet paid us the money
news:
We
have
bull,one
3 stacks of seradella.
young
roubles,12
bull,one
turkeys, etc.
We
chestnut
The
have
cows
horse, one
children
have
MARKIEWICZ
SERIES
483
litter. Now
Polcia,because
to
give [permission
?]
to
necessary
to sit at home.1
....
lovingparents
Your
and
family,
167
MARKIEWICZ
December
I thank
which
received
We
SONS:
DEAR
for
heartily,
you
the sheep-skins
to line the coat
I
make
big expenses"
touching father's
is in all.
....
of
600
[ours]and
400
of yours
We
should
all
lost
He
Alfons.
ask
and
how
me
and
[Stasio]
50 of Pecia.
have
money
roubles
the mare,
on
roubles
600
are
There
but
for
of
and
then
is so
that
we
But
us.
Andrzej'sbrother-in-law
a
damage
of 500
roubles
the
Americans.
about
ask
of them
most
brought such
have
not
letters.
writes
an
According
to
marry
if such
right.
case
younger
And
Elzbieta
is too
and
daughter
to
In
this
in her choice.
particular
the parents
are
give
so
dear
Lord
They
them.
work
no
God
From
did
You
enough, but
....
they would
it],
we
will
make
soon
The
give her
half-decided
case
are
therefore
any
dowry
a
before
family duty
to
wait
Therefore
to
parents
away
daughter considers it
the younger
are
to
measure.
avert
with Polcia
universal among
angry,
And
of
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
almost
custom
to the
trading
[somethingabout
shall do
we
[gether married].
end
1
head.
Well, at carnival
well
in
nice money
in your
Wacus
much
had
wagon.
God
earned
They
health
your
and
Well, may
back.
came
horses
they stole
there
money
has [borrowed]200
Fijolkowski
....
more
much
gave
the money.
us
gave
and
"
Ga.bin there
in
ours
100
the postman
You
bank
[Waclaw] and
in Radziwi
Alfons
money
the
In
when
justbeen
roubles,for
30
Don't
also,for father always says:
and now
we
can
buy what we need without
glad,and
am
....
had
we
letter and
your
....
[1913]
15
giveher
before Elzbieta.
484
1
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
68
January
DEAR
SONS:
[1914]
23
for
Stasio,to cross
[from America] 650
the
son
sent
boundary returning.] Rosa's
I did not
roubles,and Seweryniak's son 600, etc., but is it true?
it. And
count
Stasio,care for yourself. Dear children,we
you,
have
also wept on
and
Christmas
we
thought about you and we
talked [wondered] what
Alfons
are
doing there. But
said,
you
"They are better there than I am here,because these 3 girls[sisters]
beat
me
have
now.
God
forbid!1
and
don't
At
else in his
a
from
man
young
Bodzanow.
near
[tomarry] at
wished
He
farm
has
it until after
Plock,
carnival,but
burn
"
claims he
He
at
once
postponed
too
Elzbietka
place
roubles.
me
and
tailor,
has 1,000
let
even
we
[be
ourselves
also
[ANNA MARKIEWICZ]
169
April14 [1914]
at
us
We
are
about
once
Please
[cheating]
papers.
these gypsy
Andrzej. What
about friends.]
do you
to that
what
is the
news
your
speaks differently
news
anxious
very
because
answer,
We
shall
say
to it ?
our
and
with
you.
here
we
everyone
don't
[Weather; crops;
Your
papers
storm
believe
married
general
tfulyloying
[MARKIEWICZS]
Alfons
is without
and
any
personalclaims.
manner
his letter,but
matters.
In
almost
the mother
every
even
went
to
part.
He
rather
He
mention
After this,as
is not
unpracticaland
family there
no
numerous
is almost
America.
speaks of him.
probably is
This may
There
is
manner
at
of him
the only
is evident
son
at
from
the
all stupid,
is shown
as
by
diffident outside
in which
child worst
in the
of farming
he is treated at home.
exploited.(Wladek
family.
and
486
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
and
dwindles
while
away
it will be with
for me,
heavy
I don't
so, "If
says
know
do without
cannot
heat
and
And
wedding
of
But
if you
and
you
have
last
buy
must
The
dry.
so
if you
So
don't
to spare,
none
water, this
things, since
many
August.
with
was
send
can,
send
is
it,for it
is
year
so
is with
one
promised the
a
me
them,
for
YOUR
LOVING
few dollars.
home,
at
are
we
outside
are
MOTHER
February
172
Those
BROTHER:
DEAR
how
anything
and this
[a good marriage-feastand bride's outfit],
be
must
the fields
upon
always
We
it."
do without
can
burned
August, but
of
he
father,because
your
there,you
We
look
we
[Polcia's]
wedding
not
Everything is
heat is terrible
The
roubles
50
which
sent
you
10
[1907]
have
been
Dear
brother, I have been everyreceived,but not yet the 100.
where
in
b
ut
the
I
a
ll
the
don't
succeed in
[visited
girls
neighborhood],
suitable.
findinganyone
Now
I want
in
few
mother
days
and
But
to
12
whole
our
Andzia.
Only
an
if perhaps
wait,but
[new
If he willed her
even
till autumn
write
me
what
these
or
you
Bialeckis
12
even
that
morgs,
he
married
the
in
at
I would
till carnival.
her and
of the carnival
grinding,I
wedding,
have
not
want
for I did
in autumn,
marry
how
at
not
her and
know
You
do you
wedding
in
this
and
our
like her
Zych
to
her
to
get
now
speak
then
I will
does
farm-buildings].So I will
years,
think about
was
only in
much,
very
it is said
you
interceder
with
spring.
family from
that
know
you
in the
to you
come
before he builds
married
I sent
I will go
also,only
all.
at
Just today
her.
I shall
Andzia, Mlodziejewski's
daughter;
to marry
....
know
Probably
know
was
not
got
wait
I would
her very
well,so
of the
She
good.
acquainted with
her before
As
40
bushels
reserve
Y[our] b[rother],
STA[NISEAW]
MARKIEWICZ
to
lie
MARKIEWICZ
SERIES
487
*73
February 24,
DEAR
BROTHER:
An
awful
multitude
....
here to America.
from
wants
intended
him
to
of
brother,I will
Dear
Andzia,
I wrote
as
Pecia
gave
in my
her
people are
know
you
"
going
it is there.
him
The
"
boy
States.]
but not
surelymarry,
you
how
you
from
comes
in United
landing
Wincentowo
the letter
until
conditions
rightnow,
to go
go
We
his
send
to
Ulicznyfrom
of
1907
that
last letter
back, but
money
have
we
not
interest
The
for
feast
Zazdzierz
from
farmers
[forthem] ;
that you
say
to send
were
don't do it
but
STANISLAW
MARKIEWICZ
[June4, 1907]
174
date.]
[Followinghis mother's letter of the same
I have alreadyleft [the girlfrom] Dobrzykow,
And
Gostynno,
know
are
out.
Our
know
her, write
with
this
me
Maryanna
read
know
Well, you
This
to
Mania
Every
second
even
now
Bukowski,
be
to
have
you
but
to me,
not
celebrated
her.
to Mania.
with
You
Goszewski.
know
how
it will turn
until autumn.
I
to
now
greetingfrom them.
I don't
I go
As
much
pleasedvery
was
you
them, and
marrying.
my
only
yourselfhow
Write
bit
[separate]
to do.
Our
much.
pleasedme
Mrs.
anything about
and
favorable
wedding is
and
were
you,
all very
They
of Mr.
to the house
They speak
in
15 roubles
crops
such
about
are
Mania
Gostynno
Your
herself.
accordeon!
time
gaily
brother,
STA[NISLAW]
MARKIEWICZ
[September13, 1910]
175
DEAR
BROTHER:
improve,
inform
nothing succeeds.
When
me
I have
you
at
once;
begun
notice that
then
now
the conditions
I shall go
going to
Sunday she
as
average.
myself,and
how
And
letter
it
ica]
[inAmer-
to America.
Radziwie
to a
Here
but
girl,
488
PRIMARY-GROUP
I don't
in
know
marrying
from
all,and
at
the army
in the
daughter, while
send
to
there will be
send
I don't
done?
of
none
See
succeeds
us
here, Ignac
came
he marries
succeed.
Andzia, Mlodziejewski's
already intended to write you
wait
Radziwie, then
result in
no
know,
you
be
can
spring and
I will write
I learn
at
you
that
t
once
it back.
I will work
and
ship-ticket,
me
what
but
ship-ticket,
me
ORGANIZATION
STA[NISLAW] MAR[KIEWICZ]
176
October
know
I don't
BROTHER:
DEAR
what
as
rheumatism.
Just
littlebetter.
stillworse
He
simply
clothes and
winter
drives
overcoat
for
earn
I must
for
go to town
business,now
take
nothing from
everywhere that
Every week I
the shop now.
back
father.1
1
The
while
sell about
As
soon
and
If you
go
bought
send
me
clothes
for
said
to the
away
And
nominallyI
earn,
so
own
they
thing
every-
we
a
a
big
cap
expense.
But
father told
once
shop-stock for
my
needs.
I will
[from the
up
Father
we
my
in them
no
me
me.
I recover,
America,
to
year
nags
and
lamely, because
spiteof such
When
the money
only
letter shows
in
roubles of
as
that
it goes
Last
He
stih1sick.
am
know
drives
counting,so whatever
120
this.
I would
I will draw
up.
debt
have
we
walking
am
to go more
the army
I have
he
children,only
rheumatism.
You
goods.
without
been
and
everything home
can
I have
of this
Now
money.
from
came
any,
sheep-skincoat
give me
the other
of my
buy
afraid because
am
coming and
account
on
that he wouldn't
the small
take
is
winter
Now
ship-ticket
for 3 weeks.
to
but not
bought,
were
for
you
It will be necessary
want
Since
away.
me
enough,
factoryto
not
he did you,
than
warm
beforehand
often
father does
our
the present.
to
to the doctor.
I went
asked
lain in bed
I have
now
have
already,but I
be there
I should
and
long ago
a
would
healthyas formerly I
if I
do, because
to
....
were
23, 1910
because
am
tired
ship-ticketI will
most
gladly work
the young
the
the
too
MARKIEWICZ
whatever
back
I shall
There
at home.
roubles,a
100
indeed, we
Tokary
lives
He
give
at
earns
gave
because
more,
roubles
roubles
40
hi summer,
month
Elzbietka
has
Lubien;
from
have
We
worth
take
Their
father
know
one
older is
and
mother
another
beautiful
surely try
write
"Send
you,
next
us
week
to
to
Lubien
sisters.
two
dead.
Their
her
me
BROTHER:
if
here in
and
I
perhaps not.
must
You
borrow
beg
you,
far in his
from
succeed
make
that in the
live they need
in
closed and
from
new
more
This
the
is
cash
Plebanek
I will
MARKIEWICZ
31, 1912
I must
what
shame
at
home
your
money,
that found
because
is
now
going
conditions
would
the
400
Our
lent to
in his character
in
an
way
journey. So
in which
have
indeed.
and
he conceives
traditional peasant
strictly
economic
do
we
anything for
social and
When
there,I will
this,because
is particulary
unbearable
social standing in
family's
The
give me
give me
give me
to
me
will
roubles
600
are
in
answer
won't
because
group-attitude,
to
want
letter to Miss
somebody.
write father to
his tyranny
learn
....
help me
Your
that he won't
stronger tendency
And
know
Father
father,though there
people,says
and
then
nothing [results],
money."
or
must
country.
our
hogs.
here
even
ticket
for you
home,
our
Topolski. We
December
leave the
were
is
If I don't
hand.
here
is in America.
name
is
of them
177
on
buy
They
STANISLAW
DEAR
He
shop. They
brothers; one
two
are
Lubien, but
in
has
Stasiek
courtingElzbietka.
I will go
He
yet how
house.
at our
already,for his sisters were
only there is nothing [no money].
woman,
Jaroslaw,asking for
in
knew
You
I will
I recover,
to
come
don't,know
we
ed-meat
cur
roubles
120
reputationhe enjoys.
of them.
one
They are
what
he intends to
Now
Sunday.
on
they have
and
is
Now,
bought 6 morgs in
without
buildings.She
the shipof Mrs. Jaworska.
suitor.
Franus.
to
he has
and
morg,
roubles
100
in winter.
much
we
him
275
....
600
for 40,
cart
489
you
about
are
must
she
as
owe
SERIES
you
with
ordinary peasant.
needed
forty years
to
ago,
back
as
soon
more
pressingI
from
anybody
to pay
will wait
and
because
I won't
must
go.
thingsdon't get
give money
marriage,I have
As to my
now
myself what
marry.1
If
go
for your
debt
my
but
stranger, but I
some
If you
I get to you.
as
from
money
or
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
490
....
and
WACIO
comfort
I had
I inform
which
in that
wrote
you
that you
you
thought that
at least hi your
us
heart
my
that
letter,
write
would
you
wounded
I did not
letter.
second
such
us
ask
You
word.
carnival.
And
now
So
spent
we
the
how
America].
how
us
much
so
know
sad
1908
4,
myself[probablyabout
never
comfort
ably
prob-
STA[NISLAW] MARKIEWICZ
May
nity,
opportu-
an
to do
178
DEAR
to me,
come
back
.
Your
loving sister,
E[LZBIETA]M.
[November
179
WACEK:
DEAR
We
glad.
thank
look nice
and
received
We
for it and
you
And
enough.
I send you
it.
I shall cut
whether
it or
The
because
The
we
now
me
he cannot
find
rose
you
put
out
wild
come
the
asked
branch.
It grows
rose.
of the fruit
None
for
leaf of the
I don't know
; write me.
I will have
more
As
it done.
suitable girl,
but the girls'
parents refuse him.
1909]
your
4,
to the
The
It is not
The
reason
Stanislaw,acting here
too
farm
to
much
dowry, while
Stanislaw
he
cannot
himself
MARKIEWICZ
nut
does not
tree
I thank
him
grow
as] you
[persuasively
as
roubles
10
dissuade him
to finish it.
when
from
I have
mother
our
time
for
to
him,
let him
and
and
hi
[girl]
he does not
him
as
wish
it is time
write you,
can
Write
Pecia,and
Teosia,no bad
As to
whether
us
thinking that
while
with
was
the
was
is
news
mother
Grand-
presidenthas been
cannot
we
it
can
you
I think
marry;
therefore I
I
letter,
Stasiek,write
to
So write
you.
nicely.
grow
sad in
very
to
few words.
good health.
am
long
so
soon
write
She is
here.
is in
elected.
today
the last
wrote
going. Only
As
to leave
not
can,
491
very
heartilyfor the
you
SERIES
see
another
one
longingin foreigncountries,come
are
country
our
Your
lovingsister,
E[LZBIETA] MARKIEWICZ
80
[Date undetermined]
DEAR
WACIO:
maiden
for
Topolski],
for not
words
healthyenough
I feel very happy
and
his
even
having married
of
told you
him.
I meet
I
somebody accordingto
remain
can
I did not
maiden
for
Indeed
I did
marry
time passes
you
can
still
[probably
him
say
that he has
him.
marry
we
who
me
mean
know;
married,but
I work
time still.
me
short,he
In
I don't
now
I will get
sew,
to write
if
if not,
before,I have
as
embroider,and
so
the
away
MARKIEWICZ
ELZBIETA
181
March
DEAR
you
am
much
And
him.
We
same.
marry
also
very
not
mind,
my
and Zosia.
girls[apprentices]
two
you
you
some
the
thank
acquaintances
approve
my
beg
that account
and
me
and
I thank
him.
I would
for
not
was
I wish
companions
good advice.
character; just on
your
and
I am
heartily,
a
received
WACIO:
beg
you
very
much, if
you
think
26, 1913
that it
might
a
ship-ticket.Instead of both
please send me
for your board, you would
have me
as
housekeeper if I went
paying
So, please
there,and I could earn for myself during the free hours.
be
better
All
for me,
plantedby
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
492
write
what
me
think
you
acquaintances are
to
about
from
go
here
in
because
me,
America,
to
May
of my
some
I could
so
along
go
with them.
.
ELZBIETA
182
March
DEAR
BROTHERS:
letter and
send
more,
so
the
do
to
more
home,
at
sellingthe
are
go for money
shop
once
you
Kiszkowski,
I
Why,
don't
send
me
183
MARKIEWICZ
DEAR
WACIO:
truly,as
brother,that
to my
dawn
everything. We
offended
be not
even
if we
for
enough
be
not
give a
to
and
to lend
night,it would
to
us
write
You
household,it would
true
to
If you
ELZBIETA
from
beg
you
to
ticket,I will
30, 1913
I wrote
am
nothing
letters
your
ship-ticket.We
me
I have
have
now
I received
M.
said
gave
her;
even
us
prefers to borrow
that he [Franus,her husband] is not sure
in the
become
it is very
know
you
what
for her
gulffor
badly
strangers.
It is
from
all
at
but
[ofliving?] and
she would
She
say.
has
quite changed.
now
Although
that she
of his death
case
it is
and
She is so unreasonable
note.
farm
worked
enough, because
ordered
I tell you
to Pecia.
money
much
as
as
bad
do
must
it.
she is my
I don't
lies;you
write
sister,but she is
are
my
without
woman
character
Dear
overcoat
one
Stasio,I thank
of Alfons.
you
also for
It is true
that money
thing,while mother
the sake of
us
is
so
having
sent
for
is necessary
But
parsimonious
for the
money
than
more
she is
for
so
all
Your
loving sister,
ELZBIETA
but
J[aworska],
upon
once.
this
Franus
flowingwater
enough.
[ofPecia's
When
salaryraised by
throw
you
thing
any-
it floats away
expenses],
r.r
.-
[YOUR MOTHER]
at
PRIMARY-GROUP
494
ORGANIZATION
86
[No date]
DEAR
WACIO:
I thank
about
havingforgotten
or
they
marry.
But
and
I won't
whether
they
me
but I intend
ask
one
to
me
the
I have
I intend
one
in
farmer
village,1
if
to
me
I don't
know
they don't
all,
at
year
MARKIEWICZ
187
April 14 [1914]
DEAR
BROTHERS:
it
about
arranginga tripto
Zachowo.
For
write,Stasiek,about
You
you
also
I write
Elzbietka.
few words
So I
to
circle. Now
they are
joined the agricultural
the provinceKalisz,to visit the farms hi the village
villageis
This
the
of
kingdom
Poland,
only the peasants there have good order in the fields and
telephones,and electric
home, but they have in the villageeven
because
not
wanted,
order
from
AFOLONIA
at
one
them, but
not
betrothed
want, they
of
one
marry
The
Wincentowo.
from
of them
to America
to go
I don't
anybody except
will allow
whether
me
marry
to marry
now
You
one
and
me,
hi fact I have
now
allow
allow
me.
you
it
ago
was
also to go
So I want
and
it.
Ten
journeywill
The
see
cost
188
[December
I think
Christmas
solemnityof
whether
we
shall
we
spoke
Dobrzykow
see
each
O my
This
singlephrase
not
when
us
shows
want
to
be anything else.
mind,
think about
would
for it is
it,but
mother
wrote
that it was
village. The
type is frequent.
Ojcowizna, land-propertyhanded
some
perfectlyand
mill in
^what
the mill of
about
to Gombin
Maks
remember
you
the
alone knows
for God
Do
1912]
before
Now
Stas.
how
not
kept for
my
more.
going
thoughtthat
lifeand would
you,
other any
God!
to
between
once
wrote
yet
never
2,
generationsin
the
same
career
down
which
would
from
father to son;
family. Considered
more
if
particularly
valuable
from
MARKIEWICZ
him.
relyupon
I cannot
SERIES
If you
495
think about
set
the
up
in the
shop
will transfer
it
stone
here, where
building
the tavern
....
[Your father],
J[AN]M[ARKIEWICZ]
I inform
BROTHER:
DEAR
to school,but
finish it I shall go
that Maciek
you
is not
It
J. has beaten
bad, but
he
that
you
must
we
there is
Ziolek
pay
threshing. When
are
no
Now
money.
we
I inform
30
and
sit
weeks
in
prison
IGNACY
MARKIEWICZ
189
April20,
DEAR
BROTHERS
MAKS
I describe
Then
Christmas
first the
and
left arm
to
but
leg
her from
abuses
does not
up.2
(At present
brothers,but
dear
else than
his
and
death, and
And
if his mouth
then
after
written to his
2
The
supposed
a
member
marry.
of the
her property to
no
Well, if he
will shut it
we
I don't
know,
my
little time.
And
and
perfectly
or
Cichocki,the
acquiredas dowry.
is the
only one
he has
ever
son.
grandmother
to
man
?"
earned
point of view than property individually
is
because
some
appreciation particularly
strong
patriarchalnoble family are preserved.
This letter characterizes the old
[her husband]
gets looser
the
the
she groan
the moral
Here
then
Ostrowski
he died
After
....
Ziolkowski
does
Why
this swellingof
signof death.
to swell
with him.)
friendship
live hi
we
"
to time:
to reason,
come
leg began
it is awful.
received.]
and
grandmother's health.
grandmother stillwalks.
....
time
of
state
and
rightarm
quarrelsome that
so
the
you
written
[Letters
STAS:
AND
1912
He
married
cannot
Zi61kowski
cannot
an
age
be assimilated,and
property himself,and
at
claim
support from
she
was
no
longer
retire and
hinders
when
this because
Zi61kowski
of
has
496
PRIMARY-GROUP
father of
also swelled
Tomasz,
Switkoszanka
ORGANIZATION
died
8 weeks
Do
know
you
that
her
after
Dear
Maks
marriage?
to get the address of Jadzia L^czanka.
me
Well,
you asked
evidentlyI could not get it otherwise than by asking her good man of
a father personallyand
he, of course, granted my request. Please,
about
school,whether you are learning in it
Maks, tell me
your
already or when will you begin to learn. Nejman Felka's [husband]
....
....
in
was
house
our
yourself.
the form
It is
of
that you
different from
very
the conditions
note, and
those 1,000
something
praisesthe writingof
He
letters highly. He
your
after Easter.
Sunday
on
what
which
on
it
you
improving
are
was.
Send
us
wish
to send
us
roubles
Your
brother,
WIKTOR
Maks, mother
begs
MARKIEWICZ
you,
revelry
August
IQO
BROTHER
DEAR
Pardon
MAKS:
me,
....
you
school-certificate for
your
that
it
need
you
there,do
school
badly.
present it,because
will
Don't
in 3 pages
he treated him
to
keep
gun
were
in
am
I cannot
earn
exhausted
on
how
God!
see
from
want
your
it to show
when
I got it from
a
Russian
I took
care
the
you
1
for
it in the
you
of it.
It
was
hog.1 [Relates
that Russian
to go hunting, how
post-official
drunk, and
he
how
get.]
money.
different
unhappy
which
reserve
purchases,such
am
that
The
our
as
I had
from
Dear
father is
or
leaving the
position,
some
brothers
to whom
official,
last year
so
indifferent
Maks
Maks
may
to
so
was
clothes,shoes,etc.
of
last grosz
is bad, and
orchard
when
he smells
purchases,and particularly
pocket then he won't buy anything,and in that way
matters
last postcard
got him
very
a
that you
I don't
But
sending
not
he invited
and
long,for
I guess
not
you
so
for
please,
2, 1912
us
my
in
rouble in your
he draws
from
and
Stas, I don't
have
appliedformerly
MARKIEWICZ
that
doubt
love
you
letter you
and
don't be
me
excuse
497
as
sincerely,
brothers,and that after
my
will send me
[money] for a nice gun.
Well,
It is only a joke
angry.
me
receivingthis
SERIES
.....
WIKTOR
MARKIEWICZ
[August 2, 1912]
Further, to
bought
your
this
satisfied with
newly bought
and
smaller
is much
for
paid 220
and
and
does
did not
do
this,father
from
Far
not
money
does
need
strange you
not
to
to
well
is very
that
father has
our
brother,for not
dear
sleep,because
for
to
so
which
send
scythe.
the
tomorrow
him, why he
"Your
mother
grand-
Well, what
me
that it is
long a time.
Probably
but
Maks
hand
there is
intends to
the notes
awaits
nobody
send,it
first. Excuse
me,
is stillawfully tired
work
same
our
grandmother
to
I asked
back
sent
writingcarefully;
my
mowing barleywith
from
back
to the money
as
back
of
totallysettled.
And
give it to her.
is
not
the money
well
sell my
to
to the address
grandmother, he answered:
Even
grandmother guesses
intends
the matter
send
is very
roubles
100
instead father
200
of
to
that ?
do not
sent
you
we
received
probably that
think
even
fit
not
that
answer
Father
he
has not
give the
say
you
believe
you
Father
The
one.
and
heartily.
you
and
mare,
color.
mare,
they do
slower.
father
of black
mare,
I thank
horses
chestnut
except my
also,because
mare
for which
questionsabout
thoroughbred
one
chestnut
the papers
continual
have
and
I received
STAS:
DEAR
me
lie down
to
.....
WIKTOR
Sta" has
probably borrowed
by
he would
could
not
the grandmother
be
be
The
subordinated
it
want
to
that he wants
would
act
same
simplydishonest
is stillso
of Sta" not
as
not
his
if performed
back,
consider it
whole, while
on
mother
grand-
keep it makes
But
member
to
be dishonest
personallyfor himself,but
much
dishonest; he does
And
evident.
it would
of his sons;
any
because
The
acknowledgment
her money
his grandmother
from
money
to
familial purposes.
498
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
December
IQ2
BROTHER
DEAR
I
inform
that
you
for money
[Thanks
STAS:
2, 1912
him.] Further,
already settled. She
sent
grandmother's affair]is
most
so
arm,
also
you
grant her
before.
to
sleep.
slowly
recover
don't
But
In
he
is
trying to become an
an
officer].O stupid
clean!
if he is not
anythingto
answer
orderly,he
appointedan
this.1
backsides
Further,he
writes
that
hospital
[asservant]. Well, you see, he does not try at all to return home
[by being pronounced unfit]. My advice is lost. Cieslak's son came
him and tried to
He says that they tormented
back 3 months
ago.
frightenhim, but he did not change his behavior until they let him
illness.]You see,
[Probablyhe pretended or exaggeratedsome
go.
that is
farm-
[Marriages;weather, crops,
man.
Christmas.]
WIKTOR
I thank
from
you
book
some
paper],and
beg
MARKIEWICZ
the
Crossway" [probablycopied
you
for
like this
more
one.
February
193
DEAR
BROTHERS
MAKS
STAS:
AND
mother's
times I
began to
send you any of these letters,
pain by these letters,
informing
....
Three
15, 1913
and
illness,
the
time
about
the
slight
sickness of our dear littlesister Weronika, to which at the beginningwe
We
waited for mother's health to improve, and
paid less attention.
God the Merciful granted to our mother better health,so I started to
you
write you
letter.
But
["Swi$tejPamieci,"
1
at
alas! from
"of
sainted
same
the
memory"]
our
dear
The
Russian
rarelyfound
frequent and
among
among
peasant
evidentlyaggravated in this
Russian.
case
Among
nobility almost
because
the
man
of S.t P.
slightweakness
found
army)
Michal
-The
the
among
Russian
universal.
whom
little sister
and
it is
situation
would
serve
is
is
a
MARKIEWICZ
Weronika, some
and
He
alas,no
this
of the
to
called Doctor
lungshad developed,
of recovery.
hope
his best to
499
stronger illnessdeveloped. We
....
Grzybowski.
SERIES
Nevertheless
he did
our
for the
useless,
in time!
Jesus, came
February
Then
From
February
she recovered
i, she
raved
in fever up
to
full
she ceased to
consciousness,
to rise from her bed, saying so:
"Mother, I will
groan, she wanted
for I am
tired [oflying]."
so
get up, dress myself and walk a little,
Oh
3.
God, who
my
in Weronika's
health!
8 o'clock in the
joy in seeingsuch
imagine our
can
But
our
evening. Then
she
began
improvement
an
longerthan
until about
to lose consciousness
again.
"Stas!"
"Indiana
Harbor"
despairingly "Maks!"
and so she called
[whereboth brothers were],then again "Michalek!"
of her relatives and acquaintancesmore
than once.
one
So,
every
dear brothers,we did not expect that before her death Weronika
my
She
called
would
want
to
to call us,
all of us.1
see
February 4,
prescribed. About
she ended
1913,
light,in the
sister Weronika
eleven
onlyfrom
which
About
her life as
presence
transferred
was
of
to
in the
o'clock after
calmly
all.
us
The
the church
midnight,on
guished
extin-
someone
body of S.t
P.
our
February 5, at
day,after the holy
on
o'clock in the
if
as
to drink
I wrote
you
about
it at that time
WIKTOR
1
The
death.
this
familial feelingis
Death
case
we
is no
do not
reported what
of the absent
more
know
always manifested
purelyindividual
should have
MARKIEWICZ
that
suspicion
The
In
the brother
relatives.
of the
death is a remnant
of signsforetelling
expectation
religion.Cf. Introduction: "Religiousand Magical Attitudes."
3
of
old naturalistic
PRIMARY-GROUP
500
Stas,I thank
Christmas, and I beg
Dear
the money
waste
name.
you
you,
care
you
earn
which
in
am
terrible
ORGANIZATION
for
I received
after
by work.
after
sorrow
which
beloved
our
God's
Weronika
YOUR
MOTHER
April 8, 1913
194
DEAR
American
about
As you
STAS:
wheat
this
cholera
BROTHER
permission to keep
First I mention
gun.
to
may
you,
about
for not
they have
But
questions.
being
interior
1905-6 I
he
it down.
the whole
and
then
such
gave
kind
as
will
it in my
to send
Grandmother
from
name
groans,
but
Grandmother
groaning alone,and
the
to
me
the minister
it is
of the
If not,
beg Maks
With
sister
to
came
for up
they will
now
us
to be
we
so
America.1
walks
is angry,
I will
with
proofsthat
I have
to
political
angry
judge it
and
emperor,
in
opinion of
an
affair is sent
the senate
complaint to the
Opas is
But
....
shall write
interested
was
all.
proofsat
no
latter wrote
Now
true
in
and
mayor,
constable,and the
not
that
me,
both
live in
we
grandmother,
to the
groan.
Ziolek
to
stay
is very
brittle
I went
with
well
to
I got
acquainted
If it doesn't end
of
one
of them.
[WIKTOR]
1
In order to
passport,
to
get any
open
to
or
even
never
have
acted
PRIMARY-GROUP
502
it to the communal
rumors
Russian
that
American
view
home.
money
is to
dear
you,
assure
with
he has saved.2
and
Stas,sincerely
conscience
my
on
you
country
our
the
equaled
rouble]. Well, if this happened
money
i
in
be
would
one
I must
[$i is to be worth
money
than
more
bank
heard
are
ORGANIZATION
send
truly,
that I won't
your
lose it and
won't
In
successful with
in
Kowalczyks
would
Czyzew, this
be necessary
I would
money,
show
to
money.
to show
for
there
even
more,
irretrievable loss.
[News about
no
Oh
have
5,000
cash
efforts will
my
great God!
my
farm-
orchards,crops,
need
It
sent
your
know
be well
It would
themselves,
money
of their own.*
bring me
it,
the
me.
stranger would
least 2,000.
at
to
there,so if you
Stas,whether
dear
know,
I say
I needed
case
great help
bolder,because
who
[competitors]
are
least 2,000
at
be that much
that it is borrowed
will be
money
In
I don't
happinessor
implore you
an
help me.
friends.]
to
work; marriages of
[WIKTOR]
[No date]
197
MY
ask about
you
The
what
distrust in American
the Polish
of this kind
Rumors
from
misunderstood
emigrant who,
not
newspaper
to
it.
profitby
Often
This shows
money,
it would
And
such
Nor
he
girlso
would
were
her
individual
The
ought
control of the
from
the
commune.
Sometimes
sources.
they
the story of
having
and
spread such
may
come
returning
standard
no
to guess
in order
intentionally
news
their
dowry brought by
source.
the
humiliation
to
care
man
or
to take
out
with-
in education.
member
of
family, and
of them
of money
which he may
bring.
be considered humiliating for a man
without fortune to marry
not
far as he is personallyconcerned, because he would
give his work.
equal
to
you
it is impossibleeven
least not
at
it be
but
the
exclusivelyeconomic.
or
various
Jewish merchants
or
as
bankers, most
the agents
Swatowna,
article;sometimes
the possiblefrom
for distinguishing
sometimes
this
is justified,
as
many
the immediate
from
come
About
me.
banks
savings-bank is under
communal
for my
me
lot awaits
Jewish,operatingamong
3
Swatowna
know
I don't
ask
You
STAS:
DEAR
have
money,
as
more
provided
an
isolated
importance
for
it is a proof that he
comes
from
rich family.
MARKIEWICZ
I tried
know,
all this
and
hard
so
brought
to
me
SERIES
503
hard
many
steps,
all
right
basket"
[the
out
come
which
with
hopes
If God
Czyzew.
in the hands
of various
business
was
from
when
thingswere
there
go
again.
hated
[disliked]
me, but because
at her
[forreceivingattention
up
observation
want
found
occasion
some
pretended to
he wanted
well
me
and
for
come
as
was
to
could,and it seems
we
found
never
because
she
brokers laughed
[marriage]
I noticed that
still,
Mrs. K.
indifferently,
particularly
us
could
I do?
for he understood
with
different
I gave
evidentlyKowalczyk did
But
situation.
our
and
myself that
me].1 Worse
in this way,
came
to
sorry.
quitea
also to look at
me
I said
pained me
part with
to
All this is
few times
different
from
to treat
efforts,
though
my
not
as
Kowalczyks began
that
there
was
Evidentlyshe
This
bad
so
her.
the
to
in
Kowalczyks
it is a hard nut
But
the
men
wouldn't
myself about
it would
helped me,
of God.
time
I still deceive
his brother
business,but
we
my
wishes,
Piotr.*
He
guess
that
Well, we
that it pleasedthem
well
enough, and
hinder
reason
marriage.
The
marry
reasons
man
are
The
most
frequent
in Wiktor's case.
The occupation is also
as
position,
are
occupationswhich make a good marriage impossible
is the inferiority
of social
important.
very
for the
and
There
Among
man.
these
are
horses
catching stray dogs hi the streets, sterilizing
nection
in general occupationshaving a con-
It is
suitors
bad
policyto
dismiss
an
unacceptablesuitor
too
for
hastily,
the
more
girlhas the greater her value for each of them, and this influences the social
"Marriage."
PRIMARY-GROUP
when
them
I meet
they treat
also to them
in the
passing by.
They received
such
bashfulness
other very
in
was
rather late.
Pentecost.
her
She
letter.
So I have
will
you
well
greet you
well,and
She
will
know
of their
son
had
has
He
anything.
not
with
went
BROTHER
DEAR
MAKS:
In
sent
for Pan
Polski
favor].
of Mickiewicz:
Tadeusz
of time
Waste
to send
whore
MARKIEWICZ
14, 1 was
a
you
You
wrote
and
paper
in Warsaw
I
a
bought
the whole
you
letter to the
You
Kowalczyks
MARKIEWICZ
199
DEAR
just then
from
it
BROTHER
STAS:
from
in which
you
was
days later
performed
He
worth
beg
meet
you,
my
at
some
father got
in Grabie
was
complain that
our
him
dear
my
at
12
dear
you
distance.
The
have
wedding which
o'clock,at
brother
letter
no
was
news
be,
to
few
noon.1
and
Maks
....
I don't consider
Still,
brother,understand
affairs are
indispensable
orphan girllivingat
are
different
many
married
you
letter to
would
you
myself excused,but
February 1 8
on
I sent
....
expected that
how
When
In my
me.
and
land
24, 1913
copiesof the
few
WIKTOR
And
yet.
come
[inmy
August
....
They
asked
to write
grandmother's second
August
paper.
after
come
want
don't
I asked
about
me
198
and
passage.
asked
WIKTOR
MY
it
moreover
whole
uncle
deaths.]
we
perhapshe
with
greetedeach
we
briefly
my
if
as
Mania
togetherfor her
Bankowna.
husband]
and
was
me
to you
and
Miss
I went
them
upon
and
little
tried to treat
I met
to
me
spoke
I fibbed
come.
told
where
room
we
called
enough,
described
that
If you
marriages and
About
and
humor
and
April 2,
me
to the
I mention
when
you,
evening, on
came
good
very
Now
....
quitedifferently.Well, now
me
heartily.However,
was
ORGANIZATION
before,but
to
new
be
my
tion,
situa-
settled,and
acquaintance,an
girl's
dowry is very large,as
30 morgs
of
MARKIEWICZ
they absorb
and
turning around
the
wedding-ceremony?
troubles
turned
council
court
the winter
grain sown,
the barn
when
filled with
neither cart
dear
and
it rains
"
ruined,for there
look and
you
whatever
usuallyleave
tenants
for household
or
for
are
I received
30
to
one
barn, it
except
you
it.
And
here
and
part of
cow
it
in the stable
fences
be
cultivatingthe soil,must
building,
rain comes,
rains
the smallest
horse,
nor
the
repair.
must
even
it in the
the house.
near
hand, neither
in the
affairs
of land with
morgs
everywhere. The
none
only
is
into his
Stas,are so
in the courtyard and it rains
house
March
farm, and
Well, how
take
to
On
korcy of potatoes
15
only
was
imagine them;
rope,
to
rains
as
nor
well,and
performed
important
my
that you
sure
I received
straw.
nothing
he has
am
steps
to you
the whole
me
of Gombin.
communal
whole
has
one
brother,it
actual troubles.
my
to
over
to the
comes
when
dear
mention
one
over
my
I have
I won't
only part of
describe
no,
Now
me.
do you
hurryingare
wedding, because
the
before
And
Oh
505
trouble,until
cause
SERIES
near
the
Wherever
short,it is
In
thing,whether
Is my
bought.
father able to
death.1
I understand
only now
exhausted
My small savingswere
it is to
what
So, please,don't
nothing ready
wedding, and
for my
angry
with
you
me
have
for not
writing.
As to the
wedding,
I mention
was
splendid
The
was
nice, the church was
day
very
ceremony
to
adorned
with green and lights;as many
people came
beautifully
look as on
imposing. The priestfrom
Sunday. In short, it was
Radziwie demanded
25 roubles for the wedding, to be paidbeforehand,
on
this
but he did it
1
The
wedding
am
familial matter,
be
must
because
splendid,
himself
establishing
that he should
from
and
become
upon
a
the familial
thus
of the
much
very
marriage is
in
and
splendidly,
the
did not
The
son's
farmer.
standpoint.
We
clear.
is perfectly
son
is
no
prosperous
satisfied.
This
it is to the family'sinterest
investment
of money
is productive
506
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
make
was
the whole
paid for
father
big feast; my
so
and
about
relatives,"
and
abundantly feasted,so
collect for
50
caul
the satisfaction
to
I have
what
you,
half
already upon
But
for this.2
in whatever
which
they
the
and
of God
help
plum and
many
and
in-law
I
as
and
mother
with
all this
father
My
order
old
the pen
to go
God
live here
much
in
even
and
can
in
the
I pray
to
me
further
of
that with
I have
farmer
satisfied with
their
daughter-
general
as
my
they
help
speedilyas I can,
myself to catch
prepare
aside I must
me
holidays and
pretty well.
of the welfare
marriage
given
it will be
very
has
grandmother
will
I mention
big
cow
Meanwhile
this.
gave
young
the best
me
Lord
to
sources
are
Grabie, to
to
able
of this letter
to the end
come
I put
of the
one
help
our
cherry slips,so
is
orchard,which
mother
shall be
we
little
reward
long
one
father
my
grandmother
always remember
I will
for health
God
Perhaps
can.
her
farm.
my
one
Well, may
father and
my
also,then
future
little old
My
present except
pint of butter.
Him
hens.
10
to the
nothingup
did not
We
general.
friends
nearest
richlyentertained
were
was
it
..
I describe
Now
with
because
festival,
because
as
soon
in
the steamer
once
the
at
more
corners
M.
WIKTOR
GRABIE
20O
MY
VERY
for
parents
business, and
here
They complain
the
work,
and
to work
have
They
health.
getting on
1
Old
feels
The
no
badly,
habit of
Introduction:
2
ask
come
that
nobody
hard
you
this
on
at home
there is
very
[STAS]:
SxASiECZEK
DEAR
to
occasion
it is hard
at
to come
if
once;
collecting
money
among
We
moreover
back.
well,remain
today
came
write
for them
help them.
there,and that
therefore
I
....
to
learn
you
to
to
our
you
providefor
that
have
also
you
lost your
Evidently, if you
still for
all
some
are
time.
Cf.
"Marriage."
MARKIEWICZ
We
those
and
terrible lawsuit
and
the
priestand
things are
brother,what
the
going
507
with
[ruffians]
beyond the
Hams
Hams
Those
to have
about
are
SERIES
the
priestof Dobrzykow
Oh, thieves,thieves!
range.
in hand.
here!
on
Your
brother,
WIKTOR
SOUTH
201
BROTHER
DEAR
both
unexpectedlywe
that
my
brotherlyattachment
my
letter addressed
say
that
with
here
I inform
So
There
I worked
day.
The
up
to
I found
mother's
came
day.
am
hope
to
get into
at
what
the
you
inform
inform
health
me
you
and
c.
about
hour.
or
....
I received
your
Krol,
it will
Whatever
you
ask
you
hearty
and
And
wishes
in
I will
me,
of
On
enough,
about
learn
live.
you
Then
work.
same
you
to
it is summer,
home, favorable
I want
my
8 hours
surely stop.
whom
send
oo
.
Since
present.
naturally,while
you,
general
gladly
happiness,
kiss you.
brother,
MAKSYMILIAN
[MAKS
to the
with
I embrace
Your
$14
Chicago.
to
Leonard
So
hours
50 to
went
address.
success.
success,
cousin
letter from
and
about
in winter
on
made.
livingup
am
And
work, but
factory
your
$12
.
my
York,
am
doing, where
good
it is in
How
Kensington
I earned
glasswas
much
whom
an
this
time
same
are
I dare
glassfactory 8
factory closed
Chicago, I
with
busy
very
in
hot.
acquaintances and
paid 35
am
I worked
26.
how
on
home.1
supposition.
I feel
regularcorrespondence
friends hi New
to my
heavy, but
the
my
to South
I got from
so
proved by
to New
America, i.e.,
to
came
May
not
was
left because
There
then I went
week; it depended
I
that
you
work
So
it
will show.
13, and
February
address
less to establish
care
arranged
in
future
realitythe
whose
Fortune
1906
7,
pilgrims in America.
and
to you,
to you,
perhaps you
me
became
MARKIEWICZ
CHICAGO, August
cousin]:
[really
WACLAW
My
It is not
MARKIEWICZ]
the
mere
result of
508
PRIMARY-GROUP
ORGANIZATION
March
2O2
DEAR
BROTHER:
good work.
they
pay
if you
these
see
that
him
property
help
get into
to
there
From
main
the
come
will
you
which
heard, the
him
the
for him
much
as
as
country
our
acquainted with
surely
where
you
can.
But
with
can
the American
language. Therefore
warn
you,
[advise]him
I wish
predominant in
playsno such role in
of work,
interest.
There
only
It is undertaken
work.
through
carshop.
big carshopin
Poles
letters of American
With
MAKSYMILIAN
problem
The
in
then
carefully,
for he is not
carpenter's work
also to try
fresh from
comes
understand
be very
is
is,I have
It
Look
in
as
in the future
there
me
I will
then
who
man
does not
and
last
me
worked
you
can
you
to
"Pullman."
inscription,
to me,
come
know
you
cars
also
working.
are
the
Stasio comes,
When
far from
not
with
cars
how
whole
splendidcars
most
wrote
steady
so
about
I intend
of carpenters
carshopfor
it is not
to work
how
know
carshop,for
thousands
described
you
works,
of America.
in the whole
passenger
you
letter
have
day.
50
in other
better
Moreover,
which
the
for you
much,
glassfactoryfor $i
steadilyto
very
then, when
pitiedyou
hold
letter satisfied me
remember
summer;
Your
27, 1907
an
of
means
is miserably
existence,and
of
means
hope of advance
supplementing an otherwise
no
emigration,
paid.
of good and bad chances,
vast
relatively
range
effects a profound revolution in the psychology of the peasant, and the problem
of work
the central problem. Interests of the city-workman are
at once
becomes
added to those of the peasant, without supplantingthem, and the result is that the
impossible existence,and
of
workman
(i) He
has
upon
as
the only
for him
the wage;
his labor,not
provisionalstate,
possiblebasis
of
as
a
same
as
much
as
tendency
while
possible,
to
of lifewith which
From
organizinghis lifeonce
to
and
man
with
good chance
an
from
end
in itself or
the American
workman
which
psychology and
workman's
means
respects:
regard
is
for
of
means
in two
workman
peasant origindiffers from the hereditarycity-
no
forever,but
its
and
possibilities
its many
with
In
reproachesthe
he
must
with the
means
stinginessand
of
low
Polish immigrant.
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
510
can
foot to the
on
go
I don't need
factoryand
to pay
15
c. a
for
day
the
railway-passage.1
much
I was
pleasedwith
for if you
higher [subjects],
intention to learn
your
have
some
did not
and
service],
could
army],you
I got
that I intended
back
to
told it himself
he wrote
me,
my
existence is secure.2
your
stillin
was
him
to
father,mother, and
PetersburgI
I would
therefore
to my
repeat
him
wrote
never
parents my
he
it],
but, instead of sending it by letter,
wrote
he
parents when
that he
back
came
home.
This
is
able to notice:
was
it and
about
troubled
much
in
country.
to
of
[beforehis military
learningRussian [inthe
country, from
our
Wiktor
to marry
wholly [asI
decision
what
When
our
sooner
years
Englishinstead
that you
I guess
few
learn
say
Wiktor.
brother
come
America
to
come
English,and even
instruction,
you will have an
began
to cry,
the army.
me
with
joy,that
Wiktor
when
Wiktor
came
draw
the
to
was
healthyfrom
back
lot,my
and even
heard,exerted himself [toget him free],
gave
if
this
roubles
that
the
commission
to
effect,so
200
it would
exempted Wiktor from the militaryservice,
to
father,as
official
some
in
cost
Gostynin
my
father
back.
roubles,but if not, then the officialwould pay the money
did not exempt him, and my
father got the
Well, the commission
back.
Therefore he writes me
now
[when Wiktor, because of
money
200
health,has been
bad
back
sent
from
is there. From
the money
writes me, father would
not even
and
more
1
He
We
had
tradition.
But
lived for
as
year
a
the
father any
in my
time
same
Maks
his chances
standpointvery
upon
of receivingthe farm
or
now
no
letter from
my
different from
is put
remote
cousin.
of being established
questionof "existence"
evidentlyhad
I got
were
formerly.3At
see
the
an
on
another
if he
ing
effect in determin-
MARKIEWICZ
with her
mother, written
with
me
to
tears
of my
the words
hand.
own
back
come
beloved
SERIES
to
511
She weeps
for
and
me
she asks
My heart grievesat
her wish
ready to satisfy
country.
our
mother, and
am
in the future.
As
to
questionhow
the
I look upon
religionand
dear
socialism,
7 until
from
As
But
nevertheless
I desire to remain
I
politics,
to
am
I have
when
parties;
little interested
very
littletime,I
buy
in any
for
paper
DEAR
After
BROTHER:
waiting for
....
c., I read
succeedingpretty well,for
the "murowanka"
[farm with
roubles,but he has
for
me
to send
me
money
at
this
help.
some
to me
seems
this whole
I did not
so
sum,
refuse him
and
notes
it
during my
was
sending money
because
help in
this
general.) I
in
confidence
my
If you
stay in America.
level.
is enough
of its immediate
to
himself
but
affair,
it
in my
wish,I
can
more
of
add that if I
rise only
about
tellyou
MARKIEWICZ
means
of
wants
for
on
a highersocial
gettinga position
pendently
the peasant to appreciateinstruction in itself indeof it a
but not enough to make
application,
practical
remains
Waclaw
socialism.
He
Plebanek
Mr.
M.
In
Dobrzykow
he addressed
f
1
in
for notes
ruined
not
They
buy
from
buildings]
stone
I received at
news
father intends to
my
1908
22,
that
now
questionof
asked
it,and
MARKIEWICZ
6 months
my
are
new
questionsor
September
3,300
Catholic
"
205
to
death.
to my
up
"
class,and
tion
instructhe peasant ideologythan Waclaw, and is able to make
life-basiswhich will allow him to get totallyoutside of the peasant class
new
economicallyas
well
not
as
socially. Waclaw
seem
expresses
that he fulfilledit.
same
as
ORGANIZATION
PRIMARY-GROUP
512
206
December
DEAR
BROTHER:
am
much
very
grievedthat
1908
14,
in
are
you
bad
so
and
I should
imagine your painfulsituation,
time I would
be glad to helpyou, dear brother,and at the same
reach
the objectof my
each other in this
wishes to live together,or near
a
position.
foreign land.
where
and
But
only not
right
to the
that
have
drummed
write
to
good.
is their work
I would
in the
mill,may
wish
not
am
I will send
full
with
it after
town
work
am
as
think about
you
steadily,
only I
in
solitaryas
speed, as the
With
some
want
money,
here,because
forest
papers
everything is
me
bored
am
was
Chicago,
near
If you
to
will
you
that I
me
here,but
not
it,not
Nicholas
[tsar]
carshops,they are
healthy,I work
do you
to the Russian
even
they don't
even
and
me
in this small
what
ordinaryworkers
not
factory
"
to the
then you
it yourself;
see
As
I hear
good work
the
In
protection[assistance].
Perhaps in the future
occasion to
but
bad
so
have
men
As
brother,but
to my
get it by my
have
few
very
three carpenters.
pity them,
simply impossible.
it is
now
working
am
we
God
well
can
Write
me
the Polish
Alliance and
Sokols
M.
207
BROTHER
DEAR
I received
WACLAW:
....
my
MARKIEWICZ
letter from
good
parents,
sewed
monogram
with
marked.
from
Witkowski's
brought by
I
joy I bought
for I intend
am
....
gold and
very
come
"
gold watch
pleased with
for $60
oo.2
these
I won't
to you
chain, my
and
silver threads
much
gold watch
to
brother
my
tokens, and
write you
more,
Sunday
next
MAKSYMILIAN
208
October
BROTHER
DEAR
WACLAW:
I inform
....
from
which
he had
much
He
Cf. No.
you
will
work,
perhaps profit. My
so
perhaps
note.
I knew
you
taking money
5, 1909
about
me
today that
carpenters, and
from
the bank.
offer
an
if
so
MARKIEWICZ
send them
should
(i.e.,
you) who
bring him.
I advise
to him.
answered
speak
about
hoped
We
the business
while
steady,I could
So
steady work.
would
him
meet
drinking
carpenter
be
have
to
we
could
brother
would
....
foreignland together
and
if the work
that he
513
that I had
dear brother
to come,
you
I told him
working,but
was
He
SERIES
Chicago
glassof beer
MAKS
ISLAND
209
BROTHER:
DEAR
am
keeping.
....
me
your
for
money
the work
there.
So send it and
there
last,what
can
think
there
CITY, November
that you
are
you
[hoard]it well.
Describe
building,and
to send
want
you
smother
18, 1911
how
how
long
do you
satisfied with
Take
are
With
success
your
there is
me
no
live
other
you
news
M.
supposed
lost in you
You
something which
you
mistaken.
were
Well, and
First,I confided
something forever.
to a brother.
as
Then, when I noticed that I had
[secret],
I begged you [notto repeat it,saying]
that
badly [imprudently]
this
you
done
if it
and
that I learned
learn.
never
of this I have
because
my
would
you
through
comes
good
you
And
name.
it is.
Be
betrayed me.
which
memory
so
the
to
you
your
have, for
you
did not
you
to
about
care
with
pay
anything,
own
you
MAKS
December
210
DEAR
from
our
BROTHER
opened, but
from
our
our
know
country,
so
It is a
that it
was
we
pity to
a
today
Excuse
me
everybody is curious
[Stasiekand I]tore the envelope and satisfied
how
horse.
says
you
curiosity.Your
which
received
We
WACLAW:
i, 1911
most
lose such
nice horse.
as
received
series of accidents
whole
important
big money
We
is the
news
about
he
was
worth.
also
letter from
that
Stasiek
home,
PRIMARY-GROUP
514
but there
bought
for
ours,
well
enough,
about
15,000
be
are
help him
Now,
you
this
warned
her.1
a
how
an
she
oration
herself
to
that
[towalk
with
one,
the
which
in
St. Stanislaus
anything
speak
his
so
to
of my
do
Probably
ought
that,as
she wrote
largersort of
H.
it
you
letter,
somewhat
occupation
shoemaker
answered
the
on
positionhe
her.
Enough
important business
certain
shop,
buttons
sews
G.
the
to
here
house
to
can
speak
in Indiana
brothers
forever,
MARKIEWICZ
VALPARAISO, August
211
....
of this month.
Dictionary,which
the
make
I must
Springs, Pa.
Refers
21,
1912
I shall be in
DEARWACLAW:
spent
owing
this student
so
"
have
Your
mother
grand-
father has
our
long ago
answer,
With
on.
this Miss
I
more
Harbor
warned
goal there,
[danger]against which
College. She
worth
is,she works
farm
Further,Wiktor
too.
think
educated
H. G. ; but I learned
fact,that not
to
had, that
she
relatives
bought.
you
same
gave
he
do
What
proof is the
her
was
he will reach
roubles,for
well to Miss
so
seeks
fawning
accompany
that
something
1,000
time.
some
girlis young,
remote
means
intends
Czyzewice. Stasiek
parents have
land which
that
on
wished
out, she
turns
such
for
The
Wiktor
her
some
even
about
him
of his money
most
to
send
to
me
from
splendidbusiness.
Ziolkowska,and
asked
brother
Kowalik
Miss
our
my
the
those
because
Further,
carnival
from
of land
5 morgs
roubles.
1,100
during the
marry
everythingis well.
father
my
ORGANIZATION
Among
costs
many
$18.00 edited
recrudescence
few
of the peasant
others, I
must
in 1912.
An
older edition
precedingletter.
some
previouslove
of his
her of
buy Webster's
property interest.
Waclaw
can
probably
MARKIEWICZ
bought
be
for $12
time
I shall have
Valparaisoit
this
of
enough
would
cost
Before
reason
to do it.
to the
in the school
be
I come,
of
be spent for
can
year
Englishlanguage,
and
$300; so it is worth
me
second-hand
somebody about
As
to learn it in 5 years,
Alliance
planned beforehand
for I
515
It is an
oo.
.
leavingthe school
to my
SERIES
kind
so
bookstores,so
and
try
both
can
we
to learn from
go and
buy
this book
MAKS
SMOLENSK, January
212
physiciansent
rather not
There
bad
so
23 of
are
all from
are
Warsaw.
whole
knows
year
as
with
this
In
not
bored, for
I have
are
There
from
have
let go,
the
He
at Pszczelin.
who
about
in
me
the
they will
what
will tear
for
was
tells me
I don't know
so
province of
good physician
from
away
jaw
MARKIEWICZ
May
213
I
BROTHERS:
DEAR
from
you,
thank
you
for up
to
because
Smolensk
a
I received
six
I have
because
waiting
am
....
....
to
Poles,but they
10
MICHAL
....
happen
it is enough.
good companion
me.
will
have
we
are
alone
am
a
We
passes.
men
which
work
school
agricultural
time
Smolensk.]
to
disease.
am
it.
the
[Inverse.]
am
province of Lublin;
school, and
this
wrote,
pen
to this accursed
other recruits
where
hospital
the
in the
taken
how
here with
us
been
with
sent
was
to the
me
God
further.
me
he
I don't know
already and
that I have
news
[Describeshow
army.
the sad
I send you
The
Jesus Christus!"
My
see you for so long a time.
and my
Now
be
"Praised
BROTHERS:
DEAR
9, 1912
not
received
roubles,sent by
be very
not
even
copecks,here
costs
copecks.
in
for
money
from
anything sent
bread, which
letter
now
for
you,
for which
everything is expensive,average
loaf of wheat
26, 1912
our
buying tobacco,
home.
boot-soles
country
can
And
here in
zloty
be bought for
cost
5i6
PRIMARY-GROUP
expected that
never
for if I had
now,
this
here, to
known
They
plague
forbid!
God
they make
send
We
run
the
they plague us
gettingon
not
she would
shed many
myself.3
walking like
am
who
is
writes
myself.
me
to the
He
says
frightenme,
tries to
do
He
something
that
for
serve.
I go often
have
I go
to
him,
that I
am
We
am
here,
and
painful to
so
I have
hardly succeed.
says
they
Smolensk
expiatefor you
Whenever
dog.
Till
worse.
to
conditions
is the result ?
[of
oath
Afternoon
come
for it is
much
Stanislaw.
I write home
probably
I shall
done
the
still
come
physician
he
seals
spoilingmy
that he is
ear
did not
old
simply a thief,an
and
ear
my
have
after
to
what
man,
but
yourself,
but what
office,
the medical
to
knew
dead
tsar
for it.
more
I shall
tears.2
extricated
have
the
have
dear brother
that
it proves
as
never
I should
hoped
They expect
You
serve,1 1 should
work
to
us
us
befall me,
instead of you,
to America
us,
lot would
bad
dirty Smolensk.
and
fidelity]
they wouldn't
noon
such
that I should
muddy
ORGANIZATION
or
anything bad
to
me
to the
up
what
he
thinks
He
to the
me
Lublin, has
been
know
whose
quite free
set
hair
fell out
Another, about
and
whose
head
was
....
as
knee,
your
free, but
1
sent
or
only
as
sent
the
of
head
home
for
home
months
He
Korzuszek,
number
account
on
to
which
not
was
left
as
set
entirely
bald
[Describes
recover.
would
whom
him
exempt
to
or
of his artificially
provoked
be
ear
trouble.
3
This
complain
and
is
the
to
somewhat
typical. It seems
militaryservice.
Cf. No.
custom
not
to
72,
served
short time.
military service,and
instead
of his brother.
misery."
Therefore
for this
was
free
set
he did not
reason
"Expiate"
on
need
Michal
means
here
of sickness,after having
account
to go
to
America
regrets that
"suffer the
he
in order
did
not
go
to
avoid
himself
predestinedamount
of
5i8
PRIMARY-GROUP
with
bursts open
ORGANIZATION
in God.
Perhaps
desirable moment,
go
as
but
office,
to the medical
when
lose
hope
such
time
and
me
I.
to America
I don't
Meanwhile,
I don't
to
There
in Moscow.
are
we
plan
to
and
desire,you
I
now
will grant
God
both
we
Well, even
late.
Lord
our
go instead of you
did I not
grief. Why
leave
in the
me
there it is
hospitalwhere you were, for,as people say
in Smolensk
Here
it is very difficult;
easier to be set quite free.
have been operated,or those who are
they let only the men
go who
those are not set totally
free,but only for some
time,
dying, and even
same
....
until
they
recover
written
I had
When
they consider
because
left here
....
although
shall be
at the
Dear
unhealthy
bad
brothers,you
me
needs
all my
to satisfy
if I wanted
happens.
ever
I need
money.
I
But
I need
whether
But
Every day
tune.
nothing good
in the army,
It is bad
was
me
I remain
maneuvers.
because
to this passage,
up
ought
to have
it
really,
roubles
10
month; only then could I be a little free. But when I got those few
I don't demand
of you
roubles,they were spent I don't know where.
much
I ought to have, for you
work
for it.
must
to send me
as
as
a
You
a
rouble
few
anythingfor nothing,but
than for me
a copeck here,so
receive
don't
there
be
kind
so
216
BROTHER
I inform
STANISLAW:
the money,
very
much
you
then
9 roubles 72
for
our
Austrian
and
It would
which
is
war
likelyto
ought
that
is sick.
They
to have
be upon
As
our
to
they
gone
war
Polish land.
me,
October,and
I received
I thank
also
letter from
it would
held
on
with
home
also that
the
up
November
Austria
It would
be also
you
I wrote
be
Russoabout
come.
If the
now
country.
me
of this
that
militaryservice
I had
they inform
just because
who
in the
once
sister Weronika
[i9]ioyear,
go
at
in
copecks,long ago,
largea help
so
letter
yesterdayin
our
MARKIEWICZ
you
....
them
me
war,
send
get
roubles
MICHAL
that
and
to
soldiers from
they
i;
began
"
God
dangerous
bad, because
don't
the
let
forbid!
to live in
who
knows
MARKIEWICZ
whether
I should
be
not
SERIES
obliged to
519
the
to
war
Up to the
hear
nothing terrible,
that
Austria held the
only we
she were
for
preparing
war, and here the reserves
are
go
present there is
if
as
reserves,
also held.
whole
The
question is about
with
us,
very
much
as
dear
brother
perhaps
should
we
think
so.
Don't
God
help you.
better
don't go
that
But
in
going
but I will go
see
forbid!
knows
am
happen
again.
I regret
so
on
America
to
BROTHER:
No
....
this savage
forest;among
[Rumors about the war.]
for the first time
saw
I had
and
not
MARKIEWICZ
made
God
soul
swelling. They
the death
of
16, 1913*
such
life,
know
from
us
everything succeeds
Dear
brother
you,
that
wrote
to
Stanislaw,you
be
terrible
had
what
such
home,
well, and
ask
me
the
whether
They
with
of the
as
of my
wrote
her
me
legsare
after
sorrow
average
parents
God
one
farming theywrote
grindingis
our
learned.
to the bottom
overwhelmed
And
happened at home,
that
grandmother is also ill,
they are
in
as
mourning letter.1
such letters!
more
our
I live
nothingcan
afraid,down
terribly
that
wrote
horde
I did not
our
that
me
I got
me
guard
is to be heard.
news
Moscovite
in my
read it and
even
to go
would
March
DEAR
body
every-
217
But
If I had
what
another
one
more
once
Sea.
go to
to the medical
now
never
I envy
Black
God
war
Stanislaw,who
you
done
be
the
are
forbid!
with
angry
They
never
MICHAL
218
April8, 1913
DEAR
I received
BROTHER:
....
I thank
which
you
heartily.I know,
I suffer
goodness is in
1
The
letter
dear
the money,
brother,that
roubles,for
you
was
printeddeath-notice,seldom
used among
yourselfwhat
in the
which
me
money
from
the peasants.
520
PRIMARY-GROUP
home, because
I write
about
I write
me.
ORGANIZATION
them
them
such
home
me
they don't
for
any,
they
than
don't
know
my
worst
enemy
As
they
I don't
well how
they
and
at home.
themselves
guess
grieve
not
may
I don't
that
that
letters
it is in the
military
service.
God
May
not
for
dog
keep
ever
even
in the
serve
photographs.] Now
been
free and
set
cheerful
went
If
photograph and
passed more
only tune
goodness, may
you
on
away
such
[Sends his
army!
I inform
from
MARKIEWICZ
May
celebrated
We
here
20,
the Easter
even
for free
were
at
the
the
fireworks,shot
if with
as
fireworks.
queer
they
can
beer
everybody drank
is not
church
The
only
19 years.
don't know
As
what
to his son
writes
there
going
was
to
much
as
he
I have
had
is the
so
that
months
of 1910
home
for
this
summer
There
are
Kingdom
in Russia
of Poland,"
days
Dobrzykow.
stood
long
tune.
Warsaw
near
very
well in
our
country;
barleyhave frozen
In these days we
slowly
has passed,less than a half [of
and
that
rumors
to
us,
they will
because
want
to
MICHAL
officialin Russia.
of
to
Catholics
as
far to the
It has
from
ba
JThe
to
farmer
it is not
myself,everything is going on
camping. When
the time] will be left.
house
our
saw
good
for 4
very
at home.
news
in the army
big frost
from
as
now
It is not
letter from
no
bad,
life I
everything,and
And
wanted.
confession.
big, but
been
not
little of
gave
as
Easter
to
very
are
They
from
church
holidays have
let
beautifully.They
very
guns;
be in the army.
been
celebrated
was
The
such
have
all the
We
people [civilians],
go together with the Russian.1
in the church
"Resurrection"during the night from
It
we
April 27.
on
Russians,i.e.,
Saturday to Sunday.
off
Here
1913
holidays
holidays,
....
togetherwith
more
....
2IQ
-BROTHER:
have
rapidly!
MICHAL
DEAR
asks
keep
the
outside
dates
they kept
those
old
or
Julianiccalendar, which
is
MARKIEWICZ
SERIES
521
220
June
BROTHER
DEAR
STANISLAW:
My
....
We
into camp
went
Every day
camps!
don't
work.
day it
every
would
is the
the best
Thanks
the
God
to
see
that
than
More
serve!
half of my
service has
have
I shall go
home
leave,and
who
man
from
near
Send
me
it is
glad that
is with
This
Warsaw, but he
much
things
if you
expensiveand
Wiktor
did not
know
it would
is
me
can
be
send
him.
to be
life.
one's
I
beg
I say
to them
Did
to
paid off,and
But
razor.
It would
be very
to
I should
brothers, if it is
with
marry
in
Czyzew,
his chestnut
You
there.
how
Write
whether
?
.
but
once
mare.
can
land, and
upon
write you
MICHAL
than
more
own
money
not
Brother
it
drank
is useful.
not
If
spent their
Wiktor
in autumn.
good
marry
Wiktor
have
dear
sometimes
parents
brother
Pole
send.
your
happiness if he could
our
companion,
that of Maks.
send
possible,
at home
was
The
brothers;
only,
[asthis marriage]money
business
anybody
if so, don't
that he intends
I
photograph.
and
and
alive,
themselves.
photograph
that it is
went
[home], for
money
in such
you
write
keeps me
i.e.,
home,
silver watch
one-
God
best
not
Well, what
the reserves,
giftfrom
you.
think
parents and
her
Indeed
send
to
with
whole
for my
for such
there;
to
is my
does
Happily
God
my
these
serve.
with
army.
who
man
are
serve
slowly thingsarrange
photograph
me
not
of this.
Lord
our
satisfied
possibleyour
please send
possible,
remembrance
thus
goes
the
Lord
our
you
Moscovite
it
dear
you,
best, for
did
convinced
if
any
outside
Well,
the
that I must
year,
are
you
in this
me
the soonest
perhaps
I been
passed; perhaps
the other
am
from
army.
need
Happy
comes.
on
looked
mercy
also.
you
we
in the
feel my
that
annoying than
more
somebody
bad
so
I shall
will pass
....
if
It is true
once
done, if such
task.
do
to
slowly.
God's
unless
3 years,
be
not
long, while
Moscovites
And
how
persuaded
wish
no
were
Stanislaw, I
hard
[drill]
are
tasks
same.
if it
as
seem
brother
can
these
worried, I have
am
God
....
task, some
1913
service is going on
but
20
some
here, but
work
May
on
24,
MARKIEWICZ
much
there
PRIMARY-GROUP
522
ORGANIZATION
221
I received
BROTHERS:
DEAR
the
roubles
was
useful
very
the second
there
it
was
was
rain and
But,
the whole
during such
wandering.
of the
memory
and nowhere
villages,
have
We
Thanks
nothing
is
wandered
God,
to
God,
NapoleonicWar,
than
worse
like
and
It
is easy
notice
to
that
Jews in
throughthe
these
no
to
different
1812-13. We passed many
have seen any good house or barn, only everything
like henhouses.
have
help
as
tune, and
it
in
the French
as
ways
so, thanks
bad.
nor
10
and
to me,
for your
not
misery,while
cold
no
terrible;it rained
desert,all this in
same
and
want
you,
heartily,and
you
If it were
Stanislaw.
passedneither good
maneuvers
no
to be wet
the
suffered much
have
paid
was
I thank
maneuvers.
dear brother
particularly
you,
I should
the
during
it
maneuvers
from
money
....
women
for water
go
"Kacapy"
is worse,
far away,
to
they
some
with
pit. And they sow whole fields with flax,as in our country
about these
Kacapy," I
rye, for example.1 I won't write more
only
say
ditch
or
"
that nowhere
is it
well
so
in
as
our
Poland
MICHAL
As
to
the watch
[probablybecause
and
razor,
of the
tax].
you
rightin
were
sending them
not
November
222
DEAR
BROTHER:
I received
....
they
inform
preciselythat
roubles,and
your
about
moreover
in the
money
conclude
not
callingupon
the
favor
that
me
father
our
which
mother
the
in
Jankowskis
of their
10
in
last
for he
Kielniki,and
Wiktor
had
him
by
the
letter,
even
to
you,
1,000
deposited
evidentlycould
that
wrote
in which
sent
Father
roubles.
of Gombin.
Czyzew,
home,
the money
in your
me
received
savingsbank
the business
received
wrote
you
letter from
22, 1913
he
now
asked
is
already
call upon
her.
Very well,but they put off the questionof marriage,I don't know why
other
whether they want
to get their sons
married first or for some
reason
They [athome] wrote also that this plague of a Ziolek
[secondhusband of their grandmother] nags our house [family].For
"
Cf. Osinski
No.
series,
131,
note.
MARKIEWICZ
SERIES
pastured them
near
nacki,damaged
make
to
brother
court
of
Choj-
Ziolek persuaded
The
he
once
that
precisely
windmill, and
cow,
"
"
This
for it.
boy
of the
wing
his cattle
windmill.
our
523
Chojnacki
condemned
the
of
weeks
"
"
slanders and
him
reward
blackens
for his bad
They write
I have
to
to come
me
God
May
this true
worried
hell upon
go, but
get, for
to
me
family.
And
longer
few
leave,particularly
our
on
grant
longingfor my
and
people,and Wiktor
intends to
mother.
dear
depend upon
I asked the captainhere and he promised to let me
he will or not, I don't know, although I have the full
right
before
muzzle.
certainlypromised to
alone
me
house
our
not
days at least,out
jaw, because
what
is worse,
People
am
of
very
say
him
send
attain
to
as
from
Maks
to
best wishes.
my
possiblehis
as
soon
me
noble
end
college].
MICHAL
MARKIEWICZ
January
223
DEAR
I have
BROTHERS:
been
I got home
leave.
on
....
December
6, and
very
glad
sorry
that
I have
about
I left
my
dear
our
been
hope
now
mother
and
When
mother
off and
at home
in which
you
kowski.
Maks
abused
was
we
he
healthy,although
catarrh.
fully,for
recover
is
mother
now
stomach
was
was
tenderly. I am
greeted me
very
illtwice during these two years since
Well, thanks to God the Highest,
was
our
he
as
to
mother
dearest
Our
30.
on
coming and
constantly from
dearest
December
in the army
everything passed
suffers
on
1914
n,
her.
has
received
our
whole
As
to
not
your
Oh,
been
our
God
may
she
grant
still
our
happiness,our whole
father,he complain,
letter,dear
brother
he
had
two
years.
Stanislaws
from
even
Switless
PRIMARY-GROUP
524
confidence
in him
than
justifies
himself,but
that which
the
mother
mother
as
he
what
thought
Father
in
but
less,
As
says.1
of
in the worth
guesses.
that it cost
score
ORGANIZATION
to brother
ice
Russian
Father
reallynothing else
was
himself
excuses
realityI
rouble.
think
for
doing
that it would
God
until
come.
them, dear
among
I
If he had
us
Ignac, Julka
brothers,they have grown
As
"
pity him
to
good chance
and
Mania,
ought
you
would
on
water
nor
there
there
back
how
to wait
not
know
not
so.
May
he
so
have been
He calls
but
[insecure].
is nothingcertain.
himself on the ground that
But he excuses
is nobody to work
until I come
at home, and that he won't marry
from the army.
is partlyright. Well, but nobody knows
He
upon
than
our
for
skin.
When
work,
weather
sickly. As
to
littleolder
MARKIEWICZ
MICHAE
April 20,
224
DEAR
You
BROTHER:
look
It is somewhat
photograph.
for you
have
Borek
W.
with
each
from
one's
other,and
do you
or
him
wishes
The
of Radziwie.
He
middle
10
know
wloka
are
old.
together?
the
1
The
The
to have
Do
live
Please
.
and
At
greetings
wedding took place on
married
Miss
old.
years
Both
her
[30morgs] of
writes
that she is
land and
are
Vistula,and
pretty girl,of
and
left
and
....
1,500
moreover
roubles
This
Poplacin.
brother
fortune,
farm
lies quite
"lesser cost"
the church
from
sister 17 years,
dead
give
Wiktor
brother
home
Oliszewska
and
write me,
Antonina
She has
parents
you
companion
together,
February 18, in
in
height,19
years
not
are
photograph,
yourself
good companionship
quite like
Evidentlyyou
it is very
perhaps work
got married.
I don't
you
in the
young
in the
you
own
best
my
difficultto know
fat;
so
grown
nice and
very
....
1914
probably refers
or
to
planned
to
notarial expenses.
own
name.
526
PRIMARY-GROUP
Mother
God's
Believe
since
these
among
....
the
and
beasts
Moscovite
recruits,
the
leave.
this
from
free
get
with
went
from
returned
to
me
when
me,
grant
ORGANIZATION
wept,
even
the
wolves
not
was
jaw
was
sad
so
so
sorry
as
to
"
"Kacapy.
now,
return
From
....
home
write
they
that
they
have
lawsuit
field
and
about
the
trees
....
which
won
call
be
and
grow
the
our
better
upon
first
time,
the
witnesses.
if
they
range
but
made
lost
they
The
their
between
lawyer
peace
the
says
instead
second
time,
that
of
we
lawsuits,
the
for
priest's.
the
which
did
court
win.
must
It
take
They
not
would
money
time
MICHAL
M.