Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Jarosaw cki
Preface
This Master of Science Thesis entitled Optimization of Soft Handover Parameters for
UMTS Network in Indoor Environment has been written in the Department of
Information Technology at the Tampere University of Technology, Finland. This Thesis
has been completed based on research conducted during my work at the Institute of
Communication Engineering, Tampere University of Technology.
I would like to express my hearty acknowledgements to my supervisor, Professor Jukka
Lempiinen and my examiner M.Sc. Jarno Niemel for their excellent guidance and
supervision during my work. I would also say many thanks to my colleagues from
Radio Network Planning Research Group - Panu Lhdekorpi, Jakub Borkowski, and
Tero Isotalo for their help and very nice working atmosphere. I would also thank to
Advanced Techniques for Mobile Positioning (MOT) project for founding the work and
Institute of Communication Engineering for framework.
I would like to express my thanks to Professor Markku Renfors, Ulla Siltaloppi, and
Tarja Erlaukko for their kindness, help with practical matters of my work and studies.
Moreover, I would also direct my thanks to Elina Orava for her assistance related to
formal and daily matters of international studies.
Finally, I would like to express my warmest thanks to my parents Iwona and Henryk
and my sister Sonia as well as to my girlfriend Katarzyna, for their love, definite
support, and help during my whole work.
Jarosaw cki
Insinrinkatu 60 C 208
33 720 Tampere
Finland
jaroslaw.lacki@tut.fi
ii
Table of contents
Preface ............................................................................................................... i
Table of contents .............................................................................................. ii
Abstract ............................................................................................................ v
Tiivistelm...................................................................................................... vii
List of symbols ................................................................................................ ix
List of abbreviations ....................................................................................... xi
1.
Introduction ............................................................................................ 14
2.
2.2
2.3
UE .......................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.2
UTRAN................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.3
Core network.......................................................................................................... 18
2.2.2
WCDMA parameters.............................................................................................. 20
2.4
2.5
Power control......................................................................................................... 22
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
Handovers .............................................................................................................. 25
2.5.1
2.5.2
Softer handover...................................................................................................... 27
2.5.3
iii
3.
3.2
2.5.5
Inter-system handover............................................................................................ 28
3.1.2
Diffraction.............................................................................................................. 32
3.1.3
Scattering ............................................................................................................... 34
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
Propagation slope.................................................................................................. 40
3.3
3.4
4.2
5.
4.
2.5.4
SHO performances................................................................................................. 45
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
SHO features.......................................................................................................... 51
4.1.5
SHO optimization................................................................................................... 52
5.2
5.1.2
Measurements equipment....................................................................................... 58
5.1.3
iv
6.
7.
6.1.2
6.1.3
Conclusions ............................................................................................. 71
References ...................................................................................................... 72
Abstract
TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
International Master Degree Program in Information Technology
Institute of Communication Engineering
cki, Jarosaw: Optimization of Soft Handover Parameters for UMTS Network in
Indoor Environment
Master of Science Thesis, 75 p.
Examiners: Professor Jukka Lempiinen, M.Sc. Jarno Niemel
Funding: National Technology Agency of Finland (TEKES)
Department of Information Technology
December 2005
The third generation networks provide high data rate digital communication. In mobile
networks based on WCDMA air access technology, multi-services are enabled and
available in real time. Mobile phone users utilize multimedia streaming with high data
transfers, mainly in indoor locations. Along with new services, the succeeding
challenges are brought for capacity and coverage planning as well as optimization of
parameters controlling the functionality of the network.
In this Master of Science Thesis, optimum parameters for soft handovers were found
based on conducted measurements. Signal propagation in wideband indoor systems has
characteristics of the signal propagating in flat fading channel. It causes fading of the
signal together with large amplitude variations. Such propagation characteristics lead to
a degradation of system performance, which is seen as reduction of capacity, coverage,
or QoS. Soft handover function provides lower signal fading, because of simultaneous
connections via multiple physical radio links, which provide diversity. Implementation
of larger soft handover areas is quite simple and attractive way to improve indoor
system performance.
The aim of this Thesis was to analyze the downlink transmission power gain provided
by soft handover. Measurements were focused on downlink direction, because usually
this direction of data transmission requires higher data rates than the transmission in
vi
uplink direction. Measurements were conducted in the UMTS pico-cell test network, at
Tampere University of Technology. Soft handover gain was defined as difference
between transmitted power in downlink direction, when only hard handover existed,
and transmitted power in downlink direction, when soft handover was enabled. The soft
handover gain was measured for various dynamic and static soft handover parameters,
but along the same measurements route and measurements scenario. Transmission
power gain, provided by soft handover, resulted in lower interference and increased
capacity of the network.
vii
Tiivistelm
TAMPEREEN TEKNILLINEN YLIOPISTO
Tietotekniikan kansainvlinen koulutusohjelma
Tietoliikennetekniikan laitos
cki, Jarosaw: Pehmen Solunvaihdon Parametrien
sistilaverkoissa.
Diplomity, 75 s.
Tarkastajat: Professori Jukka Lempiinen, DI Jarno Niemel
Rahoittajat: TEKES
Tietotekniikan osasto
Joulukuu 2005
Optimointi
UMTS-
viii
ix
List of symbols
Angle of diffraction
Angle of incidence
Angle of reflection
Angle of refraction
Pang
Angular spread
Average delay
hBTS
Breakpoint distance
P()
fc
Coherence bandwidth
hc
Critical height
Sd
Delay spread
Ld
Diffraction loss
Diffraction parameter
d2
d1
rc
Rh
Lwi
Mean angle
Mean deviation
Mean power
Erec
hMS
I0
Kwi
Propagation delay
pr
Ec/No
rs
Relative permittivity
KRicean
Ricean K-factor
Standard deviation
Time to trigger
P_tot
Varamp
Rv
Wavelength
xi
List of abbreviations
1G
First Generation
2G
Second Generation
3G
Third Generation
3GPP
AC
Admission Control
AMPS
BER
BLER
BS
Base Station
BTS
CDMA
CN
Core Network
CPICH
CRNC
CS
Circuit Switched
DAS
DL
Downlink Direction
DRNC
EDGE
EIRP
ETSI
FDD
FDMA
GGSN
GMSC
Gateway MSC
GPRS
GSM
xii
HC
Handover Control
HHO
Hard Handover
HLR
HO
Handover
HSCSD
HSxPA
IS-95
Interim Standard 95
ITU
Iu
Iub
Iur
LC
Load Control
LOS
Line of Sight
ME
Mobile Equipment
MRC
MS
Mobile Station
MSC
NB
Narrowband
NLOS
Non-Line of Sight
NMT
Node B
BTS in UMTS
OVSF
PC
Power Control
PS
Packet Switched
PSTN
QoS
Quality of Service
RNC
RNS
RRC
RRM
RSCP
xiii
RSSI
SC
Selection Combining
SfHO
Softer Handover
SGSN
SHO
Soft Handover
SIR
SRNC
SSDT
TDD
TDMA
TPCcmd
UE
User Equipment
UL
Uplink Direction
UMTS
USIM
UTRA
UTRAN
Uu
VLR
WAP
WB
Wideband
WCDMA
WLAN
Chapter 1. Introduction
14
1. Introduction
In the beginning of the 20th century, telecommunication became generally accessible
technology and universal form of communication. Initially, speech communication was
enabled, which utilized wired telephony over long distances. In the beginning of 1980s,
the first generation (1G) analogous mobile communication system NMT (Nordic
Mobile Telephony) and AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Services) were launched. This
started the further evolution of the mobile telephony. However, digital mobile
communication systems replaced analogous ones. The second generation (2G) GSM
(Global System for Mobile Communication) system was capable of providing speech
communication as well as data transfer services. In the beginning, in 2G networks, the
maximum data rate was 9.6 kbit/s. During the next stage, improvements were applied
for existing 2G systems along with HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data) and
GPRS (General Packet Radio Services), supporting data rates up to 57 kbit/s. WAP
(Wireless Application Protocol) was a standard of applications and protocols introduced
within 2G networks, enabling subscribers to communicate with Internet platforms and
servers. In addition, the wireless access to Internet like WLAN (Wireless Local Area
Network) became an inseparable part of cellular networks, particularly used in the hot
spot places. Next evolution being a step toward the third generation (3G) networks was
EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution) technology, which adapted the 2G
systems to faster data transfer requirements.
Standardization of 3G mobile communication networks was carried out by ITU
(International Telecommunication Union). The WCDMA (Wideband Code Division
Multiple Access) was selected as radio interface for 3G systems in Europe by the ETSI
(European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in year 1988. Afterwards,
international standardizing organization 3GPP (3G Partnership Project) was caring
standardization process and established common name UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System) for the 3G cellular networks.
UMTS guarantees high data rate communication for mobile subscribers utilizing the
wideband (WB) access technology. Multi-service WCDMA offers various data rates
depending on used service. Originally, maximum data transfer was 2 Mbit/s in downlink
direction (DL). Nowadays, in UMTS networks exist extensions like HSPxA (High
Speed Downlink/Uplink Packet Access) appropriated for higher data throughputs.
Chapter 1. Introduction
15
16
2. UMTS system
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System is the one of third generation
communication technologies. UMTS provides fully integrated digital communication
with maximum data throughput up to 2 Mbit/s. High data transfers and compression
methods make possible high quality video streaming and comfortable access to web
servers. UMTS became perfect tool for providing wireless video calls and
videoconferences. It was possible until now using only fixed digital connections. UMTS
uses packet switched connection, which are integrated part of this network. WCDMA
access technology was chosen for radio access technology for UMTS.
In this chapter, UMTS system architecture is presented as well as description of
WCDMA radio interface and radio resource management (RRM).
17
Figure 2.1 UMTS high-level system and network elements [14], [15].
2.1.1 UE
The UMTS UE consists of mobile equipment (ME) and the UMTS subscriber identity
module (USIM). ME is the radio terminal used for communication through Uu interface
directly with Node B. USIM is a smartcard, which include information of subscribers
such as identity, authentication, and other related to security.
2.1.2 UTRAN
UTRAN consist of one or more RNSs (Radio Network Sub-systems). RNS consists of
Node B and RNC. Node B is a unit for the radio transmission and reception. The main
task of Node B is to convert the data traffic between the Uu and Iu interfaces in both
directions. The Node B also takes part in the downlink transmission power control (PC)
performed in inner loop power control. The synonyms to Node B are BS (Base Station)
and BTS (Base Transceiver Station), both used interchangeably. The RNC is the part of
UTRAN, which features the most important rule. RNC is responsible for controlling
integrity of radio resources of the Node Bs connected to particular RNC. Main tasks,
18
which belong to RNC, are radio resource control (RRC), admission control (AC), load
control (LC), channel allocation, power control settings, handover control (HC), macrodiversity, broadcast signaling, and open loop power control (PC). RNC handles data
conversion between Iu, Iur, and Iub interfaces. The Iur interface may connect RNCs.
This inter-RNC connection enables soft handover between them, otherwise only softer
handover (SfHO) is possible. There are different logical roles of the RNC, i.e., CRNC
(Controlling RNC), SRNC (Serving RNC), and DRNC (Drift RNC). CRNC is
responsible for load and admission control through Iub interface of particular Node B.
SRNC takes control through Iu and Uu interfaces and is responsible for basic radio
resource management operations, such as handover (HO) decisions and power control.
DRNC controls the cells used by the mobile and if needed performs macro-diversity
combining and splitting.
19
(a) CDMA
(b) FDMA
(c) TDMA
Figure 2.2 Multiple access schemes: (a) CDMA, (b) FDMA, and (c) TDMA [14].
20
In CDMA technology, the simultaneous users utilize the same frequency, but they are
separated by different codes. FDMA technology divides whole band to sub-bands, and
then assigns each subscriber to unique frequency. TDMA is an air interface that allows
subscribers to use the same frequency, but separates them by time slots. In TDMA
access method, different time slot of a channel are assigned for each user.
Table 2.1 Comparison of UTRA TDD and UTRA FDD physical layer parameters [14].
UTRA TDD
UTRA FDD
In UTRA FDD mode, the frequencies are allocated as following 1900-1920 MHz in
uplink direction (UL) and 2010-2015 in downlink direction. For UTRA FDD, also two
21
bands are allocated in uplink and downlink direction, consecutively 1920-1980 MHz
and 2110-2170 MHz. The bandwidth of the channel is fixed to 5 MHz and chip rate to
3.84 Mcps. The central frequency of the channel is in raster of 200 kHz [16]. In the rest
of this Thesis, UMTS FDD mode is considered.
In UMTS network, channelization and scrambling codes are used. The combination of
these codes gives pseudorandom code sequence. Channelization cedes like orthogonal
variable spreading factor (OVSF) are used to separate data and control channels of a
certain user in uplink direction and separate a different users in downlink direction.
Scrambling codes are employed to distinguish different UEs in uplink direction and
distinguish cells in downlink direction. Transmission period consists of 10 ms frames,
where every frame contains 15 slots, and each slot consists of 2560 chips.
22
that coverage or QoS of existing radio connections will decrease below planned level.
This estimation is prepared separately for UL and DL direction. According to the result
of the estimation, the admission control rejects or accepts the request of establishing
new radio access bearer in certain cell in the network. Admission control gives
permission to connect new UE if both UL and DL are admitted. Admission control is
located in RNC, where load information from couple of cells is available.
Load control has similar role to admission control, ensures that system will be not
overloaded. If admission control works correctly, then load control is used only in
exceptional situations. If the overload in certain cell occurs, then load control recovers
the system to the target load. Load control actions are following: handover to another
WCDMA carrier, handover to GSM, decrease bit rates of real time UEs, drop low
priority calls, reduce throughput of packet data traffic, reduce UL Ec/No (Received
Energy per Chip to Noise Ratio) energy to target level used by UL inner loop power
control, deny DL power up commands received from the UE.
23
24
1 dB step size
Lower
Upper
+ 0.5 dB
+ 1.5 dB
- 0.5 dB
+ 0.5 dB
- 0.5 dB
- 1.5 dB
2 dB step size
Lower
Upper
+ 1.0 dB
+ 3.0 dB
- 0.5 dB
+ 0.5 dB
- 1.0 dB
- 3.0 dB
3 dB step size
Lower
Upper
+ 1.5 dB
+ 4.5 dB
- 0.5 dB
+ 0.5 dB
- 1.5 dB
- 4.5 dB
There are different inner loop power control algorithms used. Two basic ones are
presented here. According to first algorithm, the single power control command changes
the UE output power with particular power control step. In second algorithm, all five
transmission power control up commands results in increasing transmission power by
1 dB or all five-transmission power control down commands results in reducing
transmission power by 1 dB.
25
2.5 Handovers
Mobile user is allowed to access the network service while moving. Deep variations in
the signal level and interference can be observed, especially in indoor environment.
During change of a location from one cell edge to the other, the signal from serving
base station is worsening. There is need for such a user to change the serving BS and
use the radio resources of the new cell than from the old one, where signal level is
worse. This process is known as handover. Handovers provide freedom in terms of
mobility in cellular networks.
In first generation cellular systems like NMT, handovers were quite simple. In second
generation systems based on TDMA/FDMA access technique like GSM, various
handover algorithms were introduced. In these systems, only so called hard handovers
(HHOs) exist. In a hard handover, old radio link is released before new radio link is
established. WCDMA technology introduces new kind of handovers; namely, soft
handovers (SHOs) and softer handovers (SfHOs). Soft and softer handovers are
supported in UTRA FDD mode only. Moreover, WCDMA utilizes sometimes hard
handovers, which can be classified as intra-frequency, inter-frequency, and inter-system
handovers. These types of handovers are supported in both UTRA TDD and UTRA
FDD mode. HHOs can introduce unnecessary high power rise peaks, which result in
high interference causing near-far effect and reducing the capacity. This is also the
reason, why SHOs are very essential in UMTS network.
26
Handover procedure can result in drop calls. This could be caused by signaling errors or
lack of the radio resources. The handover failure should be minimized especially in high
performance networks like UMTS. In UMTS network pico-cells for indoor environment
are implemented, meaning that range of such cell is very small compared to the microcells and macro-cells. Usage of smaller cells is beneficial, because this is the way to
boost the capacity, but smaller cells causes that handovers occur more often than in
larger cells. Thus, handovers have to be very efficient, mainly because the access to the
service have to be assured for users during the ongoing call, and when the handovers are
performed.
27
28
During softer handover, the signal reception in downlink direction is similar to the
reception in soft handover. The difference exists only in uplink direction, where signal
received by the Node B is routed to the rake receiver, and then combined with MRC
method.
29
30
two mediums. In the new medium, wave also changes its speed of propagation. If the
new medium has higher index of refraction than the previous medium, then the angle
between refracted wave and the line perpendicular to the boundary of two mediums will
be smaller compared to the angle between the wave in the first medium and the line
perpendicular to boundary of two mediums (Figure 3.2). In this case, the propagation
speed of refracted wave will be lower than the speed of the reflected part. Snells Law
describes the angle of incidence and the angle of refracted part of propagating wave,
and is given in Equation 3.1 [1],
1 sin i = 2 sin t .
(3.1)
Here, 1 and 2 are the refraction coefficients of the first and the second medium,
consecutively. In Equation 3.1, i is the angle between the incident wave and the line
perpendicular to the boundary of two mediums, and t is the angle between the refracted
wave and the line perpendicular to boundary of two mediums.
The simple rule describes the behavior of the reflected part of the wave. The wave is
reflected, when impinges upon an object of larger size than the wavelength. Therefore,
the angle between the direction of incident wave and a line perpendicular to the
boundary of two mediums is equal to angle between the direction of the reflected wave
and a line perpendicular to the boundary of two mediums. The reflection and refraction
is illustrated schematically in Figures 3.1 and 3.2.
31
In Figure 3.1 and 3.2, i indicate the angle of incidence, r the angle of reflection, and t
the angle of refraction. The reflection differs for vertically and horizontally polarized
waves. The wave is vertically polarized, when its electric field vector oscillates along a
line orthogonal to the direction of propagation. Similarly, the wave is horizontally
polarized, when its electric field vector oscillates along a line parallel to the direction of
propagation. Vertically and horizontally polarized waves are described by Fresnel
coefficients. The vertically polarized wave coefficient Rv is given by [1],
Rv =
r sin i + r cos 2 i
r sin i + r cos2 i
(3.2)
Rh =
sin i r cos 2 i
sin i + r cos 2 i
(3.3)
32
1
h o r iz o n ta l
v e r tic a l
0 .9
0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
A n g le o f in c id e n c e
Figure 3.3 The magnitude of vertical and horizontal reflection coefficients [2].
To simplify the problem and to avoid the scattering effect due to rough surface, the
wave is assumed to reflect from a smooth surface of relative permittivity from 2.5, to 0.025 At Brewster angle, the wave component with vertical polarization will disappear.
The Brewster angle in Figure 3.3 is 32 degrees [2].
3.1.2 Diffraction
Diffraction occurs, when the electromagnetic wave impinges with obstruction of large
dimension compared to a signal wavelength. Based on Hyugens theory, diffraction
causes secondary waves, which are formed behind the obstructing object and later
propagate in all directions including the direction of primary propagation. This
phenomenon explains how the electromagnetic wave can be received, if there is nonline of sight (NLOS) situation between a transmitter and a receiver. When a single
object, such as hill or building, causes the diffraction, then knife-edge diffraction model
can be used to estimate path loss due to the diffraction. To calculate the total path loss,
the diffraction loss should be estimated and added to free space propagation loss. The
33
Before calculating the diffraction loss, diffraction parameter v has to be defined first as
in 3.4 [7],
v=h
2(d1 + d 2 )
2d1d 2
=
,
( d1d 2 )
( d1 + d 2 )
(3.4)
where d1 is the distance from transmitter to the knife-edge, d2 is the distance from knifeedge to the receiver, h is the height between Line of Sight (LOS) path and cross point of
diffracted waves, is the angle of diffraction, and is the wavelength. In real
environment, many obstacles can occur on the way between two antennas. In such case,
the calculation of diffraction losses can be very complex. Bullington has proposed that a
single equivalent obstacle can replace a couple of obstacles. Thus, path loss due to
diffraction can be calculated using single knife-edge diffraction model. This path loss
can be calculated, but first the diffraction parameter form Equation 3.4 must be
estimated. The diffraction losses Ld as a function of diffraction parameter v, are
calculated from Lees approximation in Equations from 3.5 to 3.9 [7],
34
Ld (v) = 0 ,
v < 0.8
0 < v <1
0.225
.
v
Ld (v) = 20log10
v > 2.4
(3.5)
(3.7)
(3.8)
(3.9)
3.1.3 Scattering
Scattering occurs, when a propagating wave faces an obstacle, which exhibits a rough
surface and the dimension of an obstacles surface is smaller than surface of a
propagating wavelength. This rough surface causes that wave is scattered in different
directions and propagates into the areas that would not be covered, when the wave is
diffracted or reflected from smooth surface. To estimate the roughness of the surface,
the Rayleigh criterion has to be used, to define critical height hc, given by [2],
hc =
8cos i
(3.10)
If the height of the obstacle is larger than critical height hc, then the surface is
categorized as rough. When the surface is smooth, then the wave is only reflected.
35
36
r
r2
2 exp( 2 ),
pr (r ) =
2
0,
r0
(3.11)
r<0
where r is the received signal amplitude, and 2 is the mean power of all multipath
terms. The mean value of envelope Erec and the variance of received signal amplitude
Varamp, are given consecutively in Equations 3.12 and 3.13 [2],
Erec (r ) = / 2 ,
Varamp (r ) = 2
37
(3.12)
2
.
2
(3.13)
In radio communication, there may exist LOS path between transmitter and receiver.
Therefore, a dominant signal component is received, and then the amplitude of the
received signal is Ricean distributed. Ricean probability distribution function is given
by [2],
pr (r ) =
r 2 + rc 2 rrc
r
exp(
) I 0 2 ,
2 2
2
(3.14)
where the I0 is modified Bessel function of the first kind of order zero and rc is the
dominant LOS signal component. When dominant LOS component rc can be reduced to
zero, Ricean distribution becomes Rayleigh distribution. To estimate the power
magnitude of dominant term over whole received power, the Ricean K-factor is derived
and expressed in Equation 3.15 [2],
rc 2
),
22
(3.15)
where rc/2 is the power of dominant signal term. Taking into account the Ricean Kfactor, the Ricean probability distribution function from Equation 3.14 is modified to
the following form,
pr (r ) =
10 K /10 (r 2 + rc 2 )
2r10 K /10
2r10 K /10
exp(
)
I
(
).
0
rc 2
rc
rc 2
(3.16)
38
pr (rs ) =
1
( r )
exp(
),
2 2
2
(3.17)
where rs is received slow fading signal, is mean deviation, and is standard deviation.
The standard deviation of slow fading depends on the environment topology and used
frequency.
Sd =
2
( D ) P()d
P()d
(3.18)
where D is average delay, and is propagation delay. Delay spread depends strongly on
the environment, where the wave propagates. Delay spread is larger in macrocellular
environment than in microcellular. Maximum excess delay is defined as the time
difference between the first signal and the last signal that arrive to the receiver.
39
S =
+180
2
( )
180
Pang ()
d .
P_tot
(3.19)
In Equation 3.19, is the mean angle, Pang() is angular power distribution, and P_tot
is the total angular received power.
f c =
1
,
2 Sd
(3.20)
where Sd is the delay spread. The coherence bandwidth varies, depending on the
multipath delay spread. To avoid correlated fading of two signals, the frequency
separation between them should equal or be higher than coherence bandwidth.
40
B=4
hBTS hMS
,
(3.21)
where hBTS is the base station effective antenna height, and hMS is the mobile station
antenna height. This propagation slope is necessary factor, which should be taken in to
account in mobile radio network planning phase.
41
Table 3.1 Characteristics of different radio propagation environment at 900 MHz [5].
Environment
type
Macrocellular
Urban
Suburban
Rural
Hilly rural
Microcellular
Indoor
Angular
spread
()
Delay
spread
(s)
Fast
fading
Slow fading
standard
deviation
(dB)
Propagation
slope
(dB/dec)
Coherence
bandwidth
(MHz)
5-10
5-10
5
0.5
NLOS
NLOS
(N)LOS
(N)LOS
(N)LOS
(N)LOS
7-8
7-8
7-8
7-8
6-10
3-6
40
30
25
25
20
20
0.32
40-90
90-360
0.1
3
<0.01
<0.01
1.6
0.053
15.92
15.92
The picocellular environments have characteristics of narrowband (NB) system even the
UMTS is wideband-based system. The system is recognized as wideband (WB), when
the signal band is much larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. On the
contrary, the system is narrowband, when signal band is much smaller than the
coherence bandwidth. The characteristics in Table 3.2 present, whether the GSM,
UMTS, and IS-95 (Interim Standard 95) systems behave like narrowband or wideband
system.
Table 3.2 Narrowband or wideband behaviors of different radio propagation environments [5].
Environment Type
Bandwidth
Macrocellular
Urban
Rural
Hilly
Microcellular
Indoor
WCDMA
GSM
IS-95
3.84 MHz
0.27 MHz
1 MHz
WB
NB/WB
WB
NB/WB
NB
NB/WB
NB
WB
NB
NB
WB
NB
WB
NB/WB
NB
42
Table 3.3 Major differences between indoor and outdoor environment [11].
Indoor
Outdoor
The indoor environment is characterized by large differences of the signal strength level
over small distances. The propagation in indoor environment differs from outdoor
environment in couple of aspects, especially interference and fading rate. Interference
level in picocellular environment is often higher than in microcellular environment.
Higher interference is caused by spurious emission of electronic devices such as,
computers and by different radio systems. The fading signal can fall below certain
signal to interference level and exceed bit error rate threshold, which satisfies good
quality of service. The slowly changing slow fading rate can be explained as follows.
The indoor mobile user can spend quite long time in the locations, where the signal
strength is at low level. This situation is caused by high attenuation over small distances
and low mobility of indoor mobile users. Moreover, delay spread in indoor environment
is very small and on the contrary, coherence bandwidth is high. That fact causes that
43
(3.22)
In Equation 3.22, R is the separation between transmitter and receiver in meters, Kwi is
number of penetrated walls of type i, Lwi loss of walls of type i, and n is the number of
penetrated walls. There are two types of walls: light internal and regular internal. It is
assumed that light internal and regular internal type of wall attenuates the signal,
consecutively by 3.4 dB and 6.9 dB. The slow fading deviation in indoor environment is
assumed to be 6 dB. Figure 3.6 presents the path losses between transmitter and receiver
for one, two, and three floors, and rooms with light and heavy walls. The maximum
separation between transmitter and receiver is 50 meters.
44
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
0
1
2
0
1
2
40
30
20
10
15
20
25
30
flo o r
flo o r
flo o r
flo o r
flo o r
flo o r
2
2
2
2
2
2
35
h e a vy w a lls
h e a vy w a lls
h e a vy w a lls
lig h t w a lls
lig h t w a lls
lig h t w a lls
40
45
50
Figure 3.6 Path loss with internal walls path loss information.
If the internal walls are not modeled, Equation 3.22 is modified to the following form
[8],
(3.23)
12 0
10 0
80
60
40
20
0 f lo o r s ep ar atio n
1 f lo o r s ep ar atio n
2 f lo o r s ep ar tio n
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 3.7 Path loss without internal walls path loss information.
45
50
45
Ec RSCP
.
=
N o RSSI
(4.1)
Later, performed measurements are sent by UE to the Node B. All these measurements
parameters are contained in the measurement report, and then passed to RNC, where
the decision phase takes place. Performed measurements are compared with defined
soft handover criteria in the decision phase. This process is carried out by RNC. After
decision phase, the execution of soft handover is accomplished, if the soft handover
criteria are fulfilled. After execution phase, mobile station enters or leaves the soft
handover area.
46
The optimization of all soft handover procedure phases should be performed to achieve
the highest possible soft handover gain. Optimization of particular phase can provide a
significant gain in uplink and downlink direction. In the measurement phase, it is
important to apply appropriate filtering time of the Ec/No measurements. Better
accuracy of the measurements works against fast fading, but longer filtering period can
cause unnecessary delays in handovers. This filtering period should be chosen as a
compromise between the accuracy of the measurements and handover delay. The other
important parameter is timing information of different CPICH channels. This
parameter delivers information of time differences of arriving signal from different
cells. This information is crucial for combining received signal components and for
adjusting the power of different signals. The optimization of decision phase, which is
performed by choosing appropriate dynamic and static SHO parameters, is an
attractive way to improve system performance. The optimization should be applied to
SHO algorithm as well. The examples of optimized SHO algorithm and parameters are
described in [18-23] and in later part of Chapter 4.
In explanation of soft handover algorithm, the following terms are crucial, and have to
be defined. Active set contains the list of cells having the connection with MS.
Monitored set contains the list of cells, which CPICH channels power are not high
enough to be added to the active set or, if active set is already full.
There are different soft handover algorithms standardized as the one used in IS-95
standard. Soft handover algorithm discussed in this paragraph is taken form technical
report TR 25.922 of 3GPP specification [24], currently used in UMTS networks.
MS measures continuously the power level of CPICH pilot signals. Based on these
measurements, the RNC decides, which SHO event is triggered. These events are
mainly: radio link addition (event 1A), radio link replacement (event 1C), and radio
link removal (event 1B), which is also called drop event. These events are illustrated in
Figure 4.1 and 4.2. The reporting range is the threshold defining whether the cell
should be added to active set or removed from it. All events are executed depending on
the signal strength level as well as the time to trigger value (T). Time to trigger value
is the minimal time, for which the signal level has to be above or below certain
threshold, to trigger certain event. Event 1A is completed, if pilot signal from
monitored set is strong enough to be added to active set, meaning that the signal level
from certain cell is above reporting range plus hysteresis for at least the time to trigger.
The cell can be added, if active set size is not larger than predefined. The event 1B is
executed in similar way, when the signal strength level is below reporting range minus
47
hysteresis for the time to trigger. A cell can be replaced (event 1C) from the active set,
if the signal strength level of the worst cell in the active set is lower than the best cell
outside the active set. The difference between these two cells should be higher than
replacement threshold over the time to trigger.
The reference point for reporting range is the best pilot signal. It means that a certain
cell is added or dropped from active set depending on the difference, defined by
reporting range, between its pilot signal power level and the power level of the best
pilot signal in active set. If this difference is smaller or larger than the difference
between best pilot signal and predefined constant value of reporting range, then event
1A or 1B is triggered, respectively. SHO algorithm is illustrated in Figure 4.2. In the
explanation of the soft handover algorithm, all events are triggered in the order
illustrated in SHO scenario in Figure 4.1. This figure presents the user with ongoing
call moving from the cell 1 through cell 2 to the third cell. During the call, all three
events are accomplished in the following order adding (1A), replacing (1B), and
removing radio link (1C).
48
In the beginning, in this scenario, the MS is connected to the cell of the strongest
signal pilot 1 (green line). As the MS moves onwards, the pilot 2 (blue line) reaches
the upper hysteresis boundary of reporting range for the time T and is added to active
set. Now UE is connected to cell 1 and cell 2 simultaneously, meaning that MS is in
the soft handover area. Afterwards, signal strength of pilot 3 (violet line) becomes
better than decreasing power level of pilot 1. The difference between these two pilot
signals becomes larger than hysteresis for replacement, for the time to trigger T and
the event 1C is accomplished, where pilot 1 is replaced with pilot 3. Now the pilot 3
and pilot 2 are in active set, and UE is still in soft handover. After that, as the MS
moves onwards, the power level of pilot 3 decreases below the lower hysteresis
boundary of the reporting range for the time to trigger T, and then pilot 3 is removed
form the active set. The mobile station is again connected only to one BS in cell 2. In
this case, the active set size is one.
49
SHO
Window
SHO
Window
During the soft handover, more connections are established. Thus, there is larger use of
the radio resources in the downlink direction, which consumes transmission power and
causes higher interference. The soft handover criteria should be planned carefully and
have to be compromise between SHO gain and additional capacity consumption. The
soft handover gain is strongly dependent of the environment, where the particular
network is operating. Achieved SHO gain is different in UL and DL direction.
50
51
schemes, like this example ones, distance-based, perfect, and normal. The procedure of
cell selection is described in [25].
The SHO gain is provided as well by different power control algorithms. There are
mainly two power control schemes for UE under SHO; namely, conventional and site
selection diversity transmission (SSDT). The capacity gain due to the SHO is a
combination of these two algorithms. There are also various modifications of power
control algorithm under SHO. As example, one of such modifications is described in
[18].
The SHO gain can be also provided by optimum SHO dynamic and static parameters,
which change the SHO probability. Finding these parameters was the motivation for
this Master Thesis. More information about SHO gain is included in the later part of
this subchapter and measurement results in Chapter 6.
52
the planning phase and keep reasonably SHOs probabilities providing gain and
possible losses.
53
In above Figure S1 and S2 are the signals from both BSs and Sm and So are additional
thresholds controlling this algorithm. In publication [18] measurements were
conducted in indoor environment where users were moving from the coverage area of
the one BS to the coverage area another BS. The transmission rate was 256 kbit/s. The
handset height was 1.65m. The measurements were taken in the corridor width of 2.9
meters. The phone quality was unacceptable if the power level of one of BSs was
below S0 level. The decision avoided handover algorithm exhibits that BS power
control can mitigate the interference problems.
Simulations showing the SHO gain in UMTS network are included in [19].
Simulations were conducted in 25 hexagonal cells in urban and rural area. The omnidirectional antennas were used. Cell radius was up to 2000 meters. The propagation
model was following the Okumura-Hata formula. The BS maximum output power was
5W in urban area. MS speed in this environment was up to 65 km/h. For the rural area,
the BS output power was 20W and the maximum MS speed was up to 120 km/h. The
correlation between BSs was 50%. Active set size was set up to 3 cells. Adding and
dropping thresholds were 1dB with their time to trigger values of 100 ms. Simulation
results showed the SHO gain that can be seen as the improvement of the coverage or
capacity. In this simulation, the soft handover gain was defined as the difference
between the highest transmitted power during hard and soft handover. In this
simulation environment, the results showed the SHO gain in downlink and uplink
54
direction. SHO gain is a function of the static and dynamic parameters, consecutively
SHO window and SHO delay. The higher SHO delay and SHO window the larger was
the transmission power gain. The gain was achieved for the urban and rural
environment. The highest gain up to 3 dB was reached in rural environment in
downlink direction. The network was slightly loaded by only one user per one BS.
Reference [23] proposed the SHO optimization by choosing the optimal static and
dynamic SHO parameters. The simulation model was following. The amount of
hexagonal cells was 19. The cell radius was 2000 meters. Duration of the call was 120
seconds and during this time, the 8 kbit/s throughput was used. If the soft handover
probability increased and the users could benefit from the diversity gain, then outage
probability decreased. At the same time when outage probability was decreasing, the
blocking probability was increased because the mean active set size was larger. When
the soft handover probability and blocking probability was reduced, then outage
probability was increased.
Soft handover function provides lower signal fading, because of simultaneous
connections via multiple physical radio links, which provide diversity. The SHO is a
simple way for providing the power gain in the network. In this Thesis, the
measurements prove previous theoretical deliberations of possible SHO gain in indoor
environment. The theoretical deliberation of the indoor environment and SHO function
gave the reason to conduct the measurements described in details in Chapter 5 and 6.
55
56
that DL transmission powers were captured in every second second of each base
station.
Base Station
Value
42.6 dBm
27 dBm
24 dBm
24 dBm
-123.7 dBm
2 sec
57
(b) Horizontal
(a) Vertical
Figure 5.1 Antenna radiation pattern: (a) vertical, (b) horizontal [41].
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal
Figure 5.2 Antenna radiation pattern: (a) vertical, (b) horizontal [41].
58
Two radiating cables were used in the UMTS test network infrastructure. The coupling
loss of radiating cables was 80 dB and longitude loss 12.4 dB/100m. Length of every
radiating cable is approximately 20 meters. The UMTS indoor network scheme can be
found in Figure 5.3. Two antennas used in the measurement campaign are highlighted
in this figure. This figure contains also coaxial and radiating cable lengths, their
attenuations at 2200 MHz, antennas gain, and pilot channel power transmitted by BSs.
Based on this information, effective isotropic radiated power for each antenna is
calculated and included in Figure 5.3. All antennas and radiating cables are assigned to
particular base station and connected to it through tappers and splitters as well as
coaxial cables. The STM-1 is physical interface between NetHawk ATM adapter and
the Node B.
59
laptop computer. Mobile phone was connected laptop computer. The mobile
equipment as well laptop computer was placed on small trolley. The height of the
trolley was approximately 1 m and height of the MS was 1.6 m. This trolley was
moved manually along the corridors, on which the measurements were performed. The
speed of the trolley was approximately 2 km/h. Measurement trolley is depicted in
Figure 5.4.
60
The images of the measurements route, its corridors F, G, and corridor C are presented
in Figure 5.6.
(a) Corridor F
(b) Corridor G
61
(c) Corridor C
Figure 5.6 Images of measurements route: (a) corridor F, (b) corridor G, and (c) corridor C.
While the trolley was moved, the transmission powers from both base stations were
recorded by RNC/Iub simulator and stored in a text file. Air interface analyzer
recorded the time, when the MS was in SHO area, and when MS was connected to
only one cell. This information was necessary to calculate the SHO probability. This
analyzer stored also other parameter like BER and SIR target values. The
measurements were conducted for the combination of various adding and dropping
threshold, with different time to trigger values. During each measurement, the
transmission powers were tracked separately for the mobile being in soft handover and
for the same mobile being outside the soft handover area. Power levels were later
averaged in such manner that first the power outside SHO area was averaged and
added to the average power transmitted during SHO. Later, this sum of two values was
averaged again. The difference between power transmitted in HHO and SHO was
defined as soft handover gain. The power transmitted during hard handover, i.e.,
when the SHO window was extremely small, was the reference point for the rest of the
measurements. First, the SHO window was changed by various adding and dropping
thresholds. The SHO was considered as hard handover for the smallest adding and
dropping thresholds. The second approach was to show soft handover gain with
various time to trigger values. In this case, the reference point for the rest of the
measurements was the measurement with the shortest time to trigger value. The soft
handover gain was calculated by comparing the powers transmitted during hard
handover and powers transmitted during SHO. Only one mobile was used for making
62
a call, and this call was reflected from the RNC/Iub simulator. Reflection of the call
means that the call was mobile oriented and mobile terminated by the same phone.
Hence, both uplink and downlink connections were present.
63
6. Measurements results
6.1.1 Measurements results in indoor environment
The parameters used in the measurements are shown in Table 6.1. The rows contain
the list of adding and dropping thresholds. Adding thresholds are in the left side of the
brackets and the dropping thresholds are in the right side of the brackets. Each row is
marked with the number form 1 to 12. The columns contain the time to trigger values
of adding and dropping thresholds. The value on left and the value on the right value
are, consecutively adding and dropping time to trigger values. The columns are
numbered from 1 to 5. Numbers of rows and columns are later used in the
measurement analyzis.
Measurement
number
Measurement
number
Time to trigger
values
[40 640]
[100 640]
[160 640]
[160 1280]
[100 240]
Threshold
[0 1]
(1,1)
(1,2)
(1,3)
(1,4)
(1,5)
[1 2]
(2,1)
(2,2)
(2,3)
(2,4)
(2,5)
[1 4]
(3,1)
(3,2)
(3,3)
(3,4)
(3,5)
[2 4]
(4,1)
(4,2)
(4,3)
(4,4)
(4,5)
[1 5]
(5,1)
(5,2)
(5,3)
(5,4)
(5,5)
[2 5]
(6,1)
(6,2)
(6,3)
(6,4)
(6,5)
[3 4]
(7,1)
(7,2)
(7,3)
(7,4)
(7,5)
[3 5]
(8,1)
(8,2)
(8,3)
(8,4)
(8,5)
[3 6]
(9,1)
(9,2)
(9,3)
(9,4)
(9,5)
10
[3 8]
(10,1)
(10,2)
(10,3)
(10,4)
(10,5)
11
[4 7]
(11,1)
(11,2)
(11,3)
(11,4)
(11,5)
12
[6 9]
(12,1)
(12,2)
(12,3)
(12,4)
(12,5)
64
Table 6.2 presents DL transmission power for different set of SHO parameters. In
Table 6.3, SHO probability values are listed, in Table 6.4 SIR target values are given,
and BER values can be found in Table 6.5.
[40 640]
[100 640]
[160 640]
[160 1280]
[100 240]
28.54
28.31
27.31
27.12
26.43
25.87
28.43
27.65
27.54
26.43
24.65
23.22
29.11
28.67
27.65
27.52
26.53
25.34
29.55
29.21
28.56
27.93
25.93
24.94
30.92
30.15
29.17
28.32
28.23
27.32
30.32
29.32
28.64
28.20
26.21
25.18
28.42
27.32
27.53
26.42
26.23
25.83
25.21
24.79
24.22
23.58
23.32
22.69
31.09
30.87
30.32
30.87
30.11
29.44
30.31
29.73
29.60
28.99
27.40
26.56
[40 640]
[100 640]
[160 640]
[160 1280]
[100 240]
21
21
22
23
25
27
29
30
31
35
38
48
20
20
21
22
25
26
26
28
30
33
36
48
19
20
20
21
23
24
25
27
28
32
35
47
23
24
25
26
27
27
30
32
33
36
39
51
16
17
17
18
20
21
22
24
25
28
31
43
65
[40 640]
[100 640]
[160 640]
[160 1280]
[100 240]
18.54
17.21
16.43
16.42
15.12
14.87
13.61
13.34
12.81
13.13
11.79
9.54
20.50
19.32
19.12
18.93
17.56
16.74
15.58
15.31
14.27
16.93
12.25
9.18
22.45
23.32
21.23
18.16
16.92
16.86
14.63
15.39
15.65
14.34
14.82
11.57
16.40
16.20
17.54
15.80
14.12
15.55
13.36
12.83
11.68
10.28
9.36
9.48
23.41
24.46
23.85
25.42
22.69
21.74
18.61
17.30
15.57
15.81
12.95
11.20
[40 640]
[100 640]
[160 640]
[160 1280]
[100 240]
4.30.
3.78
5.91
4.47
3.38
3.95
4.49
3.27
3.48
2.94
1.17
1.40
6.85
6.70
8.82
5.73
5.28
2.94
3.18
2.94
3.57
3.47
2.81
2.18
6.51
6.51
8.19
6.65
6.28
4.84
5.39
3.84
2.94
3.06
2.43
1.35
4.54
4.17
3.75
3.02
3.44
3.82
5.63
2.73
2.59
1.22
0.98
0.97
8.24
6.39
7.36
6.75
4.58
5.28
4.25
4.72
3.25
2.70
2.25
1.98
66
30
[160 1280]
29
[100 640]
28
[100 240]
[dBm]
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
1
10
11
12
Measurement number
Figure 6.1 DL transmission power for three different set of SHO time to trigger values.
67
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
5
6
7
8
Measurement point
10
11
12
Figure 6.2 DL transmission power for three different set of SHO time to trigger values.
Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show the comparison of transmission powers between different
time to trigger set of values for particular SHO windows. These measurements prove
that the gain is transmission power can be achieved using various time to trigger
values. The highest SHO gain, approximately 5.5 dB, is obtained for the adding 3 dB
and dropping 4 dB thresholds, if the time to trigger values are changed from [100 240]
to [160 1280]. If the adding and dropping time to trigger value is too short, the pingpong effect occurs often and the signal from the base stations hops rapidly because of
propagation characteristic. When signal does not leave or enter SHO area
unnecessarily, the transmitted power is smoother in time domain and average
transmitted power is lower.
DL Transmission powers are compared also for a certain set of time to trigger values
with different adding and dropping thresholds. In these measurements, soft handover
gain can be noted at the level almost 4.5 dB. The gain is calculated between
transmitted power for adding and dropping 0 dB and 1 dB, and power transmitted for 6
dB and 9 dB adding and dropping thresholds. For all sets of time to trigger values, it
can be seen that soft handover gain is significant and reaches almost 6 dB. The highest
transmitted power is at the level of 31 dBm and the lowest one is over 23 dBm. As a
comparison, the highest possible transmission power of the BS was 8 W, which equals
to approximately 39 dBm. All this results are introduced in Figure 6.3.
68
32
[0 1]
[3 4]
[4 7]
[6 9]
30
[dBm]
28
26
24
22
20
1
Measurement number
Figure 6.3 DL transmission power comparison between 4 different set of SHO adding and
dropping thresholds for certain time to trigger values.
This behavior of the signal was expected form previous deliberations. Soft handover
reduces the fast fading effect, which is typical for the indoor environments. The
simultaneous connections via multiple physical radio links reduce the fading dips in
the signal that is also visible by the probability distribution function in Figure 6.4. In
addition, in this figure it is clearly illustrated how the dynamic range at DL
transmission power is larger for small SHO window sizes.
100
90
80
70
CDF[%]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
15
25
30
35
40
[dBm]
Figure 6.4 Cumulative distribution function of DL transmission power for the best and the
worst scenario.
69
These curves are the measure of the signal for the adding and dropping time to trigger
values 160 ms and 1280 ms consecutively. The adding and dropping thresholds for red
curve are 6 dB and 9 dB, and for the blue curve the 0 dB and 1 dB, consecutively.
These results also present the soft handover gain along the powers transmitted during
the particular measurement.
6.1.3 SHO probability, BER, DROP call values, and SIR target.
As the measurements show, the highest power gain is provided for the situations, when
mobile is the longest time in SHO, meaning that the SHO probability should be the
highest. This is for the following measurements (12,1), (12,2), (12,3), (12,4), (12,5).
Different SHO thresholds have the highest impact on SHO probabilities. Time to
trigger values change only slightly the SHO probabilities and transmission powers.
The BER values are also lower for the measurements, where the SHO gain was the
highest. This is the other benefit from SHO. Next, reduced drop call rate can be
assumed a gain. Results show that for higher time to trigger values of adding and
dropping thresholds, drop call rates are smaller that is very important feature for
mobile operators. This drop calls rates are varying very deeply for SHO used with
different time to trigger values. Drop call rates are much more dependent on time to
trigger values than on the various adding and dropping thresholds. This is the reason
for analyzing drop call rates for only one of set of adding and dropping threshold. The
curve in Figure 6.5 presents drop call rates as function of SHO with different time to
trigger values and for the adding and dropping threshold is 3dB and 4dB,
consecutively. In addition, gain from SHO was decreased SIR target value. The SIR
target value was lower for the particular measurements with higher SHO probability.
70
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1
3
Measurement point
These measurements clearly show that larger SHO areas should be used in indoor
locations, in order to mitigate the fast fluctuations of the signal level. Moreover, to
avoid ping pong effect, longer time to trigger values are desirable. Short time to
trigger values resulted also in the high amount of drop calls, which were affecting
smooth transmission. The drop calls can be also avoided by use of larger time to
trigger values. Moreover, the time to trigger values up to 640 ms are very short and
there was no significant SHO gain, if these values were used. During the
measurements, the signal added to active set with the time to trigger values within
mentioned range was not significantly prolonging the time of adding the signal to
active set. The only marginal SHO gain for lower time to trigger values was expected
before. The conclusions of SHO optimum parameters for the radio network planning
are clear. The SHO thresholds providing the large SHO area should be used as well as
longer time to trigger values.
Chapter 7. Conclusions
71
7. Conclusions
In radio network planning it is important to estimate correctly the capacity and plan the
coverage for given area. Optimum parameters, responsible for functionality of the
network, are needed to satisfy above criteria. The purpose of this Master of Science
Thesis was to explore experimentally the effect of soft handover on improvement of
the transmission power in downlink direction in UMTS indoor network.
The measurements for this Master of Science Thesis were conducted in UMTS indoor
test network. Two directional antennas were radiating in such a manner that clear soft
handover area was obtained. Performance of downlink direction of transmission was
researched. Soft handover gain in downlink transmission power was estimated for
various sizes of the soft handover windows, i.e., adding and dropping threshold and
their time to trigger values. The gain was calculated by comparing transmission powers
during hard handover and during soft handover with different parameters. Soft
handover gain achieved in these measurements was varying from 3 dB to 5.5 dB,
depending on the soft handover window sizes changed by SHO adding and dropping
thresholds and their adding and dropping time to trigger values. These measurements
proved that soft handover provides downlink transmission power gain, which can be
seen as improvement of the WCDMA network performance. In addition, it was shown
that BER and SIR target values, together with drop call rates were improved for higher
SHO probabilities. SHO provides macro-diversity, which seems to be very crucial for
indoor environment. The measurements show the gain for one user. It means that the
network with optimum SHO window in real situation could support more users
compared to the situation, when small SHO windows are used.
As it was mentioned, in WCDMA network the improvement of the network
performance can be seen as coverage and capacity extension. High bit rate services
should be provided with sufficient QoS, especially for indoor users. This requires
reasonable radio resources management. An attractive and simple way to improve the
downlink performance in indoor environment is to use larger soft handover areas. This
causes lower transmission powers in downlink direction providing more capacity to
the network, but also larger overhead is introduced, reducing the network performance.
Therefore, further study is required to calculate how much downlink transmission
power can improve the capacity in indoor network.
References
72
References
[1]
J. D. Parson, The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel, John Wiley & Sons,
2000.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
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