Acta Mechanica 127, 209-224 (1998)

ACTA MECHANICA
9 Springer-Verlag 1998

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer at minimum in

surface tension
S. G. Slavtehev and S. P. Miladinova, Sofia, Bulgaria
(Received June 1, 1996; revised September 3, 1996)

Summary. In the present paper a class of similarity solutions for the two-dimensional Navier-Stokes and
energy equations describing thermocapillary flows in a liquid layer of constant width and infinite extent is
presented. The layer is bounded by a horizontal rigid plate from one side and opened to the ambient gas from
the other one. The physical properties of the liquid are assumed to be constant except the surface tension
which varies as a quadratic function with temperature. It is supposed that a constant temperature gradient
exists along either the liquid free surface (case 1) or the rigid boundary (case II).
In both cases, by means of a similarity transformation, the equations of motion and energy are reduced to
a system of three ordinary differential equations, one for the velocity and two for the temperature. The
equation for the velocity can be solved separately from the other equations and its solution, found
numerically, exists only for the Marangoni number less than a certain finite value. The solution of the whole
system depends also on the Prandtl number. The solution of one of the temperature equations is presented
in an analytical form and the other equation is solved numerically. Asymptotic formulas of the functions
are also obtained for small and large Marangoni numbers. Flow pattern and temperature fields are
presented. One convective roll exists in every semi-infinite layer. Fluid velocities at different points of the free
surface are evaluated for an aqueous solution of n-heptanol and compared with those measured in the
experiments.

1 Introduction
Most of the liquids have a surface tension that is a monotonically decreasing function of temperature presented usually as a linear one. When a temperature gradient is imposed along a liquidgas surface a corresponding surface tension gradient is induced and it causes motion not only at
the surface, but, due to viscosity, in the fluid also. That motion is referred to thermocapillary
(Marangoni) convection. The interest of the scientists in studying the Marangoni convection
arises from the possiblility of material processing in space crafts, where the gravity force is very
small in comparison with the thermocapillary one.
Some dilute aqueous solutions of fatty alcohols, like n-heptanol, n-hexagonal, etc. [1], [2] have
a surface tension which is not only decreasing but also increasing function with a minimum at
some temperature. The dependence on the temperature is approximated fairly well by
a quadratic function.
The influence of the surface tension minimum on thermocapillary flows in such solutions has
been investigated recently both experimentally and theoretically. Experiments with solution of
long chain alcohols were conducted in microgravity conditions [3], [4] and on earth [3], [5], [6].
Thermocapillary flows of such solutions in cavities [7], [8], [9], [10] and thin layers [5], [11], [12],
[13], [14], [15] were studied by means of numerical and analytical methods.

210

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

Some self-similar solutions of the governing equations for flows in a thin layer and a half
space were reported [12], [14], [16]. They exist only if the free surface of the moving liquid is
assumed to be flat. It is well known [18], that the effect of the surface deformation is important for
Marangoni convection in very thin layers and small cavities, especially near their lateral rigid
boundaries. Thus, the obtained solutions for layers of constant depth describe thermocapillary
flows in domains situated far from the boundaries.
In [14] a thermocapillary flow in a layer of lateral infinite extent is studied in the case of
constant temperature gradient along the rigid bottom of the layer, while the free boundary is
assumed to be thermally insulated. The solution of the corresponding system of two ordinary
differential equations for the velocity and the temperature is found in series in a small Marangoni
number when the Prandtl number is of order of unity. Solutions for large Marangoni and Prandtl
numbers are not presented.
In the present paper the problem of existence of similarity solutions of the twodimensional equations of motion and energy for thermocapillary flows in thin layers of liquids
presenting a minimum in the surface tension is considered. Solutions are obtained in the cases
of imposed constant temperature gradient along either the free (zero-stress) boundary of
the layer or the rigid one, while at the other boundary all possible thermal conditions are
assumed. By applying a similarity transformation, the physical problem is reduced to a system
of three ordinary differential equations, one for the velocity and two for the temperature.
The velocity equation as well as one of the temperature equations are solved numerically,
while the solution of the third one is found in an analytical form. It is proved numerically
that a unique solution exists for the Marangoni number M within the interval [0,6349] and
there is no any other solution for larger M (see definition of M below). The large M structure
of the solutions consists of thin dynamic and thermal boundary layers adjacent to the free
surface. The streamwise velocity and the temperature functions for various values of the
Marangoni and Prandtl numbers are calculated. Flow pattern and temperature fields are
presented. In every semi-infinite part of the layer one convective roll exists. The maximum
values of the surface velocity evaluated for an aqueous solution of n-heptanol are smaller than
those measured in the experiments.

2 Formulation of the problem

Consider a viscous liquid layer of infinite extent and thickness d lying on a horizontal plate and
opened to the ambient motionless gas (see Fig. 1). The upper free surface is supposed to be
uniform and non-deformable. The physical properties of the fluid are assumed constant, except
the surface tension a depending on temperature Tby the expression:
a=ao+~(T-To)

2,

(1)

where ~, ao and To are positive constants. Function (1) has a minimum value ao at T = To and the
influence of this minimum on flows induced in the layer at certain thermal conditions will be
studied.
To formulate the corresponding two-dimensional problem Cartesian coordinates x, y are
chosen with x as a streamwise coordinate and y measured from the plate. The layer is supposed to
be under various thermal conditions. In one case (numbered as I) a constant temperature
gradient A is imposed along the liquid free surface and the rigid boundary is considered as

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

211
Case II

C&se I

T~-To+Ax

_k~

ay

1
d

H/J/1//////

il,,-IJl////lllllll/llllllllllllllltlllliil' X
aT
--=0
&

1/1////)////1//Hl///I//////x

(la) or T=T~ (Ib)

T = Two+Ax

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram for the liquid layer

thermally insulated (case I a) or isothermic (case I b) (see Fig. 1). In other case (numbered as II) the
temperature gradient is applied along the plate and the heat balance at the free boundary is
assumed to obey Newton's law.
The equations of continuity, momentum and energy for an incompressible viscous fluid are
respectively
(V.v) = 0,

(2)

Q(v.V) u = -- [7p -~-/2[72 v q- 0 g ,

(3)

(v.VT) = KV2T.

(4)

Here v(u, v) is the fluid velocity, p the pressure, # the dynamic viscosity, Q the density, K the
thermal diffusivity and g(0, - g ) the gravitational vector.
The boundary conditions for the velocity are:
(i) no-slip condition at the rigid plate
v=0,

at

y=0,

(5)

(ii) kinematic condition for a non-deformable surface

v=0,

at

y=d

(6)

(iii) stress balance at the free boundary

~u

# ~y

~a

3x

~T

6(T-- To) -~x'

at

y = d.

(7)

The boundary conditions for the temperature are as follows:

a) Case I
ST
--=0
Oy

(Ia)

or

T = Tw (Ib),

at

y=0;

T= To + A x ,

at

y = d,

where A > 0 and Tw is the wall temperature assumed to be different from To.

(8)

212

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

b) Case II

T=Two+Ax,

at

0T
-k~yy=h(T--Tg),

y=0;

at

y=d,

(9)

where Two is the temperature of the plate at the origin of the coordinate system, T o the
gas temperature, k the thermal conductivity and h the surface thermal conductance of the
liquid.
The flow is to be symmetric about the axis y, but this property could be violated for the
temperature field. Hence, it is necessary to consider both positive and negative x. We seek
similarity solutions for the velocity and the temperature in the following form:

X
d'

y
)7 = ~,

g)A2 d 2
u

(~A2 d 2
~f'(3~),

f(35),

P - - P g = b A 2 d [ ~22 + P ( ; ) l '

(10)

T= rlOl(y) + A d f~ 0(),
where 2 is unknown constant, Po is the gas pressure, f, P, 01 and 0 are functions of/f only and the
prime denotes differentiation with respect to the independent variable. The constant T1 is equal
to To in case I a, Tw in case I b and Two in case II.

Substituting (10) in x-momentum equation of (3) leads to the equation

f'" + M(ff" _ f , 2 ) = )~,

(11)

with boundary conditions

f(0) =f'(0) = 0,

f(1) = 0,

f"(1) = 02(1),

(12)

where M = o~A 2 d3/# 2 is the Marangoni number based on the second derivative of the surface
tension with respect to the temperature. Equation (11) is third order with four boundary
conditions. The problem is however not over-specified, because the fourth boundary condition
enables the pressure coefficient 2 to be determined.
From y-momentum equation of (3) after integration one obtains the expression
P(3~) = - M f 2 ( f ) - i f ( y ) + i f ( l ) + Bd(1 - y),

(13)

where Bd---0g/6A 2 is the modified dynamic Bond number standing for the ratio of the
hydrostatic pressure to the thermocapillary force. It is negligibly small for liquid layers under
microgravity conditions.
Substitution of expression (10) into energy equation (4) results in two equations

01" + M Pr f01' = 0,

(14)

0" + M Pr(fO'-frO) = 0,

(15)

where Pr = #/oK is the Prandtl number. The boundary conditions for the temperature become
as follows
(i) Case I a
0,'(0) = O,

if(O)= O,

01(1)= 1,

0(1) = 1;

(16)

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

213

(ii) Case Ib
01(0) = 1,

8(0) = O,

TO

81(1) = ~ ,

8(1) = 1;

(17)

(iii) Case II
81(0)-- 8(0)= 1,

81'(1) + Bi [ 8 a ( 1 ) - T~ool = 0,

8'(1) + Bi 8(1)= 0,

(18)

where Bi = hd/k is the Biot number. In the last case the surface temperature Tat x = 0 is to be
equal to the temperature To from (1). Hence, Two is assumed to be defined by the expression
T~,o = To/01(1), which is necessary to keep the flow symmetric about the axis y.
In case I 0(1) = 1, the problem (11)-(12) can be solved separately from the equations
(14)-(17). For case II the following transformation
f(Y) = a2f(Y),
8(.9) = if(y),

81(y) = Ol(y),
M = -a -2 '

2 = ,[a 2 ,

(19)

where a = 0(1) is a non-zero constant, keeps the form of all equations and boundary conditions,
except for the fourth condition (12) which becomes
f"(1) = 1,

(20)

as in case I. Hence, in both cases it is possible first to solve Eq. (11) and then, to find the
temperature field in the layer based on the solution of (14) and (15).

3 Similarity solutions of the problem

Provided that the function f(37) is known, it is easy to obtain the general solution of (14), namely
81(37) = C1 + C2go(37),

go(Y)= S exp [ - M Pr q(z)] dz,

z
q(z) = ~ f(y) dy,

(21)

where constants C1 and C 2 are to be determined from the appropriate boundary condition (16),
(17) or (18). The function 81(37) is expressed by
1,

01(Y) =

1 + [~-11
1-Bill-

(case Ia)
(case Ib).

go(Y)go(1)
~o~

go(Y)
[ - M Pr q(1)] + B/go(l)'

(22)

(case II)

It is constant in cases I a and II for Bi = 0 or To = T,,o, but, as we shall see below, it varies in
a different way in case I b and II when Bi is not zero.

214

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

The other Eqs. (11) and (15) are to be solved numerically. We apply first the transformation
used in [17] for solving an equation identical to (11), namely
t / = M'/f,

f(37) = M ~- t~b(t/),

0(.f) -= ~(t/),

(23)

where y is yet unknown constant. This transformation allows to eliminate the Marangoni
number in the equations and to arrive at the following problem
~b'" + ~bq~" - ~,2 = 2",
q)(O) = r

= O,

~(M') = O,

(24)
4~"(M') = M 1 -3,,

~ " + Pr (q~7t' - ~b'~) = 0,

tP(O) = 1,

t/"(1) + Bi M - r i P ( l ) = O,

(25)
(26)
(27)

The Eq. (24) is derived for various physical problems concerning viscous flows. It is very
similar to the Falkner-Skan equation describing a flow in the boundary layer on a rigid wedge
and coincides with that studied first by Hiemenz (see, for example, [19]). The same equation is
solved for a flow in a channel with injection or suction through the channel porous walls [20], [21],
[22] and in a channel with free accelerating boundaries [17]. The existence of multiple solutions
for laminar flows is numerically proved.
Here, a solution of Eq. (24) satisfying the boundary conditions (25) which differ from those in
the corresponding channel problems is obtained. It is solved as an initial-value problem for
a given value/3 = ~"(0), with .~* as a parameter, until ~b becomes zero at some point t/o. That
quantity and the value ~ = ~b"(t/o) serve to determine the unknown parameters

M = ~rlo3 ,

). = 2* r/~.

(28)

As positive values of the Marangoni number are of interest, solutions of (24) passing the abscissa
> 0 with positive second derivative at the crossing point are considered.
It is easy to show that any solution ~(y; 2*,/3) of the initial-value problem is invariant to the
transformation of affinity [23]

cI)(~;b42*,b3/3)=bq)(Y;2*,/3),

(29)

with arbitrary non-zero constant b. Using this relation, one can easy prove that the parameters
M and 2 calculated from (28) on the base of the solution for given 2* and/~, do not differ from the
corresponding values determined from the solution for b42 * and b3/3, i.e. they do not depend on b.
Hence, in case of non-zero values of/~ it is sufficient to choose/3 equal to 1 and - 1 (corresponding
to the values ofb in (29) equal to/~- 1/3, if/3 > 0, and ( - / 3 ) - 1/3 for/3 < 0) and to change A* over all
real numbers. For/~ = 0 and any non-zero 2" the constant b in (29) could be determined through
2*, thus reducing the problem to seeking solutions for 2* = 1 and 2* = - 1 only.
Setting ~"(0) equal to + 1, 0, - 1, one considers three different slopes of the streamwise
velocity profile at the plate surface. If/3 = 0, the stress is zero at y = 0, which is not true for the
rigid wall, but this value is included for completeness.
After determination of M and 2 from (28), the velocity and the pressure are calculated from
(23), (13) and (10). The fourth-order Runge-Kutta method was used for solving the initial-value
problem.

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

215

With known function ~, Eq. (26) is solved for fixed Bi and various values of the Prandtl
number. A finite-difference method is used and the solution of the corresponding algebraic
systems is found by the Gauss elimination method with a choice of the main element of the
matrices [24]. The function 01(~) is calculated from (22).

4 Discussion of the results

Following the procedure outlined above, the value of q~"(0) has been fixed and Eq. (24) has been
solved for many values of the parameter 2* within the interval ( - 0% + oo). We have found that
the solutions of the first group at ~ " ( 0 ) = 1 do not correspond to the problem under
consideration because the function 9 does not vanish for positive )~ and tends to infinity with
increasing the independent variable.
The solutions of the second group at ~"(0) = 0 present only one pair of values M = 6 349 and
2 = -0.03561 calculated for any 2* > 0. The solutions for 2" < 0 give negative values of the
Marangoni number and they were disregarded.
The solutions of the third group at ~"(0) -- - 1 determine the Marangoni number within the
interval 0 < M < 6 349. When 2* varies from - o o to zero, the Marangoni number increases
from zero to 1150. The other values of M correspond to positive values of this parameter and at
2* ~ + oo the Marangoni number tends to the value coinciding with that obtained from the
second group solutions. It is proved numerically that the problem (11), (12) has only one solution
for the values of the Marangoni number from the interval [0, 6 349] and a solution for other
positive values of M does not exist.
The non-existence of solution for sufficiently large Marangoni numbers seems to come from
the fact that it is not possible to impose quite large temperature gradients at a liquid free surface
without disturbing its flat shape. Hence, the constrain of the formulated problem relating to the
non-deformability of the upper boundary is probably the reason for this feature of the solution.
The non-existence of solution of the present problem for the Marangoni number larger than
some finite value is in contrast to the very similar problem for two-dimensional flows in a channel
with accelerating free boundaries [17] studied on the base of the same dynamic equation, with the
Reynolds number Re instead of M. The solution of that problem exists for any value of the
Reynolds number and it is even multiple for large Re, due to the possibility to have different
directions of the fluid velocity on the zero-stress center line of the channel. In the case of
thermocapiUary flow the velocity is zero at the rigid boundary of the layer and the slope of the
streamwise velocity (i.e. the second derivative of the similarity function) has only one (negative)
sign. Thus, the solutions of the initial-value problem for positive slopes are excluded.
Some results of the numerical integration of the Eq. (11) are exposed in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 a, b.
The decrease of 2 from 1.5 to - 0.035 61 with increasing M is shown on Fig. 2. The quantityf'(1)
presenting the fluid surface velocity is plotted against the Marangoni number on Fig. 3. It also
decreases monotonically from the maximum value 0.25 to 0.053 5.
Typical profiles of the streamwise velocity are presented on Fig. 4 a and Fig. 4 b for various
values of the Marangoni number corresponding to positive and negative values of 2 respectively.
Flow pattern for two values of M are presented on Fig. 5. As expected, the liquid on the free
surface and in a sublayer below it moves in both directions of increasing surface tension, starting
from the point x = 0 (where the surface tension has a minimum). Due to continuity, reverse flows
occur in the lower part of the layer and in every semi-infinitive part of the layer only one, very
long, roll exists. The intensity of the flow decreases with increasing the Marangoni number.

216

S. G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

0.25

1.5

f'(1)
0.20

X
1.0

0.15
0.5

0.10
0,0
-0.5

0,05

2000

40'00

0.00

60'00 M

Fig. 2. The coefficient 2 as a function of M

o,

2000

4000

60'00 M

Fig. 3. The surface velocityf'(1) as a function of M

1.0

y/d
0.8
0.6

- -

o4

0.2

~./i!

0._0~. 1 ' ~

0.2 -

....

0.~1 . . . .

0.r2 '

='o,o~

f'(y/d)

o.o2

0.00

o.o3

0.05

0.06

if(y/0)

(b)

(a)

Fig. 4. Longitudinal velocity profiles at M equal to: a - 0.000 432 (1), 138 (2), 1032 (3); b - 3105 (1), 6 345 (2)

1.0

y/d

Y/d.8
0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0"02.0

-1.0

O,
0.0

1.0

x/d

0.0

2.0

-1.0

-2,1

1.0

x/d

2.0

(b)
11, b -

1032

1.0

1.0

y/a

y/d

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.4

/ I

0.4

0.2

, ,

0.2

0.6

0.0

(a)
Fig. 5. Flow pattern at M equal to: a -

o.o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-o,~
o.o
0.5
~.o

iJ

0
Fig. 6. Distribution of 0 for case I a at Pr = 1, and
M equal to 0.00043 (1), 11 (2), 138 (3). 1032 (4), 3105 (5)

0.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

0
Fig. 7. Distribution of 0 for case I a at M = 138,
and Pr equal to 1 (1), 4 (2), 7 (3)

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

217

The thickness of the sublayer in which the liquid goes from the axis y has the largest value;
0.33 d for the Marangoni number being almost zero and it decreases monotonically with
increasing M. At large values of M the solution involves into flow with a boundary-layer type
structure, e.g. a thin boundary layer with a thickness of order M - 1/3 exists next to the free surface
and hence, we have
f(37) = M - 2 / 3 F ( y ) ,

(30)

37 = 1 - M - 1 / 3 Y ,

where F ( Y ) satisfies the equation

F " ' - F F " + F '2

2
--

(31)

- - - M1/3

and the boundary conditions

F(0) = 0,

F"(0) = 1.

(32)

The third boundary condition must match the function with the solution outside of the boundary
layer as Y ~ + oo. As the right-hand side of(31) is small for large M, the leading-order solution is
the function
F o ( Y ) = - C[1 - exp ( - C Y ) ] ,

(33)

satisfying the reduced equation. This solution is first found in [25]. In the case under
consideration the constant C = 1.
It is worth noting that in the boundary layerf'(37) is of order of M - 1/3 and this explains the
decrease of the free surface velocity as well as the flow intensity with increasing the Marangoni
number.
For small values of the Marangoni number the solution of (11) can be found in a regular
expansion in M and for example, in Case I, when f"(1) = 1, the zero-order term is (see [14])
j72

y(37) = ~ - ( ; - 1),

(34)

;T= ~-.

As f'(1) = 0.25, this function presents the flow with the largest surface velocity.
Let consider now the solutions of the temperature equations (14) and (15) in each case.

y/d

O.B
0.6

0.6 i l
0.4

0,4

0,2
0"220
~
oo

-1.0

o.o

.o

x/d

(~)
Fig. 8. Isotherms for case Ia at

2.0

0.0_2.0

'

-1.0

o.0

(b)
Pr

= 1, A d / T

= 0.1 and M equal to a -- 11, b -- 1032

1.0

x/d

2.0

218

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

a) Case I a
Here 01 is equal to 1. The function 0 is plotted on Fig. 6 for various values of the Marangoni
number and P r = 1. The same function is also presented on Fig. 7 for different Prandtl numbers
and M = 138. The both numbers appear as a product in (15) and the behavior of 0(37) for
moderate and large M depends mostly on the values of that product, if the Prandtl number is of
order of 1. For large values of the product the function varies slightly in the lower part of the
layer, due to the weak flow there, being negative near the wall.
For relatively small M and the Prandtl number of order of unity the solution of (15) can be
found in a series in M. By use of (34), one obtains the first two terms
Pr
ff = ~ (3)7~

0(37) = 1 + Mff(37),

4373 + 1).

(35)

The function ff(37)satisfies the equation and the boundary conditions

if" = P r f ' ,

~(0) = 0,

0(1) = 0.

(36)

When the Marangoni number is sufficiently large, it is reasonable to expect the existence of a thin
thermal boundary layer adjacent to the free surface. At Pr = 1 the thickness of the layer should be
of order of that of the dynamic boundary layer, i.e. of O ( M - 1/3). Presenting 0(37) in a series
0(37) = ~po(Y) + M - 1 / 3 t p l ( Y )

(37)

+ ....

and substituting (37), (30) and (33) into (15), one obtains, to leading order, the equation
Wo" + C(1 - e - c r ) tpo' - C2e-Cr~po = 0.

(38)

Two linearly independent solutions of (38) are

Z = e -cr

and

e -z + Z

fe

-Z

(39)

dz

from which the general solution can be constructed. In the case under consideration (0(1) = i and
C = 1) the function ~po(Y) = ~o(Z) has the form

~2o(Z)=Z-C1

e-Z

--Z _ e - Z + Z

--dz

(40)

z
z

with a constant C1, which is to be determined from the matching of ~o(Y) with 0(37)outside of the
layer as Y ~ + oe. The very quick variation of ~o(Y) in the boundary layer layer next to the liquid
surface causes some difficulty in the numerical integration of (15).
The temperature fields, i.e. isotherms T/To = const, for two values of M and Pr = 1 are
presented on Fig. 8. The deviation of the isotherms from the vertical lines in the upper part of the
layer is due to the flow going out of the axis y. The temperature fields are symmetric about this
axis in a sense that at any level the temperatures at symmetric points deviate from that at x = 0
with the same quantity, but with different signs. For small and moderate M the dimensionless
temperature is larger (smaller) than 1 for positive (negative) x. For large M the thermal field is
divided into four domains by two (vertical and horizontal) isotherms at T/To = 1. For x > 0 the
dimensionless temperature in the lower part of the layer becomes smaller than 1, because the
reverse flow is intensive mostly in its upper part and the warmer fluid going back to the axis
y remains at middle levels. For negative x the colder fluid also returns at the middle levels of the
layer.

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

219

1.0

1.0

y/d

y/d
0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.0

0.5

0.'6

0.'7

OJ8

0.'9

1.0

0.0
-0.3

1.1

01

0.0

0.2

0.5

0.8

1.0

(b)
Fig. 9. Distribution of 01 (a) and 0 (b) for case Ib at Pr = 1, To/T~ = 0.5 and M equal to 0.00043 (1), 11 (2),
138 (3), 1032 (4), 3105 (5)
1.0
y/d
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2

0.0

0.'2

. 0.4
. . . 0.6
.

0.'8

1.0

Fig. 10. Distribution of 0 for case I b at M = 138, and

Pr equal to 1 (1), 4 (2), 7 (3)

,/d

,/d

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0"o-2.0

-1.0

0.0

1.0

x / d 2.0

0"O-2.0

'

-i'.0

'

0.0

i.'0

x / d 2.0

(b)
Fig. 11. Isotherms for case Ib at Pr = 1, To/T~ = 0.8, A d / T = 0.1 and M equal to a - 11, b - 1032

b) Case I b
In this case the function 01 depends on y w h i c h m e a n s that the temperature varies from Tw to
T~ a l o n g the axis y. This is well seen on Fig. 9 a presenting the function for different M a r a n g o n i
numbers and To/Tw = 0.5.
O n Fig. 9 b 0 is plotted for s o m e values of M and Pr = 1. The influence of the Prandtl number
on this function is s h o w n on Fig. 10. It is seen that its behavior is very different for small and large
M a r a n g o n i numbers. For small M the function has the presentation

0(37) = 37 + Mff(37),

er
0"= 2~6 37(6374 + 5373 - 11)

(41)

J S. G. Slavtchev and S. R M i l a d i n o v a

220
t.0

1.0
y/d

y/d
0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0,0

0.95 'o.9~

'o.97

0.98

0.0
-5.0

0.99 011'00

-2.5

0,0

(b)
Fig. 12. D i s t r i b u t i o n of 01 (a) a n d 0 (b) for case II at Pr = 1, Tg/Two = 0.5, Bi = 0.1 a n d M equal to 0.00043
(1), 11 (2), 138 (3), 1032 (4), 3105 (5)

1.0
y/d

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-5.5-4.5-3.5-2.5-1.5-0.5

0.5

1.5

Fig. 13. D i s t r i b u t i o n of 0 for case II at M = 138, Bi = 0.1

and P r e q u a l to 1 (1), 4 (2), 7 (3)

1.0

1.0
y/d

y/d
0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6
0.4

0.4
-4

-4

"
0.2

0.2
0.0

-2.1

_J
-1.0

0.0

1.0

x/d

2.0

~176

-~0

g.0

1.o

x/d

20

(b)
Fig. 14. Isotherms for case II at Pr = 1, Bi = 0.1, To~Two = 1, Ad/Two = 0.1 a n d M equal to a - 11, b - 1032

and varies almost linearly, specially in the lower part of the layer. For large M the variation of 0 is
considerable in the upper part of the layer.
Isotherms T/Tw = const are plotted on Fig. 11 for two Marangoni numbers with Pr = 1,
To/Tw-- 0.8 and Ad/T~ = 0.1. The temperature fields are not symmetric about the axis y and the
temperature at some point with x > 0 is higher than that in the symmetric point.

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

221

c) Case I I
This case is the most relevant to the experiments because in experimental conditions the
temperature of the layer bottom is usually well controlled, while the liquid surface temperature
may change in a different way due to the fluid motion.
At Bi = 0 the function 01 = 1 and this particular case is similar to case Ia, but the temperature conditions at the layer boundaries are exchanged. Moreover, 0(1) is now not known in
advance.
The influence of the heat tansfer through the free surface on the dynamic and thermal fields in
the layer is studied for Bi = 0.1. The function is plotted on Fig. 12a for To/T,~o = 0.5. For small
M it decreases almost linearly, while for large M the function 01 is about 1 in the lower part of the
layer and decreases very weakly in the upper one reaching a minimum at the free surface. So, the
surface temperature To = Tow0(1)is less than the wall temperature at x = 0.
The function 0, presented on Fig. 12 b for various values of the Marangoni number at fixed Pr
and on Fig. 13 for some Prandtl numbers and fixed M, changes considerably for different values
of the product Pr M. For small and moderate values of this quantity it is positive while for large
values the function is negative almost in the whole layer. By use of (34), for small M, with
Pr = O(1) and 0(1) = O(1), the function 0 is expressed by

o(;)

= 1 - By + Mg(;),

g=~3~

-~-

B = 1 -7--Bi

+(B+3)

'

-43~ 2 + 3 B

1+

Bi

(42)

where g satisfies

~' = Pr [f' + B ( f -

8(0) =

ff')],

0,

0~(1)+ Big(l) = 0.

(43)

The function 0 is positive everywhere and the value 0(1) is less than 1, decreasing very slowly with
increasing M (see curves 1 and 2 on Fig. 12b). Thus, the temperature gradient along the free
surface has the same direction as that of the gradient at the wall.
For large Marangoni numbers 0(1) becomes negative and the surface temperature gradient
changes its direction. It means that the temperatures at the surface for x < 0 are higher than those
for x > 0.
An attempt has been made to understand the behavior of 0 at large M , when the termal
boundary layer is expected to exist next to the free surface. If the function F in (30) is given by (33)
and 0 is presented by (37), the function ~Po(Y) = ~o(Z) is found in the form

~ o ( Z ) = C2

e-Z-

e-~
--dz

(44)

Z
z

It satisfies, to the first order, the boundary condition (18) for 0 at the free surface, which reduces to
0'(1) = 0. The constant C2 is related to C by the equation C22 = C a obtained from the fourth
condition. Matching of ~Po(Y)with 007) outside of the boundary layer could yield the exact value
of C2. But, it is easy seen that if this constant approaches zero (from any side), the flow motion at
the surface will stop, nevertheless what is the value of M. Then, Eq. (11) has simply the trivial
solution. Moreover, for two values of 0(1) which are equal in absolute value and different in
sign, the flow pattern is the same (without changing the direction of motion along the free
surface).

222

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova

Isotherms T/Two = const are plotted on Fig. 14 for Pr = 1, To~Two = 1 and Ad/T,,,o = 0.1. The
values of M are chosen to present temperature fields for both signs of 0(1). The thermal field at
M = 1032 shows the possibility to have a flow with the opposite temperature gradient along the
free surface.

5 Conclusions
An exact solution to the Navier-Stokes equations and the temperature equation for the
thermocapillary flow in a thin layer of a liquid presenting the surface tension minimum is
obtained. The solution is found for the Marangoni number within a finite interval, when
a constant temperature gradient is imposed along either the liquid free surface or the wall on
which the layer lies. Flow pattern and thermal fields are presented for different Marangoni
numbers and Pr = 1. One convective roll exists in every semi-infinite layer. The flow is more
intensive near the free surface and its intensity decreases with increasing M. It is shown that in the
case of constant temperature gradient along the rigid boundary there is a possibility to have
a temperature gradient along the free surface in the opposite direction.
The existence of one-roll flows in cavities is predicted in some previous theoretical studies
ignoring the gravity [8], [9]. Such flows are also observed in very thin layers of aqueous
n-heptanol solutions [5], [6]. But, in the reported experiments a flow with an "opened" free surface
has not occurred and the liquid always moves from one lateral wall of the channel to the other
one in direction of increasing surface tension, even when the lateral walls are kept at
temperatures, one being larger and the other smaller than the temperature of the surface tension
minimum. In microgravity conditions the "opening" of the fluid surface has not been detected
either.
For this reason the results obtained here can not be compared directly with the available
experimental data. But, the present solution has a property which differs from the previous
theoretical results for thin layers of such liquids. It is obtained for the surface tension gradient
calculated directly from expression (1), without supposing it to be constant locally at any point,
as is assumed, for example, in [5]. This advantage of the solution makes reasonable to evaluate the
free surface velocity for a given liquid and to compare it with measured values.
The calculations were made for 6.24 x 10- 3 molal aqueous solution of n-heptanol used in the
experiments reported in [6]. The values of the slope ~a/~ T,which is equal to ~ae/O T,where ae is the
equilibrium surface tension measured in an isothermal system, are presented in Table 1. They are
taken from Table 2 in [6]. To compare with the experimental results reported there, we define the
quantity
Us d 2 aft
as* . . . . .
if(l),
A
# OT

(45)

which presents the ration of the surface velocity u, at some point to the temperature gradient at
the liquid surface. The values of the surface tension gradient in Table 1 allow us to consider the
change of the surface temperature from To = 40~ to the value 8.5~ for negative x and to 51~
for positive ones. As the velocity depends linearly on x, the mean surface velocity for a distance
xo is equal to a half of the velocity at that point. So, the mean value of e~*, say c~,,,is equal to ~**/2.
In Eq. (45) the viscosity is taken to be equal to that of pure water and the layer thickness d is
1.82 x 10 - 3m [6]. To estimate the maximum surface velocities, we take f'(1) = 0.25.
The predicted values of ~,, for some values of the surface temperature are presented in Table 1,
together with the experimental ones from [6] measured at the mean temperature of the liquid

Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

223

Table 1
T3~

0a

~ [Nm - 1K- 1]

~[rn2sec- 1K - 1]

%[m2sec - 1K - 1]

0.9
0.5
2.4 x
4.6
13

-2.19
-1.39
-0.57
N0
+0.63

0T
8.5
20
31
40
51

- 2 . 6 4 10 -4
-1.68 x 10 -4
- 0 . 6 9 10 - 4
N0
+0.76 10 -4

10 -7
10 -6
10 -6
10 -6
10 -6

10 -7
10 -7
10 -7
10 -7

(denoted there b y T3). It is w o r t h to m e n t i o n that o u r results are a p p r o x i m a t e l y 103 smaller t h a n

the theoretical ones presented in [6] o n the base of the f o r m u l a
V~
d 0or
~s = . . . .
.
A
4# 0 T

(46)

The a b s o l u t e values of ~ are closer to the experimental ones, being m o s t l y less t h a n them. The
ratio of the a b s o l u t e value Of~m to ~ varies from 1.21 for To = 8.5 ~ to 1.1 10 - 2 at To = 31~
T h e surface velocity n e a r the axis y is a l m o s t zero because the slopes of the surface t e n s i o n in the
vicinity of the t e m p e r a t u r e To are very small.

Acknowledgement

This work is partially supported by the Bulgarian National Foundation for Scientific Research under
contract TN-402/94.

References
[1] Vochten, R., Prtrr, G. J.: Study of the heat of reversible adsorption at the air-solution interface. J. Colloid
Interface Sci. 42, 3 2 0 - 3 2 7 (1973).
[2] Legros, J. C.: Problems related to non-linear variations of surface tension. Acta Astron. 13, 697-703
(1986).
[3] Limbourg-Fontaine, M. C., Prtr6, G., Legros, J. C.: Effects of a surface tension minimum on
thermocapillary convection. PCH Physico Chem. Hydrodyn. 6, 3 0 1 - 310 (1985).
[4] Legros, J. C., Limbourg-Fontaine, M. C., Prtr6, G.: Surface tension minimum and Marangoni
convection. In: Fluid dynamics and space, Proceedings of ESA Symp., Rhode-Saint-Genese, 2 5 - 2 6
June (ESA SP-265) pp. 137-143 (1986).
[5] Platten, J. K., Villers, D.: On thermocapillary flows in containers with differentially heated side walls. In:
Physicochemical hydrodynamics. Interfacial phenomena (Velarde, M. G., ed.), pp. 3 l l - 336. New York:
Plenum Press 1988.
[6] Prtrr, G., Azouni, M. A., Tshinyama, K.: Marangoni convection at alcohol aqueous solution-air
interfaces. Appl. Sci. Res. 50, 97--106 (1993).
[7] Napolitano, L. G., Golia, C., Viviani, A.: Effects of non-linear tension on combined free convection in
cavities. L'Aerotechnica 63, 2 9 - 3 6 (1984).
[8] Villers, D., Platen, J. K.: Marangoni convection in systems presenting a minimum in surface tension.
PCH Physico Chem. Hydrodyn. 6, 435-451 (1985).
[9] Dubovik, K. G., Slavtchev, S. G.: Numerical modeling of thermocapillary convection in a liquid layer at
a non-finear dependence of the surface tension on temperature. Mech. Zhidkosti Gaza, 1, 138-143
(1991) (in Russian).

224

S.G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova: Thermocapillary flow in a liquid layer

[10] Slavtchev, S. G., Dubovik, K. G.: Thermocapillary convection in a rectangular cavity at minimum of
surface tension. Theor. Appl. Mech. (Sofia) 23, 8 5 - 9 0 (1992).
[11] Pukhnatchov, V. V.: Display of anomalous thermocapillary effect in a thin liquid layer. In:
Hydrodynamics and heat mass transfer in liquids with free surfaces, (Schreiber, I. R., ed.), pp. 119 - 127.
Novosibirsk: Inst. Teplofiziki, 1985 (in Russian).
[12] Pukhnatchov, V. V.: Thermocapillary convection in weak force fields. Preprint No. 178-88, Inst.
Teplofiziki, Novosibirsk, 1988 (in Russian).
[13] Cloot, A., Lebon, G.: Marangoni convection induced by a nonlinear temperature-dependent surface
tension. J. Phys. 47, 2 3 - 2 9 (1986).
[14] Gupalo, Yu. R, Ryazantsev, Yu. S.: Thermocapillary motion of a liquid with free surface with non-linear
dependence of the surlhce tension on the temperature. Fluid Dyn. 23, 752-757 (1989).
[15] Oron, A., Rosenau, Ph.: On a nonlinear thermocapillary effect in thin liquid layers. J. Fluid Mech. 273,
361 - 374 (1994).
[16] Gupalo, Yu. R, Ryazantsev, Yu. S., Skvortsova A. u Effect of thermocapillary forces on free surface fluid
motion. Fluid Dyn. 24, 657-661 (1990).
[17] Brady, J. F., Acrivos, A.: Steady flow in a channel or tube with an accelerating surface velocity. An exact
solution to the Navier-Stokes equations with reverse flow. J. Fluid Mech. 112, 127-150 (1981).
[18] Davis, S. H.: Thermocapillary instabilities. Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 19, 403-435 (1987).
[19] Schlichting, H.: Boundary layer theory. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
[20] Terril, R. M.: Laminar flow in a uniformly porous channel. Aeron. Q. 15, 299-310 (1964).
[21] Terril, R. M., Thomas, R W.: On laminar flow through a uniformly porous pipe. Appl. Sci. Res. 21,
3 7 - 6 7 (1969).
[22] Robinson, W. A.: The existence of multiple solutions for laminar flow in a uniformly porous channel
with suction at both walls. J. Eng. Math. 10, 2 3 - 4 0 (1976).
[23] Szaniawski A.: Quasi-isobaric solutions of the Hiemenz equation. Arch. Mech. 45, 689-725 (1993).
[24] Samarsky, A., Nikolaev, E.: Methods for solving finite-difference equations. Moscow: Nauka 1978 (in
Russian).
[25] Riabouchinsky, D.: Quelques considerations sur les mouvements plans rotationnels d'un liquide. C. R.
Acad. Sci. 179, 1133-1136 (1924).

Authors' address: S. G. Slavtchev and S. R Miladinova, Institute of Mechanics, Bulgarian Academy of

Sciences, Acad. G. Bontchev Str., B1. 4, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria