Developing Bilingualism

Emi Yoshida

October 13, 2005

Definitions and typologies of bilingualism

Definitions of bilingualism
What is bilingualism?

In general, bilingualism is accepted as native-like control of two

languages (Bloomfield, 1935).

However, there are broader definitions of bilingualism.

Some

researchers consider bilingualism as being able to use two languages at some level, not the highest
level.

Types of bilingualism
Criterion of

Types of bilingualism

distinctions
1
2
3
4

Balance of skill

Balanced bilingualism

Dominant bilingualism

in two languages

()

()

Compound bilingualism

Coordinate bilingualism

()

()

Simultaneous bilingualism

Consecutive bilingualism

()

()

Social position of

Additive bilingualism

Subtractive bilingualism

two languages

()

()

Semantic
distinction
Period

of

acquisition

(1) Balance of skill in two languages

Balanced bilingualism () occurs when a speaker has equal skill in two languages.
These skills may correspond to native-like.
Dominant bilingualism () occurs when a speaker has a better skill in one
language than the other.

L1
Monolingualism

L1

L2

L1

Balanced Bilingualism

L
2

Dominant Bilingualism

(2) Semantic distinction

Compound bilingualism () occurs when a speaker learns two languages in one
context and develops only one, fused conceptual system.

Coordinate bilingualism () occurs when a speaker learns two languages in

separate environments.

He associates two languages with different contexts; therefore he

develops different conceptual systems for the two languages.

house

house

Compound bilingualism

Coordinate bilingualism

(3) Period of acquisition

Simultaneous bilingualism () occurs when a child acquires two languages almost
at the same time as a first language.
Consecutive bilingualism () occurs when a child is introduced to a second
language after he has acquired his first language.
L1

L1

L 1

L2

(4) Social position of two languages

Additive bilingualism () occurs when two languages have high status both
socially and economically so that a speaker places positive values to both languages.

In this case,

both two languages are developed.

Subtractive bilingualism () occurs when a second language has higher social
and economical status than a first language. In this case, a second language replaces a first
language.

Immersion bilingual education

History of immersion
Immersion education () is one type of bilingual education, which first started in
Canada. In 1965, 26 children joined an experimental immersion kindergarten where they were
exposed to two languages; English(L1) and French(L2). The children succeeded to achieve the goal
of the program as they acquired a high level of French we well as English.
immersion has spread across the country.

Since then, French

 Immersion education in Japan

Katoh Gakuen
Katoh Gakuen () is the first Japanese school to start English immersion in 1992. The
private school was accredited its K-12 bilingual program by Monkasho. The bilingual program
was also received the International Baccalaureate authorization().

Curriculum and school life

Kindergarten
Each class has both a native Japanese and native English speaking teacher.
Elementary school (Grades 1-6)
In grades 1-3, each class has two native-English speaking homeroom teachers and one Japanese
homeroom teacher.

In grades 4-6, each class has one native-English speaking homeroom

teacher and one Japanese homeroom teacher.

The program follows the regular Japanese curriculum. In grades 1-3, English, math, theme,
computer, PE, music and art classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese and language
arts classes are taught entirely in Japanese.

In grades 4-6, English, math, science and

computer classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese, social studies, art, music and
PE classes are taught entirely in Japanese.

The same content is never taught in both

languages.
High school (Grades 7-12)
The program integrates 3 different curriculums into one:

the International Baccalaureate

Middle Years Program, Diploma Program and the national Japanese curriculums.
Type: Partial immersion

100
80
60
40
20
0

K. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Grade
English
Japanese

Academic achievement
In 2004, 17 students graduated from Katoh Gakuen as the first immersion students. 11 of them
were those who had attended the program since 1992 and other 6 joined from high school.
26 students completed the IB middle school diploma.
11 received a bilingual diploma and the other 6 received their certificates.
Most students scored 70% or higher on the national center test ().
Allegedly, 8 students attended Japanese universities. They were accepted at Aoyama Gakuin,
Meiji Gakuin, Keio, Waseda, Chuo, Tokai and Nihon universities.
Allegedly, 9 students attended U.S. universities.

They were accepted at Harvard, Yale,

Columbia, Michigan State, Oklahoma State, and university of Georgia.

The students seem to have acquired the same skill in math and Japanese as non-immersion
students in Katoh Gakuen (Bostwick, 2001).
Most of the 8th grade students have obtained pre-second of STEP ().
It is assumed that the first immersion students have succeeded academically. They seem to have
achieved a high level of English as well as Japanese. Moreover, the students skill in other subjects
is probably over average according the number of universities they had been accepted. However,
their academic success cannot only depend on the immersion program they had joined.

It is

notable that most of their parents are able to communicate with the native English speaking
teachers, and all of the parents could afford to have sent their children to the immersion program
from kindergarten to high school. The expectation of the parents and the teachers also might
have increased the students motivation.

Furthermore, there is a question whether first 17

graduates are naturally intelligent enough to apply to the English immersion or the English
immersion has developed their intelligence.

Discussion
Acquiring high level of English has been a dream for many Japanese. If English immersion
enables Japanese to use the language, should they start English immersion in all schools? Is an
immersion program ideal English education in Japan?
Benefits
Students are expected to acquire two languages.
Students are expected to become more tolerant to other languages and cultures.
Students are expected to be heighten the students sense of Japanese identity and appreciation of
Japanese culture.

Problems
A vast sum of money would be needed to employ as many native English teachers as Japanese
speaking teachers, and to train them.
Parents and Japanese speaking teachers would be required to make a great effort to be able to

communicate with native English speaking teachers.

If a student fails to acquire an appropriate level of English especially around 9th or 10th grade, he
would fail in all classes.
Although English immersion is beneficial in terms of access to two languages and cultures, it is not
ensured that all students would succeed academically. If parents are incapable to communicate
with native English speaking teachers and do not expect their children to learn English, they might
fail to acquire a high level of English because they are not highly motivated.
English immersion cannot apply to a general education style in Japan since it requires a vast sum
of money and a great effort to parents and teachers.

Language attrition()
Types of language attrition (Van Els, 1986)
He divided language attrition into four groups.
Language
L1

L1

L2

Type1

Type3

Language death()

People who learn in L2 and

the people who back in L1
lose L2.

Environment
Type2
L2

Type4

Immigrants lose their mother Immigrants lost L2 in L2.

language in L2.

Why languages are lost

(Reason)

(1) Passed year (time)

How long have the people who lose language left in L2?
Gardner said that the time is incubation period.
In generally, the longer people stay in L1, the more they lose L2. That is important but another
reason is more important.

(2) Degree of proficiency

The level of L2 (proficiency) is one of the reasons why people lose language.

The higher

proficiency people learn L2, the more they can memorize L2. And the lower proficiency people
learn L2, they lose L2 (Codsall-Myers, 1981).
Reetz-Kurashige (1998) reported about 18 returnee Japanese children.

They collected and

analyzed dates about morphosyntax speech(). Target people are those who lived

more than 2 years in English-speak countries. The people that know the laws of grammar in verb,
that is more important than age and period to retain L2.
But why the person who is high degree of proficiency does not lose L2?
This theme was studied by Neiser (1984). That is critical threshold hypothesis ().
Some people get critical mass () once, it is hard for the people to lose a language.

(3) Age
Mr. Yoshida reported that the juniors lose L2 more than senior. But Kuhberg is different. He
countered about that. He reported that senior lose L2 more than junior.
(4) Motive and attitude forward languages

If we want to retain our language ability after graduations, what can we do?
There are several ways to retain language ability after graduation.

. Read English
Read anything written English language, the book, newspaper article, letters, website, magazine,
etc. we do not need to buy them; we can read them in the library or bookstore for browsing.

. Write English words and sentences

Write English words. Long sentences are helpful to use a lot of words. Also translating into
Japanese from English will be good and vice versa. Keep diary and write letters and e-mail is
good.

. Speak in English
With friends, talk or chat about any topic. Advise each other on their mistakes without words or
idioms and so on and write down these mistakes words so we do not do it again.
Use NHK radio program Lets speak English and MSN messenger.

.Listen to English
Talk with the friends or listen to radios, music, news on TV, and etc.
Use NHK radio program and NHK news and NHK program.
Watch TV and DVDs with and without subtitles.
Listen to music and etc.
They are all easy things. We want to try by ourselves to maintain English. It is difficult to find
native English speaking people and to make English environment that is only use English all the
time in Japan. How many times do we study a week? From the forgetting curve of view, at least
one hour per three days a week will be needed.

References
Baker, C. 1996. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Trans. Hideo Oka. Tokyo:
Taisyukan.
Bearsmore, Hugo Baetens.

1986.

Bilingualism:

Basic Principles.

2nd. ed.

Cleverdon:

Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Bloomfield, L. 1935. Language. London: Allen & Unwin.
Childs, Marshall. First Immersion Students Graduate. Daily Yomiuri 23 Apr. 2004, 14.
Koike, Ikuo, Masanori Terauchi, Koji Kinoshita, and Masumi Narita, eds. 1986.
. Tokyo: Taisyukan.