Genetically Engineered Plants

Genetic Engineering also called genetic modification is the direct

manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology. New DNA maybe
inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of
interest using molecular cloning methods, which refers to the process by which
recombinant DNA molecules are produced and transformed into a host organism,
where they are replicated to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA,
and then inserting this construct into the host organism.
One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic
engineering is the creation and use of genetically modified crops or genetically
modified organisms. There are four main goals in generating genetically modified
crops.

One goal, and the first to be realized commercially, is to provide protection

from environment threats, such as cold (in the case of ice-minus bacteria), or
pathogens, such as insects or viruses, and/or resistance to herbicides. There
are also fungal and virus resistance crops developed or in development. They
have been developed to make the insect and weed management of crops
easier and can indirectly increase crop yield.
Another goal in generating GMOs is to modify the quality of produce by, for
instance, increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful
qualities. The Amflora potato, for example, produces a more industrially
useful blend of starches. Soybeans and canola have been genetically
modified to produce more healthy oils.
Another goal consists of driving GMO to produce materials that it does not
normally make. One example is pharming, which uses crops as bioreactors
to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or drug themselves; the useful
product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard
pharmaceutical production process.
Another goal in generating GMOs, is to directly improve yield by accelerating
growth, or making the organism more hardy (for plants, by improving salt,
cold or drought tolerance).

Genetically Modified Crops (GMCs, GM Crops, or biotech crops)

Are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using
genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a new trait to
the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops
include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental conditions, reduction
of spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or

improving the nutrient profile of the crops include production of pharmaceutical

agents, biofuels, and other industry useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

TYPES OF MODIFICATION
Transgenic
Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from
another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same
kingdom (plant to plant) or between kingdoms (for example bacteria to
plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to
correctly and efficiently express proteins like the cry toxins from B.
thuringiensis, herbicide resistant genes, antibodies and antigens for
vaccinations.
Example: Transgenic carrots- used to produce the drug Taliglucerase
alfa which isused to treat Gauchers disease.
In the laboratory, transgenic plants have been modified to increase
photosynthesis (currently about 2% at most plants to the theoretic potential
of 9-10%. This is possible by changing the rubisco enzyme (i.e. changing C3
plants into C4plants), by placing the rubisco in a carboxysome, by adding CO 2
pumps in the cell wall, by changing the leaf form/size. Plants have been
engineered to exhibit bioluminescence that may become a sustainable
alternative to electric lighting. Still other transgenic plants have been
modified to fix ambient nitrogen.
Cisgenic
Cisgenic plants are made using genes fount within the same species or a
closely related one, where conventional plants breeding can occur. Some
breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants
that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and
that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory
scrutiny as transgenics.
Subgenic
In 2004, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the reaction of a
strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes
that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The
researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheats hexaploid
genome. The strain promises to reduce or eliminate the heavy use of
fungicides to control the disease. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene

editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were
immediately planned.
Process of Developing Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
The main steps involved in development of GM crops are:
1. Isolation of the gene(s) of interest: Existing knowledge about the
structure, function or location on chromosomes is used to identify the gene(s)
that is responsible to the desired trait in an organism, for example, drought
tolerance or insect resistance.
2. Insertion of the gene(s) into a transfer vector: The most commonly
used gene transfer tool for plants is a circular molecule of DNA (plasmid) from
the naturally occurring soil bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The
gene(s) of interest is inserted into the plasmid using recombinant DNA (rDNA)
techniques.
3. Plant transformation: The modified A. tumefaciens cells containing the
plasmid with the new gene are mixed with plant cells or cut pieces of plants
such as leaves or stems (explants). Some of the cells take up a piece of a
plasmid known as the T-DNA (transferred-DNA). The A. tumefaciens inserts
the desired genes into one of the plants chromosomes to form GM (or
transgenic) cells. The other most commonly used method to transfer DNA is
particle bombardment (gene gun) where small particles coated with DNA
molecules are bombarded into the cell.
4. Selection of the modified plant cells: After transformation, various
methods are used to differentiate between the modified plant cells and the
great majority of cells that have not incorporated the desired genes. Most
often, selectable marker genes that confer antibiotic or herbicide resistance
are used to favor growth of the transformed cells relative to the nontransformed cells. For this method, genes responsible for resistance are
inserted into the vector and transferred along with the gene(s) conferring
desired traits to the plant cells. When the cells are exposed to the antibiotic
or herbicide, only the transformed cells (containing and expressing the
selectable marker gene) will survive. The transformed cells are then
generated to form whole plants using tissue culture methods.
5. Regeneration into whole plants via tissue culture: involves placing the
explants (plant parts/cells) onto media containing nutrients that induce
development of the cells into various plant parts to form whole plantlets.
Once the plantlets are rooted they are transferred to pots and kept under
controlled environmental conditions.
6. Verification of transformation and characterization of the inserted
DNA fragment: Verification of plat transformation involves demonstrating
that the gene has been inserted and is inherited normally. Tests are done to
determine the number of copies inserted, whether the copies are intact, and

whether the insertion does not interfere with other genes to cause
unintended effects. Testing of gene expression (i.e., production of messenger
RNA and/or protein, evaluation of the trait of interest) is done to make sure
that the gene is functional.
7. Testing of plant performance: is genetically carried out first in the
greenhouse or screenhouse to determine whether the modified plant has the
desired new trait and does not have any new unwanted characteristics. Those
that perform well are planted into the field for further testing. In the field, the
plants are first grown in confined field trials to test whether the technology
works (if the plants express the desired traits) in the open environment. If the
technology works then the plants are tested in multi-location field trials to
establish whether the crop performs well in different environmental
conditions. If the GM crop passes the entire test, it may then be considered
for commercial production.
8. Safety assessment: Food and environmental safety assessment are carried
out in conjunction with testing of plant performance. Descriptions of safety
testing are describe in the Food Safety Assessment and Environmental Safety
Assessment links.

Current Use of Genetically modified Organisms

Agriculture plants are one of the most frequently cited examples of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs). Some benefits are genetic engineering in agriculture
are increased crop yields, reduced costs for food or drug production, reduced need
for pesticides, enhanced nutrient composition and food quality, resistance to pests
and disease, greater food security, and medical benefits to the worlds growing
population. Advances have also been made in developing crops that mature faster
to tolerate aluminum, boron, salt, drought, frost, and other environmental stressors,
allowing plants to grow in conditions where they might not otherwise flourish. Other
applications include the production of nonprotein (bioplastic) or nonindustrial
(ormental plant) products.
Examples of GMOs Resulting from agricultural Biotechnology
Genetically Conferred Trait

Example
Organism
APPROVED COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
Herbicide tolerance
Soy bean

Genetic change

Glyphosate herbicide(Roundup)
tolerance conffered by expression of
a glyphosate-tolerant form of the
plant enzyme 5enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate
synthase (EPSPS) isolated from the
soil bacterium Agrobacterium

Insect resistance

Corn

Altered fatty acid

composition

Canola

Virus resistance

Plum

tumefaciens, stain CP4

Resistance to insect pests,
specifically the European corn borer,
through expression of the insecticidal
protein Cry1Ab from Bacillus
thuringiensis
High laurate levels achieved by
inserting the gene for ACP
thioesterace from the California bay
tree Umbellularia californica
Resistance to plum pox virus
conferred by insertion of a coat
protein (CP) gene from the virus