Chapter 4

Imperfections: Point and Line

Defects

Types of Imperfections:
1. Point Defects 0-Dimensional Imperfections
Localized (foreign atoms, vacancies, extra or missing e)
2. Line Defects 1-Dimensional Imperfections
Extend through crystal on a line (dislocations)
3. Interfacial Defects 2-Dimensional or Planar Imperfections
Boundaries between regions of order (order can be atomic,
magnetic, electronic, or chemical)
4. Bulk Defects 3-Dimensional Imperfections
Macroscopic or large scale defects (voids, cracks and inclusions)

Dimensional Range for Different Classes of Defects

Stress Required to Shear a Crystal

Theoretical Shear Strength of Some Materials

Theoretical Shear Strength of Some Materials

(adapted from Hosford, W. F., Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Cambridge University Press
(2008).)

Point Defects

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point defects in compounds:

Schottky and Frenkel defects.

Point Defects
(adapted from Barrett, Nix and Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering Materials, Prentice Hall, Inc. (1973).)

Atomic point defects.

Two most common point

defects in compounds:
Schottky and Frenkel
defects.

Point Defects

Interstices in FCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the BCC structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Interstices in the HCP structure. (a)

Octahedral void. (b) Tetrahedral void.

Formation of Point Defects

Formation of point defects by the annihilation of

dislocations. (a) Row of vacancies. (b) Row of
interstitials.

Shear stress-Shear Strain Curves for Aluminum

Single Crystal

Shear stress-versus-strain curves for aluminum

single crystals. The crystallographic orientation is
shown in the stereographic triangle. (Adapted
with permission from A. H. Cottrell, Phil. Mag.,
46 (1955) p. 737.)

Radiation Damage

Seeger model of damage produced by

irradiation. P indicates the position where
the first knock-on terminates.
(Reprinted with permission from
A. Seeger, in Proc. Symp. Radiat.
Damage Solids React., Vol. 1,
(Vienna, IAEA, 1962) pp. 101, 105.)

Voids formed in nickel irradiated using 400

keV 14N2+ ions to a dose of 40 dpa at 500 C;
notice the voids with polyhedral shape; dpa
= displacements per atom. (Courtesy of L. J.
Chen and
A. J. Ardell.)

Radiation Damage

Stressstrain curves for irradiated and

unirradiated Zircaloy. (Adapted with permission
from J. T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS22, (1975) 2219.)

Radiation Damage

Stress-free dilation in AISI 316 steel (20% cold

worked). (Adapted with permission from J.
T. A. Roberts, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-22, (1975)
2219.)

Dependence of fast neutron-induced dilation

in stainless steel (FeCrNi) as a function of
Ni and Cr amounts. (Adapted with permission
from W. B. Hillig, Science, 191 (1976) 733.)

Line Defects

(a) Rug with a fold.

Caterpillar with a hump.

Edge and Screw Dislocations

Arrangement of atoms in an edge dislocation and the Burgers vector b

that produces closure of circuit ABCDE.

Arrangement of atoms in a screw dislocation with parking garage

setup. Notice car entering garage.

Edge and Screw Dislocations

.
(a) Perfect crystal.
(b) Edge dislocation.
(c) Screw dislocation.

Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation of a crystal by the

movement of a dislocation along a slip plane.

Shear Produced by Dislocation Movement

(adapted from Barrett, Nix and Tetelman, The Principles of Engineering

Materials, Prentice Hall, Inc. (1973).)

Mixed Dislocation

Mixed dislocation obtained from cutand-shear operation; notice the angle

between b and dislocation line.

Dislocations in Metals

(a) Titanium. (Courtesy of B. K. Kad.) (b) Silicon.

Dislocations in Al2O3 and TiC

Dislocations in (a) Al2O3 and (b) TiC. (Courtesy of J. C. LaSalvia.)

Dislocation in Molybdenum

Atomic resolution transmission electron micrograph of dislocation in

molybdenum with a Burgers circuit around it. (Courtesy of R. Gronsky.)

Square Dislocation Loop

Elliptic Dislocation Loop

Elliptic dislocation loop. (a) Intermediate position. (b) Final (sheared) position. (c) TEM of shear
loop in copper. (Courtesy of F. Gregori and M. S. Schneider.)

Prismatic Loop

Prismatic loop produced by the introduction

of a disk into metal.
(a) Perspective view.
(b) Section AAAA.
(c) Section BBBB.

Movement of Dislocation

Slip produced by the movement of dislocation.

(a) Positive and negative edge dislocations.
(b) Positive and negative screw dislocations.

Expansion of a Dislocation Loop

Stresses due to Dislocations

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

Stress Fields Around a Edge Dislocation

Stress fields around an edge

dislocation. (The dislocation line is
Ox3), (a) 11; (b) 22; (c) 33; (d) 12.
(Adapted with permission from J. C.
M. Li, in Electron Microscopy and
Strength of Crystals, eds. G. Thomas
and J. Washburn (New York:
Interscience Publishers, 1963).)

Energy of a Dislocation

Dislocation Array

Schematic representation of an idealized dislocation array

(a) in two dimensions
(b) in three dimensions; note that dislocations on three
perpendicular atomic planes define a volume V.

Bending of a Dislocation

Dislocations in an FCC Crystal

Peach-Koehler Equation

Decomposition of Dislocation

Decomposition of a dislocation b1 into two partial dislocations b2

and b3, separated by a distance d0.

Stacking Fault Energies of Some Metals

Stacking Fault and Partial Dislocations

Short segment of stacking fault in AISI

304 stainless steel overlapping with
coherent twin boundary. Differences in
the nature of these defects are illustrated
by fringe contrast differences.

Dislocations in AISI 304 stainless steel splitting

into partials bounded by short stacking-fault region.
Partials spacing marked as d.
(Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effects of Stacking-Fault Energy on Dislocation Substructure

Effect of stacking-fault energy on dislocation

substructure.
(a) High-stacking-fault-energy material (pure copper);
(b) Low-stacking-fault-energy material (copper2 wt%
aluminum).

Both materials were laser-shock compressed with an

initial pressure of 40 GPa and pulse duration of 3 ns.
(Courtesy of M. S. Schneider.)

Frank or Sessile Dislocations

Frank or Sessile dislocations.

(a) Intrinsic. (b) Extrinsic.

Cottrell Lomer and Stairway Dislocations

CottrellLomer lock.

Stairway dislocation.

Important Planes in HCP Structure

Basal, pyramidal, and prism plane in HCP structure.

Temperature for Macroscopic Plasticity in

Some Ceramics

Slip Systems and Burgers Vectors in

Some Ceramics

Expressions for Energy of Dislocation

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation

General Form

Basal Plane in Al2O3

Elastic Energy for Dislocations in Ceramics

Dislocations in Sapphire

(a) Dislocations, dipoles, and loops in sapphire.

(b) Interaction between dislocations in
sapphire. (From K. P. D. Lagerdorf, B. J. Pletka,
T. E. Mitchell, and A. H. Heuer, Radiation
Effects, 74 (1983)).87

Dislocations in Titanium Diboride

Hexagonal array of dislocations in

titanium diboride. (Courtesy of D. A.
Hoke and G. T. Gray.)

Stacking faults in GaP.

(Courtesy of P. Pirouz.)

Homogeneous Nucleation of Dislocations

Grain Boundary as a Source of Dislocations

Emission of dislocations from ledges in grain

boundary, as observed in transmission electron
microscopy during heating by electron beam.
(Courtesy of L. E. Murr.)

Effect of Oxide Layer on the Tensile Properties of Niobium

Effect of oxide layer on the tensile

properties of niobium.
(Reprinted with permission from
V. K. Sethi and R. Gibala, Scripta
Met. 9 (1975) 527.)

Frank-Read Mechanism

Formation of dislocation loop by the FrankRead mechanism.

Dislocation Source: Cross Slip

FrankRead source formed by crossslip.

Epitaxial Growth

Epitaxial growth of thin film. (a) Substrate.

(b) Start of epitaxial growth. (c) Formation of
dislocations.

Dislocation Pileups

Pileup of dislocations against a

barrier.

Pileup of dislocations against grain

boundaries (or dislocations being emitted
from grain boundary sources?) in copper
observed by etch pitting.

Dislocation Interactions

)a) Edge dislocation traversing forest

dislocation.
(b) Screw dislocation traversing forest
dislocations.

Kinks and Jogs in Dislocations

(a) Kink and jog in edge dislocation. (b)

Kink and jog in screw dislocation.

Loop being pinched out when jog is left behind

by dislocation motion.

Orowans Equation

k b

Peierls-Nabarro Stress

(a) Movement of dislocation away from its

equilibrium position.
(b) Variation of PeierlsNabarro stress with
distance. (Reprinted with permission from
H. Conrad, J. Metals, 16 (1964), 583.)

Overcoming of Peierls Barrier

Overcoming of Peierls barrier by Seeger kink pair mechanism.

(a) Original straight dislocation.
(b) Dislocation with two kinks.
(c) Kinks moving apart.

Temperature Effect on Youngs Modulus

Effect of temperature on Youngs

modulus. (Adapted from J. B.
Wachtman Jr.,W. E. Tefft, D. G. Lam,
Jr., and C. S. Apstein, J. Res. Natl.
Bur. Stand., 64A (1960) 213; and J.
Lemartre and J. L. Chaboche,
Mechanics of Solid Materials,
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990, p. 143.)

Flow Stress as a Function of Temperature

Flow stress as a function of temperature for

(a) an idealized material,
(b) BCC metals, and
(c) FCC metals. Notice the greater temperature
dependence for Ta and Fe (BCC).

Dislocations on Film-Substrate Interface

Stresses and dislocations generated at

film-substrate interface;
(a) Film and substrate with different
lattice parameters;
(b) elastic (coherent) accommodation of
strains by film;
(c) elastic + dislocation (semi-coherent)
accommodation of strains at a film
thickness greater than hc.(Adapted from
W. D. Nix, Met. Trans., 20A (1989)
2217.)

Critical Film Thickness vs. Atomic Fraction of Ge

Critical film thickness as a function of misfit strain;

the greater fraction Ge, the greater the misfit stain
and the smaller hc. Predictions from van der Merwe
Matthews theory; measurements from J. C. Bean, L.
C. Feldman, A. T. Fiory, S. Nakahara, and I. K.
Robinson, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, 2 (1984) 436.
(Adapted from W. D. Nix., Met. Trans., 20A (1989)
2216.)

Misfit Dislocation Generation

Mechanisms of misfit dislocation generation; (a)

Freund mechanism in which a threading
dislocation preexisting in substrate lays over
interface creating misfit dislocation; (b) Nix
mechanism, in which a surface source creates
half-loops that move toward interface.