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Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4
Advanced Models .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Assumptions/Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 4
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Introduction
The word biomechanics stems from the Greek language for life mechanics, but this
doesnt really tell us much; Oxford tells us a bit more, the study of the mechanical laws
relating to the movement or structure of living organisms. Biomechanics can refer to a
number of subconcentrations, such as fluid dynamics or tissue modeling, but perhaps the
most relevant to strength & conditioning is musculoskeletal biomechanics.
Advanced Models
In an ideal world, we would use techniques such as muscle modeling, which requires threedimensional motion capture, electromyography, force plates, and specialized software to
help us calculate precise and individualized biomechanical evaluations. Unfortunately, this
equipment costs hundreds of thousands of dollars and is only used in extensive
biomechanics laboratories. However, this does not mean that biomechanical principles
cannot be applied using the naked eye.
Assumptions/Limitations
Throughout this text, certain assumptions are made, as we do not have access to the
advanced modalities previously described. Assumptions and limitations within this text
are as follows:
Assuming that the lifter pushes through the center of the foot
Assuming that the center of gravity is positioned near the load itself in the barbell
squat and through the scapula for the barbell deadlift
Ignoring muscle co-contractions
Ignoring electromyography (EMG)
Focusing on external load, not system mass (ignoring superincumbent bodyweight)
Not using video capture and force plates
Not using inverse dynamics or 3D modeling
Focusing only on vertical forces during the squat and deadlift
Ignoring momentum, looking at instantaneous torques using quasi-static models
Assuming that the plate radius is 22.5cm
Omitting hand length with regards to grip in the deadlift
Assuming a high bar squat position
Assuming that the spine stays rigid and no pelvic tilt exists
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Moment Arms
In physics, a moment arm is simply the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to
the line of action of the force. In biomechanics, there are two types of moment arms that
you should be familiar with. Theres the muscle moment arm, which is internal and
represents the leverage of a muscle (perpendicular distance between the joint center and
muscle line of pull), and theres the resistance moment arm, which is external and
represents the perpendicular distance between the load and the joint center. This text will
focus on resistance moment arms.
With squats, the moment arm (sometimes called lever arm) can be estimated by examining
the horizontal distance between the joint center and the ground reaction force vector.
With heavy loads, we can assume that the horizontal component of the ground reaction
force vector is negligible. Therefore, the ground reaction force vector is perpendicular to
the ground and is formed by drawing a line that connects the center of gravity and center of
pressure through the feet, as depicted to the left.
A compound movement consists of moving multiple levers about
multiple joints in order to complete a movement. For example,
during the deadlift, knee extension and hip extension occur
simultaneously. This is drastically different from isolation
movements such as the preacher curl whereby elbow flexion is
the only joint action occurring. During the preacher curl, the
humerus (upper arm) is in a fixed position such that the forearm
must rotate about a fixed axis, and thus not leaving much room to
modify the movement. Compound movements have more
degrees of freedom, or more ways to complete the movement,
consequently making compound movements more complicated,
harder to analyze, and more unique from person-to-person.
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Support Moment
Using the moment arm and load being used (along with the superincumbent bodyweight,
or mass of the bodyweight above the joint being examined in standing exercises), torques
can be calculated. Torque () is the product of the force and moment arm, as described in
the equation below where r is the length of the moment arm in meters and F is the force in
Newtons.
=
In biomechanics, torque is calculated using Newton meters (Nm). Newtons are the SI unit
of force. Because gravity on Earth is constant, we can use 9.8 m/s2 for a (well round up to
10 for the sake of simplicity in this manual), and simply substitute the mass of the load in
kilograms for m (well use 100 kg throughout this text). The equation below will calculate
the force in Newtons using the units described.
=
When calculating torque, the force will be constant and the length of the moment arm will
determine differences in torque. With explosive lifts, youd need to deal with momentum,
but with heavy lifts, this momentum can be ignored, as quasi-static models with lifts taking
more than 2-seconds have been shown to be 99% as accurate as dynamic models (Lander
et al., 1990). Variations in form and lever length will show that a movement can be
completed using an infinite number of torque and moment variations.
In many activities, it is surprising to find that the body tends to distribute a fairly consistent
total amount of joint torque independent of the movement style between the three primary
lower body joints. For example, lets say that 200 Nm of lower body extensor torque is
required to lift a box. The body could move mostly at the hips and utilize 150 Nm of hip
extension torque and 25 Nm of ankle plantar flexion and knee extension torque to achieve
the task. It could also produce 120 Nm of knee extension torque, 50 Nm of hip extension
torque, and 30 Nm of plantar flexion torque. The take-away point here is that there are
many movement patterns that can lead to successful lifting outcomes, and the various
lifting styles tend to require similar total extensor torques but with different distributions
across the various joints.
See the three pictures below representing a lifter picking up a 20-kg box with a kneedominant style, a blended style, and a hip-dominant style; the combined hip and knee
moments of the three variations is 84.36 Nm, 84.54 Nm, and 82.56 Nm, respectively.
In this manual, will stand for hip extension torque, while will stand for knee
extension torque.
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Examples
=
= 20 10 2
= 200
= 200 0.1535
= 30.7
= 200 0.3097
= 61.94
= 200 0.4571
= 91.42
= 30.7 + 53.66
= 84.36
= 61.94 + 22.58
= 84.54
= 91.42 7.78
= 82.56
= 200 0.2683
= 53.66
= 200 0.1129
= 22.58
= 200 0.0389
= 7.78
Lander, J. E., Simonton, R. L., & Giacobbe, J. K. (1990). The effectiveness of weight-belts
during the squat exercise. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 22(1), 117-126.
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Force Sharing
It is not uncommon for more than one muscle to be able to control for the same joint action,
illustrated by the actions of the gluteus maximus and hamstrings on hip extension. How
much each muscle contributes to a joint action depends on a number of factors, including
the joint angle and the strength of each muscle, but these factors are not universal. For
example, the prime mover of the hip thrust is the gluteus maximus, but the hamstrings
contribute to hip extension as well, so hip extension forces are not mutually exclusive to
one muscle. The contribution of a muscle to a movement on a joint is not the same in every
person, thus exercises must be chosen in accordance to how that individual can activate the
intended target musculature.
Studies show that with cueing and focus of attention, one can change the amount of EMG
activity in the various synergists during a movement involving multiple muscles (Lewis &
Sahrman, 2009). For example, using more glutes during hip extension will cause a
decrease in hamstring activation. Whats more, this force sharing has been shown to be
easier to do with lighter loads compared to maximal loads (Snyder & Fry, 2012). Although
we can assume that if a movement produces a large magnitude of hip extension torque, it
will be a good movement for the gluteus muscles, we must be careful with our assumptions
as the movement could be carried out largely by the hamstring and adductor muscles.
Lewis, C. L., & Sahrmann, S. A. (2009). Muscle activation and movement patterns during
prone hip extension exercise in women. Journal of athletic training, 44(3), 238.
Snyder, B. J., & Fry, W. R. (2012). Effect of Verbal Instruction on Muscle Activity During the
Bench Press Exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(9), 2394-2400.
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Below is a free body diagram representing a lifter that has a knee dominant squat. The
individuals trunk is more upright which decreases the hip moment and increases the knee
moment. Because the knee moment is now greater, the individual must overcome a greater
knee torque in order to move the weight.
The torques can be calculated as follows:
=
= 1000 0.1414 = 141.4
= 1000 0.2829 = 282.9
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=
= 1000 0.3879 = 387.9
= 1000 0.0290 = 29.0
As you can see, the hip and knee dominant deadlifts are
quite different than those of the squat. The top image
actually involves a knee-flexion net moment where the
hamstrings dominate the quadriceps, whereas the
bottom image shows a knee-extension net moment
where the quadriceps dominate the hamstrings.
However, the net torques are only around 70Nm apart.
Any way you slice it, the deadlift is a hip dominant
movement.
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= 1000 0.2121
= 212.1
= 1150.02 0.1844
= 212.1
As you can probably imagine, similar torques are created with partial movements
compared to full range movements because more load can be utilized. In the above
example, one would need 15% more load to make up for less ROM (right) in order to match
the torques placed on his joints in the deeper squat (left). The full range movements
possess greater moment arms with lower forces, while the partial movements possess
smaller moment arms with greater forces. Since torque equals perpendicular force times
the length of the moment arm, you end up with similar torques. It should be noted,
however, that full range movements tend to produce greater hypertrophic adaptations in
the literature (Bloomquist et al., 2013).
Bloomquist, K., Langberg, H., Karlsen, S., Madsgaard, S., Boesen, M., & Raastad, T. (2013).
Effect of range of motion in heavy load squatting on muscle and tendon
adaptations. European journal of applied physiology, 1-10.
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Sticking Regions
Everybody has a weak point, or sticking region, in the squat and deadlift. These become
especially apparent at near-maximal loads and tend to be different for everyone, but why
do these sticking points occur?
Various theories have been presented, but here, we are going to concentrate on two of
those theories. The first being that sticking regions are caused by the lifter running out of
passive forces, for example from titin and other passive tissues, and having to switch over
to purely active, contractile forces. This seems to be the case in the bench press (Elliot et al.,
1989). This is most likely the cause of most sticking regions.
Another theory is that the body acts like a spring, especially in large individuals. Lets take
the squat, for example. As one descends, their hamstrings will make contact with their
calves and their belly will make contact with their thigh. These tissues pressing against one
another will create contributory passive forces in the bottom of a lift. This is not the case
for every individual and varies greatly between lifters depending on their form, depth, and
size.
Where sticking regions occur seems to differ greatly from individual to individual, but they
are similar between lifts in the same individual. For example, person A will have a similar
sticking region in both the sumo and conventional deadlift, but those sticking regions will
differ from person Bs sticking regions in the sumo and conventional deadlift (McGuigan &
Wilson, 1996).
Elliott, B. C., Wilson, G. J., & Kerr, G. K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking
region in the bench press. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21(4), 450.
McGuigan, M. R., & Wilson, B. D. (1996). Biomechanical analysis of the deadlift. The Journal
of Strength & Conditioning Research, 10(4), 250-255.
Hales, M. E., Johnson, B. F., & Johnson, J. T. (2009). Kinematic analysis of the powerlifting
style squat and the conventional deadlift during competition: is there a cross-over effect
between lifts?. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2574-2580.
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The Crural Index is the ratio of the length of the lower leg to that of the upper leg. If one
has a low Crural Index, that is, longer femurs, it puts the lifter in a disadvantageous position
during the squat. The next page shows a comparison of a squatter with normal femur
length with a squatter with short femurs and a squatter with long femurs. Taken to an
extreme level, if most of the total lightning bolt is taken up by the spine and tibias, the
lifter will stay upright and be much stronger in the squat as a result. Conversely, if most of
the total lightning bolt is taken up by the femur, the lifter will fold like an accordion and
be weaker in the squat as a result.
Take world-class 114-pound Polish powerlifter Andrzej Stanaszek, for example. Stanaszek
is a dwarf, meaning he has disproportionately short limbs and is less than 410 (he actually
stands under 4). These proportions give him a mechanical advantage to lift huge loads,
including a 662.5 lb squat and 402.3 lb bench press. Both the bench and squat favor
shorter limbs. Click HERE to see his squat. Ironically, these same proportions dont appear
to help him in the deadlift - HERE Andrzej fails with 319 lbs.
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Below are squats and their moment arms for a normal sized femur, disproportionately long
femur (+20%), and disproportionately short femur (-20%), respectively.
Medium Femurs
= 1000 0.2122
= 212.2
Long Femurs
= 1000 0.2546
= 254.6
Short Femurs
= 1000 0.1697
= 169.7
The resulting knee and hip torques are directly proportional to the increase or decrease in
femur length (20%). As you can imagine, having shorter femurs confers a distinct
advantage in the squat!
Now, lets say we have two individuals: one with short femurs and one with long femurs (as
seen above). How does femur length and its effects on torque requirements affect how
much one can lift? Well, lets find out. Lets assume each lifter possesses 500Nm of hip
extension torque and 400Nm of knee extension torque at the bottom of the squat, which
would make them highly advanced powerlifters.
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Long Femurs
400
=
0.2546
= 1571.09
500
=
0.2546
= 1963.86
= +
= 1571.09 + 1963.86
= 3534.95 = 796.35 lbs
Short Femurs
400
=
0.1697
= 2357.10
500
0.1697
= 2946.38
=
= +
= 2357.10 + 2946.38
= 5393.48 = 1,215.04 lbs
According to these estimations, a squatter with 20% shorter femurs with the same amount
of knee and hip extension torques can squat 41.6% more than a squatter with 20% longer
femurs. In fact, reducing femur length transformed the powerlifter from strong to world
record holder!
Because the starting position of the deadlift is determined by an individuals arm length, an
individual with longer arms is at a much greater mechanical advantage than an individual
with shorter arms. This is due to the peak torque of a deadlift being at the bottom of the
movement. A more vertical trunk angle can be seen in the diagrams below just adding
length to the arms of the lifter without altering leg and torso lengths.
Lamar Gant is a great example of a phenomenal deadlifter with long arms. At a bodyweight
of 132, Gant was able to pull 683.4 lbs. Click HERE to watch Lamars deadlift notice that
he locks out with the bar resting just above the kneecaps. The free body diagram on the
following page shows why and is drawn similarly to the squats in that the arms were either
shortened or elongated by 20%. The first image is normal length, second is shortened, and
third is elongated.
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Medium Arms
= 1000 0.4571
= 457.1
Short Arms
= 1000 0.4610
= 461.0
Long Arms
= 1000 0.4326
= 432.6
The resulting hip torques are directly proportional to the increase or decrease in arm
length (20%). In addition the joints have to move through a much larger range of motion,
which will lead to greater fatigue throughout the lift. As you can imagine, having longer
arms confers a distinct advantage in the deadlift!
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Subjects performed maximal hip extension torque at four different angles of hip flexion. As
you can see, hamstring EMG does not change very much throughout the hip range of
motion, however, gluteus maximus EMG rises from a flexed to an extended hip position.
Interestingly, hip extension torque is greater in a hip flexed position compared to a hip
extended position. Why this occurs is not fully understood. We are probably stronger in
hip flexion due to the increased involvement of the adductors in hip extension. The glutes
probably fire harder at end range hip extension to compensate for their shorter lengths or
because they have better leverages at that range of motion.
These findings are highly applicable to training as they explain how the muscle works and
provide some insight as to the best way to train the gluteus maximus. If one wants to
optimize the gluteus maximus hypertrophic response, he or she needs to incorporate
multiple hip extension movements such as hip thrusts, squats, and deadlifts.
Worrell, T. W., Karst, G., Adamczyk, D., Moore, R., Stanley, C., Steimel, B., & Steimel, S.
(2001). Influence of joint position on electromyographic and torque generation during
maximal voluntary isometric contractions of the hamstrings and gluteus maximus
muscles. The Journal of orthopaedic and sports physical therapy, 31(12), 730.
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(3 )
()
() = (2 ) (2 )
Specific tension refers to the force exerted by the fibers per unit of PCSA. This would be
measured in N/cm2. Muscle force denotes how much force the muscle pulls with, but as
we know from previous sections in this text, we care about torque.
In order to calculate the muscle moment (torque), we must multiply the muscle force by
the perpendicular distance from the muscles line of pull to the joint center. The following
image shows how hypertrophy can affect the muscles moment arm and therefore, moment.
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As you can see, as a muscle hypertrophies, it not only gets larger and farther from the joint
center, but the angle of the fibers also change, thus giving it a larger capacity for torque
development. Below is an example of how someones hip extension torque would change
as a result of a 31.85% increase in gluteus maximus size.
= 28.92 2
= 28.92 2 61 2
= 1,764.12
= 38.13 2
= 38.13 2 61 2
= 2,325.93
Muscle Moment
1,687.04 0.0469 = 79.12
Muscle Moment
2,325.93 0.0567 = 131.88
Thus, a gluteus maximus that is 31.85% larger can produce 50% more hip extension torque.
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Spinal Rounding
Some amount of spinal rounding, specifically in the thoracic region, is acceptable when
approaching maximal loads in the deadlift. Some lifters are strongest when maintaining a
good arch, while others are strongest when they round their spines. You want to make sure
the rounding is in the upper back and that lower back (lumbar) rounding is kept to a
minimum when pulling heavy loads. Here is why you may be stronger when rounding the
upper back.
Depicted below is a conventional deadlift for a lifter with a neutral spine, and the same
lifter pulling with a rounded spine. By rounding the spine, the individual is able to decrease
the hip moment, which decreases hip torque and in turn makes the load easier to lift.
Straight Back
= 1000 0.4571
= 457.1
Rounded Back
= 1000 0.4337
= 433.7
With a 45 arch, the moment arm on this individual shortens by around 5%. A 5% decrease in
torque could mean the difference between finishing a pull and not, especially in competition.
Rounding also places the places the muscles at different starting lengths, especially if the pelvis
changes position. The pelvis modulates hip extensor length, with anterior tilting placing the hip
extensors at longer lengths and posterior tilting placing the hip extensors at shorter lengths. How
this impacts strength is not very clear, but it may depend on the individual.
There are several other strength benefits to spinal rounding in addition to its effects on
joint torques, including:
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For more information on the benefits of spinal rounding in the deadlift, check out Bret
Conteras article on T-Nation, A Strong Case For The Rounded Back Deadlift.
Watkins IV, R., Watkins III, R., Williams, L., Ahlbrand, S., Garcia, R., Karamanian, A., ... &
Hedman, T. (2005). Stability provided by the sternum and rib cage in the thoracic
spine. Spine, 30(11), 1283-1286.
Shearing forces occur when two parts of the body are not aligned which pushes one part of
the body in one direction, and another part of the body in the other direction. This is vastly
different from compression forces, for which intervertebral discs are designed to handle
efficiently. When performing a lift, whether in the gym or in daily life, one should consider
the ramifications of shearing forces on spine health. While the dangers of shear loading
may be grossly exaggerated, spinal rounding undoubtedly places the discs and ligaments
under much greater load. Therefore, spinal rounding should be utilized sparingly, if ever.
Information from: McGill, S. (2007). Low back disorders: evidenced-based prevention and
rehabilitation. Human Kinetics.
When one rounds his or her spine, the ratio of active to passive forces acting on trunk
extension decreases for the reasons described in the previous sections. In full stretch, the
erectors actually shut off, which is deemed myoelectric silence. This means that spinal
erector activation would decrease and, instead, passive tissues would support the spine.
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One must keep in mind that these structures affect how ones lumbar spine moves as well,
hence the lumbo in lumbopelvic. For example, if one cannot flex at the hip joint any further,
they will compensate via posterior pelvic tilt and lumbar flexion. During periods of deep
hip flexion, such as the bottom of the squat, it may be beneficial to maintain anterior pelvic
tilt because 1) it will put more tension on the adductors and hamstrings and 2) the glutes
are already inhibited due to deep hip flexion. As for near lockout, such as the top of a
deadlift, the opposite is true: increased posterior pelvic tilt will be a more advantageous
position to produce hip extension torque because the gluteus maximus can better activate
in this position.
Intimately involved in the lumbopelvic hip complex are four different muscles groups: hip
abductors, hip adductors, hip flexors, and hip extensors; ones structure/anatomy greatly
affects how these function by either increasing or decreasing the moment arm of each
muscle. For example, a 2cm superior displacement of the hip joint center decreases the
moment generating capacity of the hip abductors by 49% and hip flexors by 22%. A hip
center displaced 2cm superiorly, 2cm laterally, and 2cm anteriorly was shown to maximize
hip extension torque (Delp & Maloney, 1993).
Bret does a phenomenal job introducing and further explaining the lumbopelvic hip
complex and these concepts in this video.
Delp, S. L., & Maloney, W. (1993). Effects of hip center location on the moment-generating
capacity of the muscles. Journal of biomechanics, 26(4), 485-499.
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Goblet Squat
= 1000 0.1982
= 198.2
= 1000 0.2261
= 226.1
Counterbalance Squat
= 1000 0.3183
= 318.3
= 1000 0.1060
= 106.0
Lynn, S. K., & Noffal, G. J. (2012). Lower Extremity Biomechanics During a Regular and
Counterbalanced Squat. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(9), 2417-2425.
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Moderate Lean
= 1000 0.2122
= 212.2
= 1000 0.2122
= 212.2
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Upright Torso
= 1000 0.1733
= 173.3
= 1000 0.2510
= 251.0
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Squat Variations
There are four primary variations of the squat: the front squat, back squat, box squat, and
Zercher squat. Each one of these variations distributes torques differently and those
torque distribution differentiations should be taken advantage of, especially to work on
weak points and during times of injury.
Front Squat
During the front squat, the bar is placed across ones shoulders and is supported by the
hands. Shifting the bar forward shifts the center of gravity forward, which in turn allows
the lifter to stay more upright. This upright position spares the hips and low back by
placing more torque on the knees, making the front squat a knee dominant movement.
Back Squat
The most popular of the squat variations is the back squat. During the back squat, the bar
is placed on the upper trapezius and the bar is stabilized with the lifters hands. This
allows the lifter to go through a more natural range of motion.
Box Squat
Box squats are very similar to back squats, but at the bottom portion, the lifter must sit on a
box. Typically, this movement allows the lifter to keep their shins more vertical as the lifter
leans forward to keep the center of mass over their feet. This alleviates stress on the knees
and makes the movement much more hip dominant than the typical back squat.
Zercher Squat
The Zercher squat is the most unique of the bunch in that instead of the weight resting on
the trunk, it is being held in the lifters elbows. This variation is somewhere between the
front squat and back squat in terms of hip and knee joint torques.
Below is a comparison of all four variations.
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Front Squat
= 1000 0.1766
= 176.6
= 1000 0.2477
= 247.7
Box Squat
= 1000 0.4240
= 424.0
= /
2 x 4: Maximum Strength
Back Squat
= 1000 0.2122
= 212.2
= 1000 0.2122
= 212.2
Zercher Squat
= 1000 0.3627
= 372.7
= 1000 0.0516
= 51.6
Page 30
Deadlift Variations
Similar to the squat, there are variations of the deadlift that make use of different
combinations of torque in order to complete the lift.
Conventional Deadlift
Obviously the most popular variation of the deadlift, the conventional deadlift, is
performed with the legs in between the arms. This variation is the most hip dominant.
Sumo Deadlift
Powerlifters often utilize the sumo deadlift. By abducting and externally rotating the legs,
they can decrease the hip moment arm and perform the lift in a more upright position since
hip abduction brings their body closer to the bar.
The trap bar deadlift utilizes a trap bar rather than a barbell. This allows the load to be
shifted more posteriorly when compared to the conventional deadlift, and has similar
torque values to that of a squat. Some people refer to this as a squat/deadlift hybrid, or a
squat-lift. This variation is much more knee dominant compared to all other common
variations of the deadlift.
Hack Lift
A hack lift is very similar to a conventional deadlift, except that the bar is behind your legs
instead of in front. This makes the variation much more knee dominant.
Below is a comparison of all four variations.
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Conventional Deadlift
= 1000 0.4571
= 457.1
= /
2 x 4: Maximum Strength
Sumo Deadlift
= 1000 0.3307
= 330.7
= /
Hack Lift
= 1000 0.2108
= 210.8
= 1000 0.2096
= 209.6
Page 32
Common Dysfunctions
Knee Valgus
Knee valgus occurs when someones knees collapse inwards toward one another. This
condition can exist out of movement, and is referred to as genu valgum in those cases, but
during movement, it can often be seen in the concentric portion of a squat or landing from a
jump. Knee valgus is associated with ACL injuries and patellofemoral pain syndrome.
The gluteus medius is a small muscle on the side of your hip that attaches to your illiotibial
(IT) band, which attaches to the lateral aspect of your tibia. This muscle acts to abduct the
hip and, when strengthened, may help prevent knee valgus.
For more on knee valgus, check out Brets blog article on it.
Butt Wink
Butt wink occurs when ones femur runs out of room during hip flexion and makes contact
with the acetabulum. This contact induces posterior pelvic tilt and lumbar flexion, and is
commonly seen in the bottom of a squat.
For more on butt wink, check out Brets video on it.
The ability for someone to dorsiflex may affect how they squat, that is, not allowing that
persons knees to go forward enough which puts an immense amount of torque on their
low back and may cause the person to go into butt wink sooner or have valgus collapse in
order to compensate. Proper ankle dorsiflexion will allow for a more balanced distribution
of torques, and these concepts are also discussed in Brets video on butt wink and article on
knee valgus.
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However, if one does need to increase their core stability, they can do so by bracing the
abdominals/obliques. This will increase intra-abdominal pressure, which will increase
spinal stability. The downside of this is that it increases spinal compression and your
spinal erectors must produce more torque in order to counteract the spinal flexion
moments provided by your abdominals, and this may lead to greater fatigue.
Front Squat
= 1000 0.1414
= 141.4
= 1000 0.2829
= 282.9
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Back Squat
= 1000 0.2829
= 282.9
= 1000 0.1414
= 141.4
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Hip Angle ()
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Knee Wraps
Mainly used in
geared powerlifting
during squats.
Provides passive
knee extension
torque, especially
during deep knee
flexion.
Briefs/Squat Suit
Mainly used in
geared powerlifting
during squats.
Provides passive hip
extension torque,
especially during
deep hip flexion.
Belt
Mainly used for
squats and deadlifts.
These seemingly minor aids combine to produce large increases in the total poundages that a lifter
can hoist.
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Bands and chains work similarly to the way powerlifting gear works in that they alter the
strength and torque-angle curves, but the way in which they do it works a little bit
differently. Bands and chains are often used to add resistance towards the top of a lift, or
when a lifter is strongest. So, instead of decreasing the resistance in the beginning of a lift
like gear, bands and chains increase the resistance toward the end of the lift to help even
out the torque curve. A graph of this can be seen below, where the black line represents a
standard torque curve, and the red line represents the torque with accommodating
resistance.
Hip
Extension
Torque
(Nm)
Hip Angle ()
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Assistance Lifts
Numerous, non-conventional lifts exist that may help one achieve more success with more
traditional compound lifts. Some important ones will be discussed, along with their
applicability to training and how they are carried over to other lifts.
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Hip Thrust
The hip thrust, popularized by Bret Contreras, is an exercise in which the lifter places their
feet on the ground, upper back on a bench, and bar over their hips, and thrusts the bar
forward. EMG data shows this to be the most constructive exercise for gluteus maximus
activation, which would not only help hypertrophy the glutes, but also strengthen them.
Implications of stronger glutes include a stronger squat if hip extension is a bottleneck and
the lockout in the deadlift. The gluteus maximus has also been shown to be the strongest
stabilizer of the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) (Barker et al., 2013).
The activation patterns of the hip thrust jive very well with the findings of Worrell et al.
(2001), i.e., the gluteus maximus has the highest EMG activity at end range. Because the
force from the load is always perpendicular to the hips, resisting extension, one is able to
maximize hip extension torque and gluteal EMG activity. Below is a graph of the hip
extension torque in a hip thrust of a 64, 100kg male using a 220kg load.
Somewhat of a misnomer, the back extension is really a hip extension exercise. Because the
legs are straight during the back extension, this exercise would elicit more hamstrings and,
because the back is held in a neutral position, the spinal erectors are working isometrically
to stabilize the spine. The gluteus maximus and hamstrings share the hip extension torque.
The movement can be performed on a glute ham developer. The most challenging position
in the back extension is at full lockout where the torso is fully extended.
45 Hyper
The 45 Hyper is a piece of equipment on which the back extension is often performed.
The torques when performing a back extension on the 45 Hyper are on the graph and
show an inverted u-shaped curve, with the most challenging portion in the middle of the lift.
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Good Morning
A good morning is performed similarly to a stiff leg deadlift, but instead of the bar being
held in ones hands, it is placed on the back similarly to a back squat. This movement
elicits similar EMG activity as the stiff leg deadlift, that is, hamstrings and glutes
contributing to hip extension and the spinal erectors acting isometrically to maintain a
neutral spine. The torques necessary to complete a good morning are shown on the graph
and show that the most challenging portion is a the bottom of the movement when the hips
are fully flexed.
More information on these concepts, horizontal back extension, 45 hyper, and good mornings are
discussed further by Contreras et al. (2013). Bret was also nice enough to record a video
summarizing the article and these concepts.
Contreras, B. M., Cronin, J. B., Schoenfeld, B. J., Nates, R. J., & Sonmez, G. T. (2013). Are All
Hip Extension Exercises Created Equal?. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 35(2), 17-22.
Reverse Hyper
The reverse hyper was popularized by Louie Simmons at Westside Barbell and is a great
movement for learning how to control ones pelvis and lumbar spine during a hip hinge
while properly utilizing the glutes. The reverse hyper is performed by laying ones upper
body face down on a surface with the legs hanging off, secured to a pendulum via a strap.
The lifter will simply move in and out of hip flexion while controlling the movement with
their hip extensors. It should be noted that on the graph below, we are assuming a quasistatic model, i.e., there is no momentum and that the lifter is not actively preventing the
weight from swinging past 90 of hip flexion.
Below is a graph showing the torque-angle curves of the previous four exercises if a 6, 200
lb subject were to hold a 100 lb weight at the top of his or her chest.
600
500
Good Morning
400
45 Back extension
300
200
100
0
90
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135
Hip Angle
180
Horizontal Back
Extension
Reverse Hyper
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Just like the name says, the GHR is an excellent movement for the development of ones
hamstrings, but as far as the glutes go, it is a bit of a misnomer. This is due to the fact that
knee flexion is the bottleneck: one has a much higher capacity for hip extension torque than
knee flexion torque, but the GHR puts a lot more torque on the knees than it does the hips.
It is performed on a glute ham developer (GHD) by extending at the knees and flexing at the
hips until the body forms an L shape. Once at the bottom, the lifter simply extends at the
hips and flexes at the knees.
Torque (Nm)
600
500
400
300
200
100
Knee: 180
Hip: 90
Knee: 180
Hip: 135
Knee: 180
Hip: 180
Knee: 135
Hip: 180
Knee: 90
Hip: 180
As you can see, the GHR is a knee dominant (knee flexion) exercise and not a hip dominant
exercise. For more information on the Glute Ham Raise, check out Brets article on T-Nation,
Gutting the GHR.
Barker, P. J., Hapuarachchi, K. S., Ross, J. A., Sambaiew, E., Ranger, T. A., & Briggs, C. A.
(2013). Anatomy and biomechanics of gluteus maximus and the thoracolumbar fascia at
the sacroiliac joint. Clinical Anatomy.
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