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particle
mass
relative
position
charge
proton
1
+1
nucleus
neutron
1
0
nucleus
electron 1/2000 -1
orbiting nucleus
The total number of electrons in an atom is
always the same as the number of protons in
the nucleus. This means atoms have no
overall electrical charge.
ATOMS CONTINUED
Electrons are arranged in different shells around
the nucleus. The innermost shell - or lowest energy
level - is filled first.
Each succeeding shell can only hold a certain
number of electrons before it becomes full
ENERGY SHELL
OR LEVEL
first
second
third
MAXIMUM
NUMBER OF
ELECTRONS
2
8
8
3
-
Moving across each period, you can see that the number of occupied energy levels is the same as the
period number.
As you go across each period from left to right, an energy level gradually becomes filled with electrons.
The highest occupied energy level contains just one electron on the left-hand side of the table. It is filled
by the time you get to the right-hand side.
The periodic table group number tells you how many electrons are on the outer shell (except for heliumthe electronic structure of this noble gas is 2.). Each element in a group therefore has the same number
of electrons in its highest occupied energy level.
ATOMIC BONDING
When atoms collide its the outer levels that come into
contact. The way an atom reacts depends on the
number of electrons in the outer shell. This is why
atoms with the same number of electrons in the outer shell
react in similar way.
Metal atoms form positive ions, while non-metal atoms form negative
ions.
Group 2 metals form 2+ ions, Group 3+ and so on to get rid of the outer
shell.
Non-metal atoms have 5,6,7 electrons in their outer energy levels. The
atoms need to gain extra electrons to get a full shell of 8, so:
Group 5 non-metals have to gain 3 electrons to form 3- ions, Group 6
non-metals have to gain 2 electrons to form 2- ions etc.
SO
Metallic atoms become
stable by losing
electrons.
Non-metallic elements
become stable by
gaining electrons in
their outer energy level
When metals react with non-metals, electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms, forming ions. The
resulting compound is called an ionic compound.
Consider reactions between metals and non-metals, for example:
sodium + chlorine sodium chloride
magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
calcium + chlorine calcium chloride
In each of these reactions, the metal atoms give electrons to the non-metal atoms. The metal atoms become positive ions and the
non-metal atoms become negative ions.
Theres a strong electrostatic force of attraction between these oppositely charged ions, called an ionic bond.
COVALENT BONDING
Non-metals cannot form ionic compounds on their own. Their atoms need to take electons to
get a full outer shell, but without metal atoms where can they get them?
They need a different way of reaching that stable full outer energy level state- THE TRICK
IS TO SHARE! Non-metals can join their outer energy levels together and share one or
more pairs of electrons.
These arrangements are called molecules. Because no electrons have been lost or gained,
molecules carry no electrical charge. This arrangement can be very stable and the
shared electrons form strong covalent bonds.
A covalent bond can be represented by a straight line or dot-and-cross diagram:
COVALENT BONDING
Atoms of different
non-metal elements
can also join together
to make covalent
compounds
COVALENT BONDING
To melt or boil a substance, you need to put enough energy in to break their bonds between the particles.
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The bonds within covalent molecules are very strong but the particles have no electrical charge, meaning that covalent
materials do not conduct electricity (no free electrons either).
It also means that there are only very weak forces between the particles- intermolecular forces.
Heating overcomes the forces between the molecules- the covalent bonds remain intact. Because the intermolecular
forces are weak, covalent bonds have low melting points and boiling points.
Very small molecules are gases and liquids. Larger molecules (like wax) may form soft solids.
Some non-metals can make giant structures by sharing
In a diamond, each carbon atom has all four of its
electrons. Carbon can form diamond and graphite in this way.
outer energy levels paired up with a neighbouring
In these giant structures every atom is joined to its neighbour
atom. This makes it rigid and 3-dimensional. As there
by a strong covalent bond. These macromolecular bonds
are no space electrons, diamond does not conduct
have high melting points and boiling points as it takes a
electricity.
lot of energy to break the covalent bonds. They also form
hard and strong solids at room temperature.
In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in 2Diamond and graphite are both macromolecules containing
dimensional sheets, with each atom joined to just
carbon atoms. Their properties are very different. Properties
three neighbours. This leaves one electron unpaired
such as hardness are often linked to the way the atoms are
in each atom. These loose electrons can be made to
bonded.
move, so graphite does conduct electricity. Also,
there are only weak forces between the carbon
sheets, so graphite as a whole is a weak solid as the
sheets can slide over one another.
Graphite
Diamond
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Type of material
Structure
Strength/
Hardness
Melting
and
boiling
points
Electrical
conductivity
Example
ionic
giant lattice of
positive and
negative ions held
together by strong
electrostatic forces
(ionic bonds)
Giant lattice of
positive ions
surrounded by
loose electrons,
held together by
hard but
brittle
high
salt
crystals
Hard and
strong; can
be bent
and
shaped
high
good (also
conducts hear
well)
steel
cables or
girders
metallic
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Nanotechnology is the science that looks at the behaviour of very tiny molecules (nanoparticles). They are far
too small to see with a microscope.
small molecular
softscientific
(when and
Verytechnological
low- do not
conduct
air and
Nanotechnology
is opening simple
up vastuncharged
new areas of for
development.
NANOTECHNOLOGY
developed to:
-be injected into the human body to search out and destroy cancer cells or perform minor surgery
-be released into the environment to clean up environmental disasters such as wrecked oil tankers
-be sent out to the moon and planets to explore and report back their discoveries
You would need many millions and millions of these tiny nanobots for them to have an effect.
But what if nanomachines got out of control? What if they evolve? What if you breathed in some super-reacting
nanoparticles?
As with all major advances it has the potential for great good or great harm. Which way it goes depends
on how we humans choose to use it.
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
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Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an
average of the masses of the
different isotopes of chlorine.
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16
+
+
18
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
16
Remember, if there is
more than one atom of
the element in the
compound, you need to
multiply your answer by
the number of atoms.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA
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CONSERVATION OF MASS
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Mass is never lost or gained in chemical reactions- the atoms are simply
rearranged from reactant to product.
In other words, the total mass of products at the end of the reaction is
equal to the total mass of reactants at the beginning.
= 28+22 = 50
In practice, it is not always possible to get all of the calculated amount of
product from a reaction:
You can calculate the masses of products and reactants from balanced symbol equations.
By knowing how much of each reactant is needed, you can ensure that you get the reaction
you want. In industry calculations like this are very important as if you get the proportions of
your reactants wrong you will end up wasting raw materials(which costs money).
MOLES
MOLES
19
You have one mole of atoms if you have the atomic mass in
grams, 1 mole of molecules if you have the formula mass in
grams etc:
Ar of O=16, so 1 mole of oxygen atoms=16g
Mr of O2=32, so 1 mole of oxygen molecules=32g
Scientists studying gases about 200 years ago discovered that if you have the same volume of
gas, you have the same number of particles, whatever the gas (as long as the pressure and
room temperature are the same). So 1dm3 of hydrogen contains as many particles as 1dm3 of
chlorine and so on.
One mole of any gas has a volume of 24dm3 at room temperature and pressure.
THEORETICAL YIELD
MOLES
How much of a product you get from raw material is called the yield
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The maximum possible amount of a product that could be produced is called the theoretical
yield
The ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical amount is called the percentage yield.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
MOLES
Some chemical reactions are easily reversible.
ATOM ECONOMY
MOLES
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Sustainable development is
development that conserves
natural resources and so
can be used successfully in
the future.
Sustainable development
allows us to improve our
standard of living without
damaging the environment.
For example, what is the atom economy for
making hydrogen by reacting coal with steam?
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Unfortunately, plants cannot use the vast amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere directly.
So Ammonia is an important raw material in the manufacture of fertilisers
Thats why modern agriculture relies on fertilisers to keep crop yields high.
One nitrogen-rich compound that plants can use is the pungent-smelling gas, ammonia
(NH3)
Early attempts to make ammonia from nitrogen were unsuccessful- The reaction is reversible
and in the early experiments reached equilibrium with less than 10% yield-enough to turn litmus
blue, but that was all.
Reversible reaction:
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
German chemist Fritz Haber looked at ways of improving the yield.
He found that he got the highest yield at high pressure and low temperature, but the yield was
still less than 50%
Everyone had been thinking of the reaction as a closed system, but if it was an open system
the ammonia could be removed to stop the back reaction
In the modern Haber process, nitrogen (purified from the air) and hydrogen (from natural gas)
are reacted over an iron catalyst.
At 450 degrees and 200 atmospheres pressure the reaction is fast, but still only gives a 30%
yield of ammonia.
Habers great breakthrough was to cool the mixture of gases. The mixture passes through
a condenser, which cools the gasses bellow -33 degrees, the boiling point of ammonia.
The ammonia liquefies and flows out of the condenser.
The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are then topped up with more reactants and sent
through the system in a continuous loop. In this way, all the reactants are eventually
converted into ammonia.
Lowering the temperature of the Haber process increases the yield but
slows the reaction (raising temperature increases energy costs)
Increasing the pressure increase the yield but can be very expensive
The Haber process runs continuously. It has been fine-tuned over the
years to become a very efficient process, reducing the price of ammonia
and so fertilisers.
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REACTION RATES
Chemical
reactions may be very slow (like rusting) or very fast. Either way they are very
MOLES
important in industry:
,,
-If a reaction runs too quickly it might get out of control and cause an explosion.
-If it runs too slowly, this will make the process very inefficient and will raise production costs.
This is why reaction rates need to be controlled.
The rate of reaction is what happens divided by how long it takes, that is:
REACTION RATES
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MOLES
During a chemical reaction, particles have to approach one another in order to react with each
other.
Thats not enough though, the particles must collide with enough energy to break the existing
chemical bonds and reform in a new way.
The higher the temperature, the higher the average speed of the particles. Faster particles
carry more kinetic energy. Collisions that generate enough energy to break the bonds will
occur more often, so a larger proportion of the particles have a chance to react.
The minimum energy required for any given reaction is called its activation energy. Many
reactions need a kick start of energy to provide this and get the reaction started.
Reactions involving solids only take place at the surface. Breaking up the pieces will
dramatically increase the surface area, making far more opportunities for reactions between
molecules thus making a reaction go faster.
Every time you break a solid you expose an extra bit of material to react.
REACTION RATES
MOLES
Remember that before particles can react, they must meet.
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The concentration of a solution or pressure of a gas are measured in moles per cubic
decimetre (mol/dm3)
For gases if you increase the pressure you increase the rate of reaction because the
greater the pressure the greater the number of particles in a given space and the
closer the particles are the more chance they have of colliding.
CATALYSTS
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Catalysts speed up reactions without being used up themselves
MOLES
Catalysts work by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction. This process is
complex but a simple model is that the existing bonds are weakened on the catalyst
surface. This makes it easier for them to be broken during collisions so that new bonds
can form. The overall result is that the reaction happens more easily.
This kind of reaction can only happen on the surface of the catalyst so the catalyst has to
be in the smallest pieces possible.
Breaking it up in to fine powder may not help- the particles may just clump together.
The answer is to attach small particles to tiny wire grids just millimetres apart, this allows
the reactants to get to as large a surface area as possible.
Nanotechnology could help take this approach to a new level, creating particles of
catalyst just a thousandth of a millimetre in size and their surface area would go up a
thousand-fold.
It is important to find the right catalyst for the particular reaction you want to speed up.
Transition metals or their oxides often make good catalaysts:
-Iron is used in the production of ammonia.
-Platinum is used in the production of nitric acid.
Catalysts help industrial processes run faster and at lower temperatures (helping
industry to reduce its energy costs)
Enzymes are biological catalysts
In the future we will get more and more of our electricity directly from hydrogen fuel cells.
Fuel cells create electricity directly from hydrogen and oxygen with the help of a platinum
catalyst, producing water as a waste product.
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EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC
MOLES
Chemical changes are often accompanied by changes in temperature, as energy is
SUSTAINABILITY
MOLES
We know the benefits of the chemical industry to our everyday lives, but we
also know more about the costs:
Fossil fuels will run out
Burning fossil fuels releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide
wasted heat energy causes thermal pollution that can affect local ecosystems such as those in lakes.
One way of making it sustainable for future generations is through education
(being aware of our responsibilities towards the earth)
Another way is through legislation (we have laws that force companies to
behave responsibly towards the environment)
A third way works with businesses efforts to make money: as fossil fuels
supplies decline, their price goes up. Anything industry can do to reduce
energy costs will save them money and if industry uses less energy we will
burn less fossil fuel and the whole planet will benefit.
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ELECTROLYSIS
30
Oxidation
Is the
Loss of electrons,
Reduction
Is the
Gain of electrons!
Just remember OILRIG!
Ionic substances form when a metal reacts with a non-metal. They contain charged particles called ions.
Electrolysis is used to get reactive metals such as aluminium from their ores.
Electrolysis is an endothermic process. Electrical energy is used to split compounds into the ions
that make them up.
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Salts are ionic compounds that have a positive metal part and a negative part from an acid
Metal salts have many uses and can be made various ways
Some salts can be made by reacting the metal with the appropriate acid
Insoluble salts can sometimes be made by getting soluble salts to change partners in a double decomposition
reaction.
Double decomposition is used to clean polluted water.
The strength of acids and alkalis is measures on the pH scale. Universal indicator changes colour with this scale.
Acids contain free hydrogen ions (H+). The higher the concentration, the stronger the acid.
Chemicals that can neutralise acids are called bases. They are usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides. The
neutralisation reaction is:
Acid + base salt + water
Soluble bases are called alkalis. The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-), the stronger the alkali
Acid plus a base forms a salt and water.
Ammonium salt fertilisers allow us to grow enough salt to feed the world, but some people are concerned about
the negative effects
For sustainable development we need to be sure that we are working in tune with nature and that we are not
storing up problems for the future.