CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

AluminiumAlloysforHighPressureDieCasting

Rawmaterialsupplyandprocessing
Therearelargeamountsofaluminiumintheearthscrust,whereitisthethirdmost
commonbasicelement;onlyoxygenandsiliconarepresentingreaterquantity.Alu
minium, which never occurs in a free state in nature, forms compounds primarily
with silicon, oxygen, alkali and alkaline earth metals. 1 The concentration of alumin
iumintheearthscrustisabout8%(iron,ca.5%). 2
Primary aluminium is extracted from the mineral, bauxite, which consists mainly of
hydrated oxides of aluminium, iron and silicon. The largest known bauxite reserves
arelocatedinAustralia,Brazil,JamaicaandSuriname.Afteritismined,bauxiteoreis
usuallyconvertedtothealuminiumoxide,alumina(Al2O3),whichinturnisconverted
toprimaryaluminiumwithanelectrolysisprocessthatincludestheuseofcryolite.It
takes 45 tonnes (metric tons) of bauxite to produce two tonnes of aluminium oxide
whichcanthenbeconvertedtoonetonneofprimaryaluminium.Thesecondstepof
the process uses large amounts of electric energy: To produce one tonne of primary
aluminiumfromtwotonnesofaluminiumoxiderequires15,000kWh.
Totalworldproductionofprimaryaluminiumisabout30milliontonnesperannum.
It is estimated that known bauxite reserves are sufficient to last 200400 years at the
currentrateofproduction.
Secondary aluminium is derived from recycled aluminium products. Resmelting
requiresonlyfivepercentoftheenergyusedinprimaryproductionfrombauxiteore.
Aluminium can be resmelted several times without any significant decline in qual
ity. 3 Technically and economically, it is difficult to reduce iron and copper levels to
lessthan0.2%inalloysrefinedfromaluminiumscrap. 4

Applications

Primaryalumin
ium

Secondaryalumin
ium

Pure aluminium is soft, has relatively low strength and is difficult to cast. For these
reasons, it is not widely used in cast products. But pure aluminium is useful for a
specialtypeofapplicationmassproductionofsmallandmediumsizedrotorsfor
electricmotors.Purealuminiumisusedforthatpurposebecauseitisagoodconduc
tor of electricity and is nonmagnetic. It is used both as a structural material and an
electricalconductor. 5
The broadest range of applications for aluminium alloy castings is within the motor
vehicle industry. Among the types of components cast in aluminium are engine
blocks,cylinderheads,intakemanifolds,rearaxlemountsandtransmissionhousings.

Aluminium
Introduktionskurs i pressgjutning i Jnkping 2006
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4 Metallurgi fr aluminiumgjutlegeringar
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Anothermajorareaofapplicationsforaluminiumalloycastingsiswithintheelectric
power and electronics industries. Among the aluminium castings produced for the
electricpowerindustryarehousingsforhightensioncircuitbreakers.Theelectronics
industry uses aluminium cast products for casings, equipment cabinets and mobile
telephones,amongotherthings.

Aluminiumcastingsarealsobeingusedtoagrowingextentinfurniture,household
appliancesandportableequipment.6

Advantagesofaluminium:
Lightweight,withdensityof2.7g/cm3
Stronginalloyedform.Breakingpointisca.70700Mpainpureform,butca.
200450Mpaincastalloys.
Goodcorrosionresistanceproperties
Goodconductorofheatandelectricity
Weldable
Recyclable
Workable
Highimpactstrength,evenatlowtemperatures
Nonmagnetic
Highreflectivity

Advantagesand
disadvantages

Disadvantagesofaluminium:
Lowstrengthathighertemperatures
Lowfusingpoint
LowEmodule(7072Gpa)
Lowhardness
Lowwearandabrasionresistance
Lowcoefficientofthermalexpansion
Lowcreepstrength
Lowfatiguestrength 7

Materialproperties
Density
Oneimportantreasonfortheincreasinguseofaluminiumalloysasastructuralmate
rial is its favourable combination of low weight and relatively high mechanical
strength.Itsdensityisca.2.7g/cm3,comparedwith7.2g/cm3forcastiron. 8
Fusiontemperature
Every pure metal solidifies at a specific temperature, the solidifying or fusion point.
The fusion point of pure aluminium is 660C. The inclusion of alloy additives shifts
the starting point of the solidification process,usually to a lower temperature in the
caseofaluminium.

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Normally,thetemperaturedecreasesfurtherduringsolidificationsothat,insteadofa
solidifying point, a solidification interval is formed. But in an aluminium alloy with
12.5%Sitheintervalisreducedtoasinglepoint.Suchanalloyiscalledeutectic;likea
puremetal,ithasafusionpoint.Technicalalloysusuallyhaveconcentrationsofalloy
additivesthatarelowerthanthelevelcorrespondingtotheeutectic. 9 Themostcom
mon types of diecast alloys contain 712% Si and have a fusion point of 490570,
dependingonthetypesandamountsofalloyadditives.
Elasticitymodule
Theelasticitymodule(Emodule)isameasureoftheslopeofthetensiletestcurvein
theelasticportionofthestrengthcurve(tensilestrengthincreaseperlengthunit).and
isnotedinPa.Inotherwords,itisameasureofametalsspringiness. 10
The Emodule for aluminium alloys is between 70 and 75 GPa, which is about one
thirdoftheEmoduleforsteel.Thismeansthattheelasticchangeofforminresponse
to a given stress is three times greater than that of steel, and two thirds that of cast
iron. 11
The elasticity module of aluminium decreases with increasing temperature, and
revertsuponcooling.TheEmoduleissomewhathigheratlowtemperaturesthanat
roomtemperature. 12 Itvarieslittlewithtypeofalloy. 13
Mechanicalproperties
Thevaluesforbreakingpoint,yieldstrengthandductilityareusedinthecalculation
ofoverallstrengthThevaluesarederivedbydrawingspecialtestbarswithaspecific
tensionataconstantelongationrateuntiltheybreak.
Breakingpoint
Thebreakingpoint,Rm,isthehighesttensiontowhichatestbarissubjecteduntilit
breaks. 14 Compared with copper, iron and steel, lightweight metals such as alumin
iumhavelowbreakingpoints..15
The breaking point of unalloyed aluminium is 6080 MPa, depending on degree of
purity. The breaking points of common, standardized diecast aluminium alloys are
around 240 MPa. The values for special alloys can be even higher. The strength of
aluminiumincreasesasitstemperaturedecreases. 16
The rate of solidification is another factor that affects the strength of aluminium.
Higher rates result in lower DAS values (secondary dendrite arm length), which in
turnresultingreaterstrength. 17

Aluminium
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12 Aluminium
13 Aluminium
14 Metallurgi fr aluminiumgjutlegeringar
15 Gjutlegeringar
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Yieldstrength&residualelongationlimit
Aluminium does not have any definite yield strength. Instead, the parameters that
applyareresidualelongationlimitRp0.2,whichisthetensionataremainingductile
elongation of 0.2%. For the most common diecast alloys, an elongation limit of 140
MPaisnormallyattained.
Ductility
Ductility is a measure of a materials ability to change form. Ductility is stated as a
percentageandindicatestheextenttowhichatestbarcanbedeformedbeforebreak
ing. A low value indicates that the material will not break as a result of temporary
overloading. 18 The normalstandard fordiecastaluminiumalloysis around one per
cent. Significantly higher values can be attained if the alloy is refined or is heat
treated.
Hardness
Testingthehardnessofmetalsisbasedontheprinciplethattheharderthematerial,
thebetteritisabletoresistductiledeformationwhensubjectedtopressurefroman
externalobjectinotherwords,themoredifficultitistomakeapermanentimpression
inthematerial. 19 Therearethreedifferentmethodsformeasuringhardness:

theBrinellmethodwhichusesaballofhardmetal
RockwellCwhichusesadiamondcone,andRockwellBaballoftempered
steel
Vickerswhichusesapyramidaldiamondtipwithaquadraticsurface.

Hardness measurements can beused to calculate the breaking point. 20 The hardness
ofdiecastaluminiumalloysusuallyrangesfrom50to90HBW.
Fatiguecharacteristics
Aluminiumhasgooddynamicstrength,whichmakesitsuitableforcomponentsthat
aresubjectedtotensionloadsandfatiguestresses. 21
Fatiguefailureisnormallytheresultofeithertensilestressorthecombinedeffectof
alternatingpressureandtensilestress.Failuremayoccurevenifloadsremainbelow
thematerialsyieldpoint.
Inagivencrosssectionofmaterialthatissubjectedonlytovaryingpressure,fissures
donotleadtocompletefractures.Fatiguefissuresnearlyalwaysstartatthesurfaceof
a material. The fracture sequence can be divided into three stages: initiation, fissure
growth,brittlefracture. 22
Betweenthefatiguelimitandthebreakingpoint,hardenablealloysusuallyhavemore
favourable characteristics than nonhardenable alloys. Heavy inclusions of oxides,
poresandlargeprecipitatesreducefatiguestrength.

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Aluminium
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21 Aluminium
22 Aluminium
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
The notching effect of a heavily machined surface results in lower fatigue strength
thanafinelypolishedsurface.Thesurfaceofadiecastingisverydenseandstrong,
andshouldthereforebekeptasintactaspossible.
If a material is exposed to a corrosive environment before or during subjection to
stress,itsfatiguestrengthissignificantlyreduced. 23
Corrosion
Ingeneral,aluminiumalloyshavegoodcorrosionresistanceaslongastheneutraliz
ingoxidelayeronthesurfaceofthecastingremainsintact.Ifitisdamaged,theoxide
layer reforms. At pH levels of4 8.5, the oxide layer is thermodynamically passive
andcorrosionoccursataslowrate.Inadditiontoenvironmentandtemperature,the
alloycompositionalsoaffectscorrosionresistance. 24 Foraluminium,thegeneralrule
isthatthepureritis,thegreateritscorrosionresistance. 25 Copperandironinalumin
iumalloysreducecorrosionresistance,andsuchalloysmayrequiresurfacetreatment.
Magnesium and silicon in aluminium alloys have positive effects on corrosion resis
tance.
Galvaniccorrosionmayoccurwhenaluminiumiscombinedwithamorenoblemetal.
In such cases, the presence of copper and carbon steel can result in extensive corro
sion,whereasstainlesssteelreducestherisk.Zincprovidesaluminiumwithcathodic
protection. 26
Incasesofverystrictrequirementsforcorrosionproofing,orwhenthematerialisto
beanodizedwithanaestheticallyattractivecoating,anAlMgalloycanbeused.Such
alloys acquire a silvery colour when polished. Anodizing provides good corrosion
protectionevenagainstsaltwaterandweakalkalinesolutions.Alloysofthistypeare
difficulttocastandarepronetodevelopingheatrelatedfissures. 27

Metallography
Ameltofmetalischaracterizedbygreatdisorder,withthemetalatomsmovingabout
randomly.When the meltsolidifies, the atoms become fixed within agrid structure.
Also, density increases and volume decreases as the metal changes from molten to
solidform.
Aluminiumcrystallizestoasurfacecentredcubicstructure,fcc,withagridconstant
of0.4049nmat20C. 28
Pure aluminium has low strength, which can be increased by various hardening
processes,including:

grainboundaryhardening
solidsolutionhardening
particlehardening
deformationhardening.

23

Aluminium
Gjutlegeringar
25 Aluminium
26 Gjutlegeringar
27 Karlebo Gjuteriteknisk handbok
28 Thundal, Aluminium, 1991
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Thefirstthreeprocessesarethemostcommonlyusedforcastaluminium.Theharden
ingeffectisachievedwithvariousalloyadditives.

Essentiallyallmetalsaresolubleinmoltenaluminium.However,solubilityislimited Solubility
inthesolidstate.Therefore,alloyadditivesarepresentintwoformsafterthemelthas
solidified:partlyinsolidsolution,andpartlyasseparatecrystalsongrainboundaries.
Solid solutions have the same crystal structure as the pure original metal, with one
exception:Insolidsolutions,someofthegridsectionsarereplaced/exchangedwith
atoms of the alloy additives. The distribution of alloy additive atoms is random. In
aluminium,suchanexchangeofatomscanonlyoccurtoalimitedextent.
Asarule,thesolubilityofalloyadditivesincreaseswithtemperature.Mg,ZnandCu
arehighlysolubleinaluminium;butthesolubilityofMnandSiismoderate,andthat
ofFe,Tietal.isslight.
Analloycanbesupersaturatedbywarmingit.Forexample,thesolubilityofmagne
sium at 20C is only 1.6%, but increases to 3% at 180C. If the melt is quenched to
roomtemperature,magnesiumremainsinsolidsolutionbecauseitsdiffusionrateis
slow.Alloysthatconsistsolelyofsolidsolutionsarecalledhomogeneous.Supersatu
rationisnotastablecondition.Ifitisfollowedbyslightwarming,surplusdissolved
alloyadditivescanbeseparatedout.Thisisanimportantstepinthehardeningproc
ess.
If an alloy contains larger quantities of an additive than can be included in solid
solution,thesurplusformsseparatecrystals.Suchanalloyiscalledheterogeneous. 29

Alloys
Standards
Aluminium alloys are subject to two European standards. At present, 37 cast alloys
conform to both EN 1706 Aluminium and aluminium alloys. Castings. Chemical
composition and mechanical properties, and EN 1676 Aluminium and aluminium
alloys.Alloyedingotsforremelting.Specifications.
Castalloysareproducedinbothhardenableandnonhardenableforms.Theycanbe
sortedintosevencategories,basedonalloycomposition.Whatgenerallydistinguishes
diecastingalloysfromthoseforsandcastingandchillcastingisthatdiecastingalloys
cancontainupto1.2%iron.Thisisbelievedtoreducetheriskofsolderingandflush
inginthemouldtool. 30
Thealloycategoriesthataremostcommonlyusedfordiecastingare:
Aluminiumsilicon
This category includes EN AC44000 and EN AC47000 alloys. They have good
castingproperties,includingflowandfluidity.Theyalsohavemediumlevelstrength,
goodcorrosionresistanceandareweldable.Theyaresuitableforcomplexthinwalled
andpressuretightcomponents.Theyhaveverygoodmechanicalproperties.Themost
important alloy in this category is AlSi12. Alloys with lower silicon levels result in
densercastings.

29
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Aluminiumsiliconcopper
This category includes EN AC46000 alloys. The copper additive increases strength,
hardness, and cutability. Alloys in this category have good casting properties. Nor
mally,theyarenotheattreated,butcanbeunderoptimalcastingconditions.Among
otherthings,alloysinthiscategoryareusedforlargescaleproductionofcastingsthat
aretobefinishedbycutting.Thisisthelowestpricecategoryofaluminiumalloys.

Aluminiummagnesium
This category includes EN AC42000 and EN AC43000 alloys. They are distin
guished by good corrosion resistance, especially against salt water, and have good
polishing and anodizing properties. They are used for armatures in the shipyard
branch,pipingcomponentsinthechemicalindustry,anddecorativeanodizedfittings
forbuildings.Strengthincreasesinproportiontomagnesiumcontent.
Specialalloys
Although they have good properties, these alloys are used less widely because they
are difficult to cast and are prone to developing heat fissures. They include AlMg
alloys which are suitable for anodizing and have good corrosive resistance. The Al
ZnMg alloy which is selfageing and develops optimal strength after some four
weeks at room temperature. AlCuTi(Mg) alloys have exceptionally high strength.
AlSiCuNiMgisanalloywithimprovedheatretentionandabrasionresistance.
Table1. Propertiesofcommonstandardizeddiecastingalloys. 31 , 32

Alloy
category

Codenumber

Status
code

Brea
king
point
Rm
(MPa)

Elongati
on limit,
Rp0,2,
(MPa)

Elonga
tion
A50mm
(%)

Brinell
hardness
HBS

Solidifica
tion
interval
C,c:a

Al
Si10Mg

ENAC43400

240

140

70

600550

AlSi

ENAC44300

240

130

60

580570

ENAC44400

220

120

55

600550

AlSi9Cu

ENAC46000

240

140

<1

80

600490

ENAC46100

240

140

<1

80

580530

ENAC46200

240

140

80

600490

ENAC46500

240

140

<1

80

600490

AlSi(Cu)

ENAC47100

240

140

70

580530

AlMg

ENAC51200

200

130

70

630550

31 EN 1706-Aluminium och aluminiumlegeringar- gjutgods- kemisk sammansttning och mekaniska egenskaper

32 Stena Aluminium, Gjutlegeringar av aluminium
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Internationalstandardsnotation

In addition to the notations used with the European standards, national notation
systemsaresometimesusedbyindividualEuropeancountries,andbyothercountries
suchastheUnitedStatesandJapan(seeTable2).Alloysareseldomfullycomparable,

astherearefrequentvariationsinnotation.

Alloyadditives
Since pure aluminium has low strength and is difficult to cast, it is used only for
special applications such as electric motor components for which high electric and
thermalconductivityisrequired. 33
In order to ensure the desired properties in diecast products, aluminium must be
alloyedinthepropermanner.Commonlyusedalloyadditivesincludethefollowing:

Silicon(Si)isthemostimportantadditiveinaluminiumalloys.Mostsuchal
loyshaveaSicontentof712%.Siliconlowersthemeltingpointandincreases
themeltsflow,fluidity,hardnessandstrength.
Copper(Cu)maybeunintentionallyincludedasacontaminantinsomealloys
madewithscrapmetal.Therearealsoalloysinwhichcopperisintentionally
addedforthepurposeofincreasinghardnessandmachinability. 34 Diecasting
aluminiumalloyscancontainupto34%copper.Itreducescorrosionresis
tance,butincreaseshardnessandstrength,enablessometypesofheat
treatment,andincreasescutability.
Magnesium(Mg)isusuallyaddedtoAlSialloysinconcentrationsofca.
0.65%,andupto10%inAlMgalloys.Magnesiumincreaseshardness,
strengthandcorrosionresistance.Itcanreducethemeltsflowandincreaseits
oxidationpotential.
Iron(Fe)isusuallyacontaminantinaluminium.Butsomediecastalloysmay
containupto1.2%ironbecauseithasthepositiveeffectsofreducingboththe
riskofheatfissuresandthesolderingofsteeldiesduringthecastingprocess.
However,ironalsoreducescorrosionresistance.Highironlevelscontributeto
theformationofharmfulintermetallicphases,whichinturnleadtoasharp
reductionofthemetalsductility. 35 Ironphasescanalsocausethenucleation
ofpores.
Manganese(Mn)isnormallyacontaminantwhich,togetherwithFeandCr,
mayproducehardparticlesthatcancausemachiningproblems.ButMnalso
contributesanumberofpositivecharacteristics;itreducesthenegativeeffects
ofiron,forexample.

Otheradditivesinclude:

Zinc(Zn)whichmaybeaddedinconcentrationsofupto1.2%.Zincincreases
hardnessandstrength,butmayreducecorrosionresistance.Zincconcentra
tionsofupto45%causealloystoselfage.
Nickel(Ni)toamaximumlevelof0.05%isusuallyacontaminantinalumin
ium.Butitcanbeusedforsuchpurposesasincreasinghightemperature
strength,especiallywithchromium. 36

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Table2. NationalnotationsforalloysmeetingEN1706standards.37,38
EN

ISO

Germany

DK

Finland

NO

France

U.K.

Spain

Italy

USA

Japan

EN1706

3522

DIN17251986

DIN

DS3002

SFS2550

NS17501

NF A57702
57703

BS1490:1970

UNI

AA/ASTM

JISH520286

AC21000

Al
Cu4MgTi

GAlCu4TiMg

AU5GT

2L91/92

A204.2

AC1B

AC42000

Al
Si7MgFe

4244

2569

17525

AS7G

LM25

L2651

3599

A356.1

AC4C

AC42100

AlSi7Mg

GAlSi5Mg
GKAlSi7Mg

AS7GO3

2L99

L2652

A357

AC4CH

AC43100

AlSi10Mg

GAlSi10Mg

239

4253

2567

17520

AS10G

LM9

L2560
L2561

3049

A360.2

AC4A

AC44100

AlSi12

GAlSi12

230

4261

2566

17510

AS13

LM6

L2520

4514

A413.2

AC44300

AlSi12Fe

GDAlSi12

2566

LM20

AC3A

AC46000

Al
Si8Cu3Fe

GDAlSi9Cu3

226

17530

ASi8Cu3Fe

5075

A380.1

ADC10

AC46200

GAlSi9Cu3

4251

2568

17535

LM27

5075/
3601

AC46500

Al
Si8Cu3Fe

GdAlSi8Cu3

4252

2568

17532

AS9U3Zy4

LM24

L2630

5079

A380.1/
A413.1

AC47000

AlSi12Cu

GAlSi12(Cu)
GKAlSi12(Cu)

4260

2565

17512

A12U

L2530
L2540

736974

AC51400

AlMg5Si1

GAlMg5Si

4163

2572

17550

LM5

AC71000

AlZn5Mg

4438

2573

17570

AZ5G

851.1

Abbreviations:DK=Denmark,NO=Norway

37
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Smelting
Aluminiumsmeltingcanbecarriedoutbyavarietyofmethods.Largefoundriesoften
have a central furnace, heated with electricity or natural gas, which can smelt both
ingots and recycled materials. The melt is then tapped into a transport ladle where
further treatment of the melt may be carried out. Finally, the melt is tapped into a
holdingovennearthediecastingmachine.Itcanbearesistancefurnacewithacruci
bleforthemelt,oraninductionfurnacewithoutacruciblebutwithafireprooflining.
It can also be a dosing furnace which is covered over and is not filled from a ladle;
instead,thefurnaceinteriorispressurizedsothatthemeltrunsintotheshotchamber
ofthediecastingmachine.Smeltingmayalsotakeplaceinafurnacebesidethedie
casting machine, in which case it is usuallyan induction furnace. Longlived linings
are essential for economical smelting and heat retention; they are also important for
theworkenvironment. 39 Sincealuminiumhasgreataffinityforiron,cruciblesofsteel
orironcannotbeused. 40

Melttreatment
Moltenaluminiumhasastrongtendencytooxidizeandtodissolvehydrogengas,and
thattendencybecomesstrongerwithincreasingtemperature.Themoltenmetalmust
thereforebepurified,whichcanbedonewithavarietyofmethodsandfluxes.Melts
are treated in order to: improve castability; increase the probability of producing
castings that are poreless and pressure tight; reduce defects, increase the ductility,
strengthandcutabilityofcastingsandimproveheattreatmentcharacteristics.
Themostcommonmelttreatmentsare:

refining
cleaning/fluxing
degassing
grainrefining.

Refining
Refiningisamelttreatmentthatisusedbymany,butfarfromall,diecastingfoun
dries.
Theuseofsiliconinaluminiumalloysgreatlyimprovestheirflowandcastability;it
alsoincreasesthestrengthandhardnessofcastings.Normallythesiliconphaseforms
discshapedstructureswhichincrosssectionmayresemblethickneedles.Thedisad
vantage of silicon is that the alloys ductility is sharply reduced, because the thick
needleshapedphasefunctionsasinnernotches.
Refining with strontium or sodium makes the needleshaped phase rounder and
substantiallyimprovesductility, 41 whilealsoincreasingflow.
The use of strontium (Sr), which is a common refining method with die casting, is
accomplishedbyaddingamasteralloyintheformofsmallingotsorbars.Asuitable
Sr concentration for die castings is 200 ppm. Available for purchase are readymade
alloysthatincludestrontium.

39

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41 Metallurgi fr aluminiumgjutlegeringar.
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Strontium refining can also be used with other methods of producing thinwalled
castings,sincetheuseofstrontiumrequiresrapidsolidification.Therefiningeffectof
silicondecreaseswithlengthoftimeinthemelt;butitseffectlastslongerthanthatof
sodium,forexample.
Refiningadvantagesofstrontium:

easytouseandtomeasureoutindoses
doesnotattackcrucibles
improvesmeltflow.

Refiningdisadvantagesofstrontium:

requiresrapidsolidificationformaximumperformance.
canincreasethenumberofporesinthecasting.

Sodium(Na)isusedwithrefiningofthickwalledcastingsinsandandchillmoulds.
Theeffectofsodiumdecreasesmorerapidlythanthatofstrontium.Theadvantageof
sodiumisthatthemethodinwhichitisusedisrapid.Thesodiumisusuallyaddedin
the form of pellets that are forced down into the melt with a ladle. This produces a
powerfulreaction,includingtheemissionofgaswhichcanirritatehumantissues.The
turbulencecreatedbythereactioncontributestoincreasedoxideformation.
Refining lowers the eutectic temperature. This results in super cooling which, in
combination with sodium or strontium particles, leads to the formation of a fine
grainedeutectic.
Cleaning/fluxing
Aluminiumhasaverystrongaffinitywithoxygen.Whenmoltenaluminiumcomesin
contactwithatmosphericoxygen,astrongaluminiumoxideisformedonthesurface
of the melt. When the melt is stirred, tapped or ladled out, oxygen is added to the
casting. Defects, pores and hard inclusions may develop at the places where that
happen.
Fluxingagentisusedtoremoveoxidesfromthemeltandtolowerthemetalcontent
oftheslagthatisscrapedfromthebathsurface.Whenthefluxingagentisadded,a
slagisformedwhichisdry,easytohandleandcontainsabout20%aluminium.Ifno
fluxing agent is added, the slag may contain up to 80% aluminium. Slag formed
withoutfluxingagentisstickyandfastenstothewallofthefurnace. 42
Fluxingiscarriedoutbyaddinganagentinpowder,granulatedorpelletform.There
aretwotypesoffluxingagentcleansingandcovering.Theyconsistofcompounds
thatincludesuchbasicelementsasCa,K,Na,ClandF. 43 Inmostcases,coveringsalt
isused.Fluxingisusedprimarilybysandandchillmouldfoundries, 44 butitisalso
commonwithdiecasting.

42

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Degassing
Onesourceofporosityinaluminiumcastingsishydrogeninthemeltpriortocasting.
Hydrogengasformswhenthemeltreactswithwatermoisture.Itdissolveseasilyin
moltenaluminium,butitssolubilitydecreasesrapidlywhenthetemperatureislow
ered.Whenthemeltsolidifies,thehydrogenformspocketsandbubblesofgasinthe
metal.
Toreducetheformationofgaspores,themeltcanbedegassedtoremovethehydro
genbeforecasting.Thiscanbedonewithanimpellerordegassingpelletsthatcontain
nitrogen. When an impeller is used, a carrier gas (nitrogen or argon) is injected into
themeltbymeansofalance,atthebottomtipofwhichisanimpeller.Thelanceand
the impeller rotate while the gas is injected. Hydrogen and other contaminants are
broughtuptothesurfacewiththecarriergas.Acastingfromadegassedmeltshasa
lowerproportionofgaspores,andthushasgreaterstrengthandductility. 45
Withdiecasting,however,hydrogengasisnottheprimarysourceofpores.Rather,it
isairthatistrappedinthemeltwhen themouldisfilled,aturbulentprocess.Also,
duetotherapidsolidification,thehydrogengasdoesnotseparateoutinbubbles,asit
doeswithslowerprocessessuchassandmoulding.Degassingisthereforenotusedas
oftenwithdiecasting.
Grainrefining
Whenanaluminiumalloyrapidlychangesfromliquidtosolidform,itbecomesfine
grained which is often desirable. Finegrained alloys are harder, and it is compara
tivelyeasytomakepressuretightcastingsfromthem.Thickwalledcastingssolidify
moreslowly,resultinginamorecoarsegrainedstructure.Grainrefiningmaythenbe
necessary.Tothemeltisaddedgrainrefiningagent,oftenasaltpreparationcontain
ingtitaniumorboron. 46 Grainrefiningcontributestoamoreefficientfillingprocess,
andalsoreducestheriskofheatfissures.Grainrefiningisnormallynotusedwithdie
casting. 47

Castingprocess
Theuseofdiecastinghasexpandedrapidlyinrecentyears.Thepredominantmetals
usedarealloysofaluminium,magnesium,copperandzinc. 48
Diecastingischaracterizedby:

technologicallyadvancedequipment
highproductivity
castingswithprecisedimensionsandevensurfaces
capabilitytoproducethinwalledcastings
verylittleneedforpostcastingmachining
useoffinishingagentscanbekepttoaminimum
costlymouldingdieswhoseamortizationrequireslongproductionruns,usu
allyatleast500010,000pieces.

45

Gjutlegeringar
Karlebo gjuteriteknisk handbok
47 Melallurgi fr aluminiumgjutlegeringar.
48 Karlebo gjuteriteknisk handbok
46

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Inthediecastingprocess,moltenmetalispressedintoasteeldie.Thecavitybetween Highpressuredie
thetwohalvesofthedieisfilledrapidlyduetothehighpressure.Thehighpressure casting
injectionspeedmakesitpossibletocastthemeltinthinsectionsandcomplexgeomet
ricshapes.Themetalsolidifieswhenheatistransferredfromthemelttothedie,after
whichthedieisopenandtheshotisremoved.Therearetwobasicmethodsofdie
casting cold chamber and hot chamber. For aluminium alloy castings, the cold
chambermethodisalmostalwaysused.
Coldchambermethod
With the cold chamber method, the melt is usually kept warm in a holding furnace
beside the diecasting machine. A filling device transfers the molten metal from the
furnace to the filling chamber of the diecasting machine. After that, the machines
shotplungerforcesthemeltintothedie.Thecastingprocessusuallyconsistsofthree
phases:
Phase1.Thefirstphasebeginswhenthefillingdevicehavetransferedthemelttothe
machinesfillingchamber.Theshotplungerthenbeginstoadvancewithaccelerating
speed,uptoamaximumspeedof0.5m/s.Thepurposeoftheplungersrelativelylow
speed is to avoid mixingair with themelt. The first phase endswhen the metal has
filledtheentiregatingsystemanditsleadingedgehasreachedthecavityinsideofthe
mould.
Phase2.Thisphaseisusuallycalledthemouldfillingphase,duringthisthecavityof
thedieisfilled.Theshotplungermovesrelativelyfast,between26m/s.Normally,
the entire phase takes between 30300 milliseconds. The time must be kept short in
ordertofillthemouldcompletelyandavoidcoldflows.Itisimportantthatthespeed
of the shot plunger increase from slow to fast exactly when the metal reaches the
mouthofthemouldcavity.Thetimingoftheincreaseisdeterminedeitherbymeas
uringthemotionoftheplunger,orviaapressuresensorinthemachineshydraulic
system.
Phase3.Thisphasebeginswhentheentiremouldcavityisfilledwithmoltenmetal.
At that point, the diecasting machines hydraulic system encounters powerful resis
tancebecausetheshotplungercannotpressmoremetalintothedie.Extrahydraulic
poweristhenactivatedtoforcetheplungerforwardabitfurther.Thiscompensates
for the metals shrinkage during solidification and compresses any air bubbles that
maybetrappedinthemelt.Thefinalpressureonthemeltisusuallybetween4001500
bars,theexactleveldependsontherequirementsforthecasting.Ahighfinalpressure
makesthecastingpressuretightandincreasesitsmechanicalperformancelevel;butit
alsoincreasesthewearonthedieandthediecastingmachine.

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

a. Moulding die is closed. The melt is

poured into the filling chamber (often
called cold chamber).
b. The shot plunger forces the melt into the
mould cavity at high speed and pressure.
The melt is also kept under pressure during
solidification.
c. When the melt has solidified, the moulding die is opened and the casting is forced
out of the moveable die half by ejector
pins.

Image1. Thethreephasesofdiecastingwithacoldchambermachine.
Vacuum
Diecastinginvolvesaheavyriskofdefectssuchasoxidesandairinclusions,dueto
thefactthatca.5090%ofthemeltcomesincontactwithambientair.Thatriskcanbe
reduced by using vacuum valves that lower the pressure in themould cavity. Com
paredwithconventionaldiecasting,thevolumeoftrappedairandothergasescanbe
reducedbymorethanafactoroftenwiththevacuummethod.Thismakesitpossible
toreducefillingtimeorthemachinesclampingforce. 49

Cleaning
Burrtrimming
Burr trimming is a relatively new cleaning method. Burrs and sprue remains are
removedwhencold,byshearinginapress.Themethodisnowusedevenforsmall
and mediumsized production runs, since the time it takes to change dies has been
reduced.
Grinding
Grinding is a fast method for evening out a surface. The equipment used to grind
aluminiumissimilartothatusedforothermetals,buttheproductionrateisusually
higher.Machiningaluminiumwithagrindingwheelisfairlyuncommon,becausethe
aluminiumsurfacegetsstickyandreducesthegrindingcapacity.50

49
50

Metallurgi fr aluminiumgjutlegeringar
Aluminium
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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Tumbling
Thiscanbedonewitheitherdryorwettumbling.Normally,thecastingsareplaced
together with finishing chips, a chemical additive and water in a rotating drum.
Tumblingcanbeusedforbothgrindinganddeburring.Itcanbeusedasafinaltreat
mentoraspreparationforsomeothertypeofsurfacetreatment.
Blasting
Blasting affects both the structure and cleanliness of a surface. It is a method com
monly used with both the production and subsequent maintenance/renovation of
products. All hard materials can be blasted, including iron, steel, aluminium, glass
andhardplastic.Blastingisusedtoremoveburrsfromnewaluminiumdiecastings,
cleanmouldsanddies,smoothsharpedgesaftermachining,altertheappearanceof
surfacestructure,etc. 51 Withblastcleaningofmoredelicatesurfaces,suchasthoseof
sheetandlightmetals,sandisusedinsteadofsteelgrit. 52
Othermethods
Waterjetcuttingisusedonlytoalimitedextenttocleancastings,duetohighinvest
ment and operating costs. Robots and CNC machines are often used with various
processes. 53

Heattreatment
Heat treatment is used to make desirable changes in the mechanical properties of
castings. It can, for example, increase or decrease breaking point,ductility andyield
strength.
Diecastingsarenotheattreatedveryoften,becausethecastingprocessoftenresults
intheinclusionofairbubblesinthematerial.Withsolutionheattreatment,suchair
inclusions may result in surface bubbles. But heat treatment is still possible if the
castingsporelevelislow.
T4
Solution heat treatment, only. Performed by rapid heating to solution temperature
whichisdeterminedbyalloycomposition;oftenaround500530C.Treatmenttimeis
a function of alloy composition and casting size. Solution heat treatment is used to
dissolveasmuchaspossibleofthealloyadditive(usuallyMg)intothematrixandto
distribute it evenly in the elementary matter. Immediately after solution heat treat
ment,thecastingisrapidlycooledinwaterwhosemaximumtemperatureis50C.The
casting must be fully immersed in the cooling water within 30 seconds. The rapid
cooling ensures that alloy additives are retained in solid solution. Some castings are
deformedbythecoolingprocess,andthereforeneedtobestraightenedout.Thismust
be done immediately, because the material starts to age at room temperature. T4
treatmentincreasesthemetalsductility.

51

KMC ytbehandling AB
Vigen@varmzink.se

52

53

Karlebo Gjuteriteknisk handbok

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

T5
Directthermalageing,whichisdonewithoutanypriorsolutionheattreatment.The
castingisusuallyheatedto150170Cfor810minutes,andisthenlefttocoolinthe
air. After some time in the furnace, the material acquires maximum hardness which
thereafterdecreases.Thermalageingcontributestotheseparationofhardeningparti
cles.
T6
Complete age hardening, which is achieved by a thermal treatment in three stages:
solution heat treatment, cooling and ageing. The solution heat treatment is usually
conductedat520530Cforthreehoursormore,dependingoncastingthicknessand
the type of alloy. The heat treatment is followed by rapid cooling, then by natural
ageingfor24hours.Afterthat,thecastingisthermallyagedat150170Cforca.515
hours,dependingoncastingthicknessandthetypeofalloy;duringthisperiod,age
hardeningparticlesareformed.Thermalageingisfollowedbycoolingatroomtem
perature.
T7
Solutionheattreatmentandaveraging,i.e.thermallyagedbeyondthepointofmaxi
mumhardness. 54
F
Ascast.
Stressreliefannealing
Stressreliefannealingisoftencarriedoutinconnectionwithmachining,whichoften
resultsindeformationduetothereleaseofinternaltensionsinthecasting.Annealing
usuallyoccursat315345Cfor24hours.
Diecastingalternatives
Under certain circumstances, it is also possible to increase strength and ductil
ity/elongation in die castings. Direct thermal ageing (T5) is a simple method for
increasingyieldstrengthandbreakingpointwithoutriskingtheformationofsurface
bubblesondiecastings.Ifsolutionheattreatment(T4,T6,T7)istobecarriedout,itis
importanttoconductteststodeterminethemaximumtimeandtemperaturethatare
possiblewithoutgivingrisetosurfacebubbles. 55

54

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Gjutlegeringar

55

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Surfacetreatment
Aluminiumisusedinmanycontextswithoutanysurfacetreatment.Giventhemate
rials strong corrosion resistance, there is seldom any need for surface treatment to
improvethatproperty.Butsurfacetreatmentcanbeusedtoimproveotherproperties,
including surface structure, colour, hardness, wear resistance, tolerance for high
temperatures,reflectivityandelectricalinsulatingcapacity. 56 Therearesomedifficul
tiesassociatedwithsurfacetreatmentofdiecastingaluminiumalloys,duetothefact
thattheyoftenhaverelativelyhighconcentrationsofsilicon;additivesofCuandMg
canalsobeproblematical.Differentalloyadditivesaffecttheresultsofsurfacetreat
ment in different ways; for example, the thickness and hardness of an anodized
coatingisaffectedbySilevel.
Mechanicalsurfacetreatment
Mechanical surface treatment removes or redistributes metal so that the surface be
comessmoothorevenshiny.Metalisremovedbygrinding,polishing,calenderingor
blasting. Brushing and polishing redistribute metal by levelling out high points.
Mechanicalsurfacetreatmentcanbeusedasthefinalstepinafinishingprocess,oras
preparationforchemicalorelectrochemicaltreatment. 57
Chemicalsurfacetreatment
Methods of chemical surface treatment include pickling, glazing, phosphatizing,
chromating and chemical plating. However, pickling processes can be difficult to
applyduetothehighSiconcentrationsofmostaluminiumalloys.Phosphatizingand
chromating are used to produce a surface with good adhesion and corrosion resis
tance.Chromatingmayalsobeperformedforaestheticreasons.
Electrochemicalsurfacetreatment
Anodizing,hardanodizing,glazeanodizingandhardchromeplatingareexamplesof
electrochemical surface treatments. Anodizing increases the thickness of the natural
oxidelayer.Thenewlayerincreasesthecorrosionresistanceofanaluminiumsurface.
However,anodizingisseldomusedondiecastproductsfordecorativereasons,asit
tendstodarkensurfaces.Electricalinsulationandgoodabrasionresistanceareprop
ertiesthatresultfromanodizing.Hardanodizingresultsinanextrathickoxidelayer
which increases hardness and corrosion resistance. It is possible to achieve a high
degreeofsurfacesmoothnesswithanodizing.Hardchromeplatingisusedtoproduce
ahard,abrasionresistantsurface;themethodisalsousedfordecorativepurposes.
Organiccoatings
Paintingandlacquering,applyingplastics,enamellingandapplyingmetalsareexam
plesofapplicationmethods.Sincealuminiumhasgoodcorrosionresistancetobegin
with, painting and lacquering are not generally used for corrosion protection, but
primarily for aesthetic reasons or to alter surface properties. Other surface coatings
canbeusedforsuchpurposesasreducingfriction. 58

56

Aluminium
Aluminium
58 Aluminium
57

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Cathodicprotectionsacrificialanode
Sacrificial anodes are often used for products to be used in marine environments.
They can also be used for products in other wet environments, such as swimming
pools and storage tanks, in order to increase the corrosion protection of aluminium.
Magnesiumandzincingotsareusedtoprotectaluminiuminthisway. 59

Finaltreatment
Cutting
Most aluminium alloys have good cut ability. The perunit finishing cost is low and
theproductionrateishigh.Theshearingforcesarelow.Shavingsfromdiecastalloys
are usually shorter than those of plastic alloys, but wear on cutting tools is usually
greater. 60 Thelengthoftheshavingsdependstoalargedegreeonalloycomposition;
shavingsfromanalloywith<12%Siarelongerandcurlierthanthosefromanalloy
with>12%Si.
Aluminiummaterialscannotbecutwithanoxyacetyleneflame,whichiscommonly
usedtocutsteel.Themostfrequentlyusedmethodforaluminiumisplasmacutting;
lasercuttingisanotheroption. 61 Waterjetcuttingisamethodthathasbeendeveloped
duringthepast20yearsanditsusewithaluminiummaterialsisincreasing. 62
Nondestructivetesting
Nondestructivetestingofcastingsisonemethodthatisused,andsomefoundriesare
equippedtoconductit.Thereisagrowingrealizationthatnondestructivetestingcan
helptoimprovebothqualityandproductivity.
Thechoiceofmethodfortestingcastingsdependsonanumberoffactors,including
typeofdefect,castingthicknessandqualityrequirements.
There are several different methods of nondestructive testing, but all have their
limitations.Accordingly,itisoftennecessarytoexperimentinordertodeterminethe
mostsuitablemethod. 63
Someexamplesofavailablemethods:

Xrayradiographyisusedtolocateinternaldefectssuchasporesandinclu
sions.Thisisthemostcommonnondestructivemethodfortesting
aluminiumcastings.
Ultrasoundcanbeusedtolocatefissures,inclusionsandpores.
Penetranttestingisusedtolocatesurfacefissures,foldsandpores. 64

59

Aluminium
Aluminium
61 Aluminium
62 Aluminium
63 Karlebo Gjuteriteknisk handbok
64 Aluminium
60

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys

Castingdefects
The formation of pores is one of the biggest problems of die casting. Shrinkage and
gas pores are the principal types of internal porosity in die castings. It is crucial to
determine which type of porosity is involved, because the measures required are
nearly exact opposites. It is usually possible to determine the type of porosity by
magnifyingthematerialby550times.
Gaspores
Gasporesnearlyalwaystaketheformoftrappedbubbles,whichusuallylooklikea
seriesofroundholesinthecasting.Theinnersurfacesoftheporesareoftensmooth,
witheitherashinyordullfinish.Iftheyaredarkgrey,itispossiblethatburntlubri
canthasvaporizedwithinthepores.Gasporesareformedprimarilybytrappedgas,
watervapourorburntlubricant.
Shrinkage/suctionpores
Shrinkage pores are the result of increases in density that occur when the metal
changesfrommoltentosolidform.Themetalshrinksbothduringsolidificationand
cooling.Foraluminium,thevolumereductionisroughly45%.Shrinkageporesoccur
in the hottest part of the casting, i.e. the last part to solidify. With die casting, the
greaterportionoftheshrinkageiscompensatedbythehighpostfillingpressurethat
is applied during solidification. It is important that the gating system is properly
formed,sothatthepartnearthemouthdoesnotsolidifybeforetherestofthecasting;
ifthathappens,thepostfillingpressuredoesnothavetheintendedeffect.
Porescanalsoaffecttheresultsofsurfacetreatmentiftheyarefilledwithfluidduring
pretreatment; when the fluid then vaporizes, pores are also formed in the surface
coating.
Oxidesandhardinclusions
Aluminium reacts very rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to form an oxide film. In
meltsofpurealuminium,theoxideformsacompactlayerthatprotectsagainstfurther
oxidation.InalloyswithhighMgcontent,theoxidethatformsisamixturethatdoes
notprovidethesamelevelofprotectionagainstfurtheroxidation.Aluminiumoxides
are transformed by high temperature and increased pressure to corundum which
collectsatthebottomofthefurnace.Corundumisveryhardandcausesproblemsifit
endsupinthecasting.Inthediecastingprocess,thesurfaceofthebathiscontinually
brokenbythedosingladle.Whenthemoltenmetalisladledout,filmsofaluminium
oxide follow along. These films often cause problems of pore formation, reduced
strengthandpermeablecastings.
Oxide films are formed in connection with various kinds of turbulence, for example
whenameltistappedfromasmeltingfurnace.Oxidescanalsobeaddedtoameltvia
ingotsandotherchargingmaterialsthatarenotcleananddry.
Ironrichparticlescanforminameltandgiverisetoporesandshrinkageeffects.The
particlescanbeshapedlikediscsandcontributetoadrasticreductionofthemetals
ductility.Inordertoreducetheironsharmfuleffects,alloysshouldcontainaslittleof
itaspossible;also,anyFecontentshouldbeoffsetbytheadditionofMn.

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CAEDSPressureDieCastingAlloys
Everything in an aluminium melt that is not metallic is harmful because the metal
cannot bond to it. Every nonmetallic inclusion reduces the depth of the materials
crosssectionandtherebyweakensthestrengthofthemetal.Becausesuchinclusions
arehard,theycanalsohavenegativeeffectsoncutability,withwearorbreakdownof
cuttingtoolsasaresult.
Surfacedefects
Mostsurfacedefectsarevisibleandresultinrejectionofthecasting.Coldflowscom
prisethemostcommontypeofsurfacedefect.Theyarecausedwhenthemetalbegins
tosolidifyastwometalfrontsapproacheachother.Inordertoavoidsuchdefects,itis
importantforthegatingsystembeproperlyformed,andforthemetalandthemould
ingtoolstobekeptatthecorrecttemperature.
Laminations
Laminationsareformedwhentwolayersofmoltenmetaldonotcombinetoforma
homogeneous solid. This happens when a layer of partly solidified metal with an
oxidized surface flows over the upper surface of a similar layer. The layers remain
separatefromeachother,althoughtheymaybejoinedatsomeplaceswherenooxide
film was formed when the two flows came together. The layers may adhere to each
other to some extent, but a slight external pressure can cause them to separate. For
example,tumblingpriortosurfacetreatmentcanproduceopeningsinthelaminateso
thatfluidcanworkitswayinandcausebubblestoformbetweentheopposingsur
faces.Anotherproblemisthatthelayersmaypartiallyseparateandcausemeasuring
errors.
Flushing
Flushinginthemouldingtoolcanbetheresultofseveralfactors.Amongthemarethe
highspeedthatisrequiredatthemouth,theconditionofthemouldingtool,andthe
temperaturewherethemeltcontactsthetool.Theextentofinclusionsisalsoimpor
tant,andthechemicalreactionofthealuminiumwiththemouldingtoolmaybe,as
well.Theerosionlikeeffectsthatcanbeseenonthemouldingtoolduringthecasting
processareoftencombinationsoferosionandcorrosion,bothofwhichoccurathigh
temperatures.
Burrs
Burrsareformedwhenmoltenmetalflowsintoapartofthemouldingtoolwhereno
meltisexpected,e.g.atthepartingline,underajaw/jawbackoralongsideanejector
pin. Common causes of burr formation are high melt temperature, poor fit between
the various parts of the moulding tool, and uneven machine clamping force. Burr
formation can also be caused by wrongly calculated clamping force or by tool and
machinewear. 65

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Energy
Aluminiumisextractedfrombauxitebymeansofelectrolysis.Theprocessrequiresa
greatdealofenergyaround15,000kWhpertonne.Resmeltingaluminiumrequires
muchlessenergy.
Large transportrelated energy savings are possible by using aluminium instead of
heaviermetalsin,forexample,carsandrecyclablecontainers.Byloweringtheweight
ofacarby25kilograms,itispossibletoreduceCO2 emissionsby3.0gramsperkilo
metre.Replacingcopperwithaluminiuminelectricwiringalsosavesenergy. 66

Healthandenvironment
Aluminiumisoneofthemostcommonbasicelementsinnature. 67 Itisnonpoisonous
andcanthereforebeusedtopackagefoodproducts.Itwaspreviouslybelievedthat
aluminium causes Alzheimers disease, but no causal connection has been demon
strated. 68 Nearly all aluminium taken up by a humans being is eliminated from the
bodyviaurinewithin24hours. 69
Humanscanabsorbaluminiumbyinhaling,whichcanleadtotherespiratoryillness,
aluminosis. 70 With longterm heavy exposure, aluminium may accumulate in the
skeleton. Elimination from the skeleton is a slow process, with a halflife of several
years.
The main environmental issue associated with aluminium production is the genera
tionofdigestedsludge.Someenvironmentalproblemshaveariseninconnectionwith
the disposal of aluminium materials in rubbish tips; but knowledge of proper han
dlinghasimproved,andrubbishdisposalisnowregulatedandmonitoredbypublic
authorities. 71
AluminiumconcentrationsingroundwaterarerelatedtopHleveland,atlevelsless
than5.5,seldomexceed100ml/l.Thesolubilityofaluminiumincreaseswithdecreas
ingpHlevel.
Bauxite is mined in open pits. Worldwide, the total land area opened annually for
bauxiteminingis25km2,ofwhichca.8km2israinforest.Inordertoreducetheenvi
ronmental impact, bauxite mining is often carried out in separate sections, some of
whichareleftundisturbedinordertoenabletherapidreestablishmentofecosystems
on mined areas. The goal is that, within 1015 years after mining operations have
ceased,theoriginalplantandanimallifeshallhavebeenrestored. 72

66

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Gjutlegeringar
68 Metallurgi fr aluminiumlegeringar
69 Gjutlegeringar
70 Aluminium
71 Aluminium
72 Aluminium
67

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References
Gjuteritekniskhandbok,Karlebo,2004

Utbildningsmaterial:Metallurgifraluminiumgjutlegeringar(Sv.Gjuterifreningen
2001)

Gjutlegeringar,SMSHandbok3,2001

Aluminium,SIShandbok,12:2001

EN 1706 Aluminium och aluminiumlegeringar Gjutgods Kemisk

sammansttningochmekaniskaegenskaper
http://www.adcsweden.se,2007
Thundal,Aluminium,1991
http://www.tremol.com,2007
Utbildningsmaterial:Introduktionskursipressgjutning(Swecastnovember2006)

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