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Giza Plateau
Dahshur

El-Lisht
Meidum

Abusir Abu Ghurob

Egypt A Perspective
Hawara

Saqqara Il-Lahun

Egypt Feature Story

Overview of Pyramid Construction
by Alan Winston
>> Pyramid Index / Construction
We've covered the different pyramids of
Egypt in our Monuments section under
the Antiquities page; however, this area is
dedicated to the construction and
architecture of the pyramids, how they
were built, and the evolution in design
from the step pyramid to the true
pyramid. Beginning with the step
pyramids of the 3rd Dynasty, and
continuing for centuries, the pyramid is a
marvel of construction, and is considered
one of the "Seven wonders of the world."
The pyramids are the only of these seven
that remain standing and intact.

The Step Pyramid

The earliest form of pyramid, the step,
dates back to the 3rd Dynasty, and
consists of several steps. A descending
passage from the north leads to the
burial chamber. Underground galleries
surround the pyramid on all but the
south sides. The first, and probably the
only step pyramid ever completed, is
that of King Netjerykhet Djoser at
Saqqara. The Step pyramid is not near
as pleasing to the eye as the True pyramid, which could explain the quick abandonment of this
type of pyramid.
The True Pyramid
The true pyramid is a natural development and improvement on the step pyramid. The first true
pyramids were introduced in at the
beginning of the 4th Dynasty. The structure
of a True Pyramid is virtually the same as a
step pyramid. Packing blocks are stacked
until the dimensions were right, and then
finishing blocks (usually limestone) were
the last touch. The aesthetics are much
more pleasing than the step pyramid, but
the construction isn't really that different.
Construction Techniques
A major problem facing the builders of the
Ancient Egyptian Pyramids, was that of
getting the Large stone blocks to the height
they required. the method shown at left, is
the only one proven to have been used. The
ramps were built on inclined planes of mud
brick and rubble. They then dragged the blocks on sledges to the needed height. As the pyramid
grew taller, the ramp had to be extended in length, and its base was widened, else it would
collapse. It is likely that for the construction of each pyramid, several ramps were probably used.
The arrangement of the ramps used for building is
in much dispute. Assuming that the step pyramid
was built before the outer structure, and then the
packing blocks were laid on top, the ramps could
have run from one step to another rather than
approaching the pyramid face at right angles.
Some of the pyramids indicate an accurate
understanding of Pi, but the mathematical
knowledge of the Egyptians did not include the
ability to arrive at this by calculation. It is
possible that this could have been arrived at
"accidentally" through a means such as counting
the revolutions of a drum.
The internal construction of most true pyramids consists of a series of buttress walls surrounding
a central core. The walls decrease in height from the center outwards. In other words, the core of
the true pyramid is essentially a step pyramid. The internal arrangement added stability to the
structure. Packing blocks filled the "steps" formed by the faces of the outermost buttress walls
and casting blocks (often Limestone) completed the structure of the true pyramid.
Architects and builders used a different form of
construction in the pyramids of the 12th and 13th
Dynasties. Mainly because of economy, for it was
suitable for relatively modest structures in inferior
materials. Solid walls of stone ran from the center, and
shorter cross walls formed a series of chambers filled with
stone blocks, ruble or mud bricks. An outer casing was
usually added, and although quite effective in the short
term, it did not even come close to the earlier construction
methods. Pyramids which were built with this structural design are quite dilapidated and worn.
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also called the Pyramid of Khufu and the Pyramid of Cheops) is
the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now El
Giza, Egypt, and in a historical irony is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
and the only one that survives substantially intact. It is believed the pyramid was built as a tomb
for fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops in Greek) and constructed over a 20 year
period concluding around 2551 BC. The Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the
world for over 3,800 years. Originally the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that
formed a smooth outer surface, and what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of
the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have
been varying scientific and alternative theories regarding the Great Pyramid's construction
techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by
moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the
bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called [1] Queen's
Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The Great Pyramid
of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in
honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for
Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two
temples, and small Mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.

Materials
The Great Pyramid consists of more than 2.3 million limestone blocks (unless it was built on a
substantial core of natural rock, which is possible). The Egyptians obtained the majority of the
limestone blocks from a nearby quarry. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried
across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh
25 to 80 tonnes and were transported more than 500 miles away from Aswan. Traditionally,
ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering wedges into the stone which were then soaked
with water. The wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were
carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[19]
Casing stones

casing stone
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white 'casing stones' – slant-faced, but flat-
topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is
approximately a face slope with a seked of 5 1/2 palms to give the required overall dimensions.
Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1300, a
massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by
Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 in order to build mosques and fortresses in
nearby Cairo. The stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later explorers
reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing
collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing
excavations of the site. Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be
seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship
and precision as has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the
core and in the casing measuring 193 centimeters ± 25 centimeters. He suggested a
redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made,
and the casing was built with a different orientation.[20] Petrie related the precision of the casing
stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres." and "to
place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints
seems almost impossible."[21]
Pyramid complex
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by the usual complex of buildings. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east
side of the pyramid and measured 171' north to south and 132' east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart
from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the
valley and the presumed Valley Temple which, if it exists, is buried beneath the village of Kafr es-Samman.
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to
nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the
first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Herodotus claims that Khufu was a tyrant who prostituted his
daughter in order to raise the money for building the Great Pyramid. She, however, requested a stone from each of
her customers and used them to build her smaller pyramid. There is no evidence to support this tale (though it may
reflect an arranged marriage advantageous for Khufu) and it is not certain that the Queens' Pyramids housed
members of the court. Some have suggested that they corresponded to the later canopic jars for burial of the royal
viscera - heart, lungs, liver and entrails.
Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, sister-wife of Sneferu and
mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully
sealed coffin proved to be empty. Reisner suggests that Hetepheres was originally buried near her husband's
pyramid but the tomb was robbed and the mummy destroyed. Khufu transferred the burial to his own pyramid
complex, but the priests responsible for the burial did not dare tell him that his mother's body was missing.
There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so
shallow that any superstructure must have been removed or disassembled. It is not clear how these pits were sealed,
as the span is rather too large for stone slabs, which may be why they were found empty apart from ropes and a few
fragments of gilded wood found in one pit by Reisner. However in May, 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-
Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, in shape a long, narrow rectangle, still covered by slabs of stone weighing up to 15
tons. Inside were 1224 pieces of wood, the longest 75' in length, the shortest 4". These were entrusted to a native
boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who slowly and methodically worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire
process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a spectacular cedar-wood boat 143' long, its timbers held together by ropes. It is not clear how the boat
was made water-tight. Early theories that soaking in water caused the wood to swell and thus become water-tight did
not prove effective with the modern reconstruction "Horizon of Min" based on boats found in the Wadi Gawasis
excavation and the reconstructers had recourse to traditional fibre caulking reinforced by beeswax. There is no sign
of such measures on the Khufu boat, which may simply mean that the boat was never actually floated. The name
"Djedefre", Khufu's son and successor, is found on some of the slabs of stone that sealed the pit, indicating that the
boat was put there by Khufu's son.
The reconstructed boat is housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During
construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was
deliberately left unopened in the hope that future excavation techniques will allow more information to be
recovered, however a hole was drilled in the sealing stones and air extracted from the pit in the hope of obtaining
information about the ancient atmosphere. However as the air was found to be identical to modern air it was
concluded that the pit is not hermetically sealed.
The Gizeh pyramid complex, which includes the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a
cyclopaean stone wall.