TEXT BOOK

TC 503 Digital
Communication
Theory
Course Teacher:
Dr. Muhammad Imran Aslam

Communication System
Main purpose of a communication system is to transfer
information from a source to a recipient via a channel or medium.
Basic block diagram of a communication system:

Source

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver
Recipient

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Brief Description
Source: analog or digital
Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator, power amp.,
antenna
Channel: e.g. cable, optical fibre, free space
Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power amplifier,
transducer
Recipient: e.g. person, (loud) speaker, computer

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

 Types of information
Voice, data, video, music, email etc.
Types of communication systems
Public Switched Telephone Network (voice,fax,modem)
Satellite systems
Radio,TV broadcasting
Cellular phones
Computer networks (LANs, WANs, WLANs)

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Information Representation
Communication system converts information into electrical
electromagnetic/optical signals appropriate for the transmission medium.
Analog systems convert analog message into signals that can propagate
through the channel.
Digital systems convert bits(digits, symbols) into signals

Computers naturally generate information as characters/bits

Most information can be converted into bits
Analog signals converted to bits by sampling and quantizing (A/D
conversion)

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Phenomena affecting signals

Phenomena affecting signals during propagation
/ transmission
Distortion: Due to non-ideal response of
transmission line/ circuits

Noise: Unwanted electrical signals in the system

Interference: Unwanted signals from other sources

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Digital Vs Analog Communication

System
Signal comes from a
finite set of waveform
shapes

Objective is to
determine which
waveform from the
finite set was sent.

Signal comes from set

of infinite waveform
shapes (with
theoretically infinite
resolution)
Exact reproduction of
signal at destination is
required.

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Why digital?

Digital techniques need to distinguish between discrete symbols

allowing regeneration versus amplification
Use of regenerative receivers is easy
Easy to regenerate distorted signals
Regenerative repeaters prevent accumulation of noise

Good processing techniques are available for digital signals, such

as medium.

Data compression (or source coding)

Error Detection / Error Correction (or channel coding)
Equalization
Security

Immunity to distortion and interference

Digital circuits are less subject to distortion and interference
than an analog circuit
Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Dr. M. Imran Aslam

Why digital?

Advantages of digital circuitry

Reliable
Low-cost
Flexible
Shorter design and production cycle

Different types of digital signals (voice, video, telegraph, etc.) can

be treated as identical signals
A bit is a bit

Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques

TDM/CDM is easier than FDM

Digital signals Low error rate High fidelity

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Disadvantages of Digital
Communication System
Intensive signal processing (compared to analog)
Requires reliable synchronization
Significant resources are allocated to the task of
synchronization at various levels

Requires A/D conversions at high rate

Requires larger bandwidth
Nongraceful degradation
If SNR drops certain threshold, the quality of service
(QOS) can change from very good to very poor.
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Performance Metrics
Analog Communication Systems
Metric is fidelity: want
m (t ) m(t )
SNR typically used as performance metric
Digital Communication Systems

Metrics are data rate (R bps) and probability of bit error

=
Pb p ( b b)

Symbols already known at the receiver

Without noise/distortion/sync. problem, we will never make
bit errors

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Important Points
Transmitters modulate analog messages or bits in case of a DCS for
transmission over a channel.
Receiver recreate signals or bits from received signal (mitigate channel
effects)
Performance metric for analog systems is fidelity, for digital it is the bit
rate and error probability.

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Goals in Digital Communication System Design

To maximize transmission rate, R

To maximize system utilization, U
To minimize bit error rate, Pe
To minimize required systems bandwidth, W
To minimize system complexity, Cx
To minimize required power, Eb/No

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Basic Block Diagram of Digital

Communication System

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Description
The source output may be digital or analog. In case of analog
signal source encoder generates an equivalent digital signal using
sampling and quantization and removes any redundancy in the
signal. The output of source encoder is stream of bits. The
channel encoder take k information bits, adds (n - k) noninformation bits in the signal to generate code word of length n.
Additional non-information bits are used to exercise control over
errors. The amount of redundancy introduced is measured by
the ratio n/k. Code rate is defined as reciprocal of the
redundancy i.e. k/n.

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Description
The digital modulator takes the binary sequence from channel
encoder and produces a corresponding signal waveform
appropriate for transmission over channel. The channel is the
physical medium between transmitter and the receiver. While
transmitting through channel signal gets affected by different
random phenomena such as noise, fading, attenuation etc. The
receiver antenna collects the signal form the channel and the
receiver reverses all the process performed at the transmitter
end to get output signal.

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Description of Each Block

1.

Format:

2.
3.

Source Encoder: Remove redundant bits from message

Encrypt:

4.

5.

Transforms source information into bits

Ensure compatibility between source information and DCS

To maintain privacy i.e. Preventing unauthorized extraction of information

(eavsdropping)
To establish authentication i.e. preventing unauthorized injection of spurious
signals (Spoofing)

Channel Encoder: Takes k information bits, adds (nk) non-information

bits in the signal to generate code word (or channel symbol) of length n.
Additional bits are used for error detection / error correction.
[Redundancy = n/k, code rate= k/n]
Multiplexing: Provides resource sharing by combining different
signals/symbols.
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Description of Each Block

6.

Pulse Modulation:

7.

Bandpass Modulation:

8.

9.

Define Pulse waveform (pulse shaping)

Generate baseband (low-frequency) waveform
Filtering to minimize transmission bandwidth
When pulse modulation is applied to binary symbols the resulting waveform
is called pulse-code-modulation (PCM) waveform. In telephone applications
these waveforms are called line-cods.
Baseband signal is frequency translated by a carrier wave
Required to meet transmission characteristics of channel

Synchronization (and clock signal): is involved in the control of all signal

processing within DCS. It plays a role in regulating operation of every
block.
Frequency Spread:

Spread spectrum techniques are important for interference and privacy.

Share bandwidth resources.
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Description of Each Block

10. Multiple Access: Provide resource sharing for remote users
11. Transmitter Front End (Channel Coupler): Injects signal into the channel
12. Channel: Actual propagation medium

If channel impulse response is (), Transmitted signal is and noise is

() then the received signal is = + ().

13. Equalizer: is implemented to compensate for signal distortion

14. Receiver: All the steps (except detect) preformed at transmitter are
reversed at the receiver side.
15. Detect: Use decision theory to decide which symbol was transmitted.

Example: For binary symbols, compare received power/amplitude to decide

whether zero or one was tranmistted.

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Basic DCS Transformations

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Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature

Information Source: Device producing information
Discrete output values e.g. Keyboard
Analog signal source e.g. output of a microphone

Character
Member of an alphanumeric/symbol (A to Z, 0 to 9)
Characters can be mapped into a sequence of binary digits using one of the
standardized codes such as
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

Textual Message: Sequence of characters

Binary Digit (Bit): Unit information content. (Fundamental information
unit for all digital systems)
Bit Stream: Sequence of bits.

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Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature

Digital Message: Messages constructed from a finite number of symbols
Printed language consists of 26 letters, 10 numbers, space and several
punctuation marks. Hence a text is a digital message constructed from about
50 symbols
Morse-coded telegraph message is a digital message constructed from two
symbols Mark and Space

M ary: A digital message constructed with M symbols

Digital Waveform: Current or voltage waveform that represents a digital
symbol
A pulse for baseband transmission
A sinusoid for bandpass transmission

Bit Rate: Actual rate at which information is transmitted per second

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Basic Digital Communication Nomenclature

Baud: When transmitting a sequence of pulses, the unit Baud is
sometimes used to express pulse rate (or symbol rate)
Baud Rate: Refers to the rate at which the signaling elements are
transmitted, i.e. number of signaling elements per second.
Data Rate: This quantity in bits per second (bits/s) is given by =
2

bits/s, where bits identify a symbol from = 2 -symbol alphabet,

and is the -bit symbol duration.
Bit Error Rate: The probability that one of the bits is in error or simply the
probability of error

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Classification Of Signals
Signals can be classified in various ways.
1. Deterministic and Random Signals
2. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
3. Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
4. Analog and Digital Signals
5. Real and Complex Signals
6. Energy and Power Signals
7. Even and Odd Signals
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1. Deterministic and Random Signals

Deterministic Signal: A signal is deterministic if there is no
uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
Deterministic waveforms are modeled by explicit mathematical
expressions, example: = 2cos(10 + 30)

Random Signal: A signal is random if there is some degree of

uncertainty before the signal actually occurs.
Random waveforms/ Random processes when examined over a long
period may exhibit certain regularities that can be described in terms
of probabilities and statistical averages.
Example if random signals: Noise

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2. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

A signal is called periodic in time if there exists a constant
0 > 0 such that
= + 0

The smallest value of 0 satisfying this condition is called

period of .
A signal for which there is no value of 0 that satisfies the
abovementioned condition is called a nonperiodic signal.

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2. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

Examples of Periodic Signals

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3. Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

Continuous Time Signal: A signal x(t) is a continuous-time
signal if t is a continuous variable; that is, x(t) is uniquely
defined for all t
Example: An electrical analog at output of a microphone

Discrete Signal: A discrete signal x(kT) is one that exists only

at discrete times; it is characterized by a sequence of numbers
defined for each time, kT, where k is an integer and T is a fixed
time interval.
Example: A sampled signal

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4. Analog and Digital Signals

Analog Signal: If a continuous-time signal x(t) can take on any
value in the continuous interval (a, b), then the continuoustime signal x(t) is called an analog signal
Digital Signal: If a discrete-time signal x[n] can take on only a
finite number of distinct values, then we call this signal a
digital signal.

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5. Real and Complex Signals

Real Signal: A signal x(t) is a real signal if its value is a real
number.
Complex Signal: a signal x(t) is a complex signal if its value is a
complex number
A general complex signal is a function of the form
= 1 + 2
where 1 and 2 are real signals and = 1.
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6. Energy and Power Signals

Recall

An electrical signal is described either by its voltage or by current

2 ()

Power across a resistor () is =

= 2

For communication systems power is normalized by taking = 1.

Therefore, = 2 () = 2
Regardless signal [()] is voltage or current, instantaneous power is
= 2 ().
Actual power can be obtained by de-normalization.

2 2

Energy dissipated in time interval ( , ) by a real signal is

=

/2

/2

/2

/2

Power is the rate at which energy is delivered

Power dissipated during this interval is

/2

=
= 2

/2
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6. Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal

The performance of a communication system depends on the

received signal energy; higher energy signals are detected
more reliably (with fewer errors) than are lower energy signals
() is classified as an energy signal if, and only if, it has
nonzero but finite energy (0 < < ) for all time, where:
= lim

/2

/2

2 () = 2 ()

An energy signal has finite energy but zero average power.

Signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic are
classified as energy signals
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6. Energy and Power Signals

Power Signal

A signal is defined as a power signal if, and only if, it has finite but
nonzero power (0 < < ) for all time, where

1 /2 2
= lim
/2

Power signal has finite average power but infinite energy.

As a general rule, periodic signals or random signals are classified as
power signals

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7. Even and Odd Signals

Even Signal: A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an even signal

if
= ; = []
Odd Signal: A signal x(t) or x[n] is referred to as an odd signal
if
= ; = []
Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a sum of two
signals, one of which is even and one of which is odd. i.e.
= + (); = + []
the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an
even signal and that the product of an even signal and an odd
signal is an odd signal
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7. Even and Odd Signals

Examples

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Problem

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Solution

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The Unit Impulse Function

Dirac delta function (t) or impulse function is an abstractionan
infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity
weight (area under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its
argument is zero.

(t) dt = 1

(t) = 0 for t 0
(t) is bounded at t = 0
Sifting or Sampling Property

x(t ) (t-t

)dt = x(t 0 )

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The Unit Impulse Function

Some Properties of impulse function

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The Unit Impulse Function

Problems

Evaluate following integrals

1.

10()(1
2

+ )1

2. 1 10()(1 + )1

3. ( + 4)( 2 + 6 + 1)
2

4. 1 ( + 4)( 2 + 6 + 1)
Answers
1. 10

2. 10

3. 7

4. 0

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