Questioning Rhetorical Strategies & Devices

The Art of Rhetoric

1. Aristotelian Triangle
a. Subject
b. Audience
c. Speaker
2. Authors Argument
3. Warrants: the inferential leap that connects the claim with the data
a. Logosevidence & reasoning
b. Pathosemotional and/or motivational appeal; how the author advances their argument? Rhetorical devices, i.e.
literary devices at times
c. Ethoscredibility of source
Logos
Appeals to the head using logic, numbers, explanations, and facts. Through Logos, a writer aims at a
person's intellect. The idea is that if you are logical, you will understand.
Ethos
Appeals to the conscience, ethics, morals, standards, values, principles.
Pathos
Appeals to the heart, emotions, sympathy, passions, sentimentality.
4. Social Vs. Political leanings
a. Social
b. Political
5. Interaction between text and images
Rhetorical Modes of Writing
1. Process how it happens; when repeated = same outcome
2. Definition defines an idea/thing AND differentiates it from other ideas/things in the same class
3. Cause/Effect why it happens AND shows causal chain
4. Problem/Solution identifies AND provides possible outcomes
5. Comparison/Contrast explains how 2+ items are alike AND how those differ
6. Classification/Division Identifies the group; breaks the group into parts
7. Narrative explains what happened; 1st person/3rd personspecific details to the event
8. Descriptive using sensory details to explain
9. Argumentation sharing points of view; NOT persuasion
Arguments
Making claims
1. Claim of value: judges some quality
2. Claim of cause: links effect with the reasons for it
3. Claim of definition: explains what something means
4. Claim of policy: suggests a particular course of action
5. Claim of fact: something is or is not true

Arguments based on facts and reason: Logos

o Relies on logic, reasoning, and other rational evidence
Arguments from the heart: Pathos
o Appeals to the emotions of the audience
Arguments based on character: Ethos
o Relies on the reputation or character of the speaker/write

Context
Location
Audience
Format

Cultural layer
Historical layer

Goals

Ultimate goal: the final desired results

Immediate goal: stops along the way to attaining the ultimate goal
Explicit: stated, right there
Implicit: implied, suggested

Rhetorical Strategies in Developing Writing

Rhetorical Devices

Ambiguity capable of being understood in 2+ possible senses

Pun humorous use of one word in such a way as to suggest 2+ meanings or meaning of another word similar in sound

Malaprop misusing words ridiculously (deliberate attempt to cause confusion) 2+ possible meanings

Antithesis opposition or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced/parallel construction

Euphemism substitution of an agreeable or less offensive term/expression in place of one that may offend

Chiasmus words structured effectively in which the second part is syntactically balanced against the first [Lord is my
shepherd; I shall not want] My wife must arrange to lose time at work and not lose the job.

Asyndeton balanced word choice AND omission of conjunction (FANBOYS) or punctuation [I came; I saw; I conquered.]

Anaphora deliberate repetition of a word or phrase

Simile comparison between seemingly unlike items; uses: like, as

Metaphor comparison between seemingly unlike items; states: is; was; are; were

Personification human-like characteristics/qualities given to inanimate objects

Alliteration repetition of initial sound in neighboring words

Assonance repetition of vowel sound in neighboring words

Consonance repetition of consonant sound in neighboring words

Juxtaposition theme/idea/person/object or whatever paralleled with another esp. compare/contrast; side-by-side; didactic

Oxymoron a contradiction in terms esp. jumbo shrimp

Allusion brief reference to a person, event, or place (real or fiction), or art, literature, history esp. biblical; historical event;
literary characters, mythology

Illusion ghost; imaginary beings

Irony the difference between what is expected and what actually occurs esp. verbal; dramatic; situational

Exaggeration embellishment of the truth

Hyperbole exaggeration; something not likely to occur

Overstatement exaggeration; the actual truth

Persuasive Strategies

Anecdotes, Stories, Metaphors-These cast an issue in a favorable or unfavorable light, or can highlight or suppress certain
aspects. They work by suggesting a likeness between a character and the listener, or a situation and the listener's. What is
emphasized or suppressed is key.

Double-bind- One way of getting a child to eat her vegetables is to offer a "choice" "Would you like peas or spinach?"
Regardless of the alternative chosen, your desired objective is met. "Which kind of environmental bureaucracy do you want
-- one that stifles business and innovation, or one that burdens American industry with impossible extra costs?"

Contingency- This works by getting you to accept both parts of a statement because of how they are linked; one part might be
reasonable enough by itself, but. . .
o

"Unless you want the earth to turn to a barren crust, you must oppose corporate capitalist pigs, tooth and nail."

Rapport- How does the author go about building a sense of friendliness and receptivity on the part of the audience? Some
methods are friendly introductions ("my friends"), complimenting, showing respect, speaking the speakers 'language,' and
conveying optimism. These are important communicative techniques! Rapport is important. We just have to be aware of its
use in persuasive contexts.

Authority- A speaker may claim in many ways to be an authority; sometimes external checking of this is called for.

Humor- Humor has a great way of defusing our critical faculties. Not that it's bad in itself; it should just raise a red flag lest
we go too far down the garden path on which someone wants to lead us.

Emotional Words- Advertisers are especially keen about the emotional qualities of certain words, and the sway they can give
a speaker, just by their associations. Consider the possible power of: winner, loser, infantile, powerful, lovely, courage,
freedom, radical. How are these kinds of words employed to generate a certain response in the listener? What purposes are
served?

Pacing- How do you move a listener along to your conclusion? Certain phrases help a speaker move us from one idea to
another, regardless of whether strong connection or evidence has been established. Don't let phrases like these lull your
assessment of the argument: "Naturally...";
o

"Certainly then..."; "Surely..."; "Without question..."

Questions- Jacobs points out 3 ways posing questions helps a persuader do her work.
A question can substitute for a request (recall the peas and spinach).
While a listener is searching for an answer, the speaker can give his own answer to the question.
o The listener is more likely to accept it than if it were given as an assertion. 3. A question can have a suggestion
embedded in it. Sales people skillfully use questions to lead the listener and control the discussion.

Absolutions- We've all heard "never say never"; any totalizing statement is likely to result in a fallacy. But words like "don't"
and "must" creep in and can give a writer's statements and indisputable air.

Deductive Argument

Syllogism-elementary argument; deductive argument with three related statements

o
o
o

Major argument
Minor argument
Conclusion

Fallacies illogical statement

The generic fallacy

Enthymeme-a shortened syllogism, where one of the two premises (the major or the minor) is implied, not explicitly stated

Equivocation -This fallacy occurs when someone argues against a claim or position by attacking its holders in logically
irrelevant ways. Even damaging and true accusations against the holder of a belief do not refute the belief! Often this fallacy
turns on switching the meanings of words used in the course of an argument.

Consider the argument with two premises:

Only man is rational.
No woman is a man.
Conclusion:
No woman is rational.

"Man" is used in 1. in the sense of the human species in comparison to others; in 2. It refers to one of the two human
sexes; the argument equivocates or switches between them, causing an obviously false conclusion, even though it
appears to logically follow. Carefully attend to the meanings of words in what you read!!! Once found, just
substitute the ambiguous words with an unambiguous phrase and argument will be obviously invalid:

Argumentum ad hominem -This fallacy occurs when someone argues against a claim or position by attacking its holders in
logically irrelevant ways. Even damaging and true accusations against the holder of a belief do not refute the belief! Often in
environmental debate people think they can discredit a view by asserting that it is held by "wackos" or "corporate pigs" or
"elitists." The point is not that name-calling is not nice; rather, who holds a belief is irrelevant to its truth. The error is not in
criticizing someone on personal grounds, but in going from there to infer that some statement that this person believes is
therefore false.

Bandwagon Appeal - suggests that an idea, topic, or course of action is good because many other people have already
accepted itthey have jumped on the bandwagon

Begging the question - If an argument depends for one of its reasons or assumptions on a statement that is identical or
equivalent to the conclusion drawn, it is "circular" or "question begging."
o

Example:

The Forest Service is corrupt, for the clear reason that it is sold out.

Such arguments really go nowhere!! Note that a suppressed or presupposed assumption might also be the
conclusion, making this fallacy less obvious!

Non sequitur - it does not follow a fallacy resulting from a simple conversion of a universal affirmative proposition or from
the transposition of a condition and its consequent

Post hoc/ ergo propter hoc - This Latin phrase means "after this, therefore because of this," and it denote the logical fallacy in
arguing that one thing caused another just because it happened before it. It is a special case of the general problem of
inferring causation from correlation. One example is the observation of increased stork sightings and increased births in a
town in Germany over a period of 20 some years. Was there a causal relation? No, both observations were the result of a third
factor, probably increased population levels.

The black-or-white fallacy - (or the either-or fallacy, or the fallacy of thinking in extremes)
o

Some terms are vague in the sense that they may apply to a range of things that is not sharply defined. An area of
permanent standing water is clearly a wetland; a dry mountain top clearly is not. But what about a field that is
seasonally flooded? Where do you draw the line? No sharp one exists. For practical purposes we have to draw one,
but any such line may be arbitrary in the sense that no conclusive reason can be given for drawing it exactly where
we did.

Jumping to a conclusion - What's wrong with concluding something about all Western students on the basis of interviewing
only 10? (It has to do with sampling.)
o

Other variations have to do with generalizing to a wider set of claims that the evidence offered supports.

Example:

Pesticide residues may be a cause of cancer, but they are probably not the cause.

Straw opponent - This common strategy occurs when instead of attacking one's opponent's actual beliefs, the speaker attacks
a less defensible position that superficially resembles the position held by the opponent.

Tu quoque fallacy - you, too a retort charging an adversary with being or doing what he criticizes in others

Loaded questions - This fallacy occurs in a question that assumes the truth of one or more fallacies, but doesn't offer evidence
to support them. The listener is asked or led into a situation where response implies agreement with these assumptions. "Is
your company still evading enforcement actions by the EPA?"

Misrepresentation of references - Detecting this fallacy requires knowing the true context or statement on which an argument
depends for support. If an author advocating ecosystem management acknowledged a need to reduce the population of some
animal in order to attain a more balanced species composition, it would be wrong to pull out one statement she may have
made and suggest she is in favor of unconstrained hunting. This fallacy also applies to the uses of statistics; always examine
the full context; ask what has been omitted, what else might have happened that explains or refutes a connection that has been
"proven" with statistics.

Argument from ignorance - There is insufficient evidence to establish that pesticide residues cause cancer; therefore they do
not cause it. Ignorance or lack of proof or evidence shows neither truth or falsity!!

Face value - Rather than offering any reasons, a persuader may try to get us to accept what he says on the basis of force of
personality, intimidation or bullying, or appeal to a supposed authority who actually is not an expert on the subject. None of
these bases should convince us.

Burden of proof - Normally, we want to see a convincing degree of proof before we accept a new view as true. Those
promoting that view have "the burden of proof." Shifting the burden of proof to another party is an important strategy. Just
when a claim that proof is available that an activity is safe is a difficult matter to judge. When shifting the burden of proof to
(or from) environmentalists is likely to remain a very particular decision in every case.

Ignoring the issue - Many a political candidate can be observed responding to a question by talking about something she or
he wanted to talk about instead. When irrelevant considerations are raised as a way of distracting attention from valid
arguments on the other side, the result is hardly a valid response.

Red Herring occurs when the focus of an argument is shifted to divert the audience from the actual issue.

Fallacies of Ambiguity

Equivocation: An ambiguity caused by a shift between two legitimate meanings of a term. "If you believe in the miracles of
science, you should also believe in the miracles of the Bible."

Amphiboly: An ambiguity caused by faulty sentence structure. "SLOW CHILDREN CROSSING!"

Accent: A statement that is ambiguous because 1) its intended tone of voice is uncertain; 2) its stress is unclear; or 3) it is
quoted out of context "President Clinton really knows how to wag his dog."

Hypostatization: The treatment of abstract terms like concrete ones, sometimes even the ascription of humanlike properties to
them (similar to personification) "Even when he was home, the job would call to him seductively, asserting its dominance,
luring him back to itembrace."

Division: The assumption that what is true of 1) the whole or 2) the group must be true of the parts or members.
o

"This is the snobbiest eating club on campus; John, who is a member of it, must therefore be a terrible snob."

Composition: The assumption that what is true of 1) a part of a whole or 2) a member of a group must be true of the whole or
the group.
o

"By the year 3500 the human race will be extinct because we know that all of us now living will be dead."

Fallacies of Relevance

Genetic Fallacy: Attacking a thesis, institution, or idea by condemning its background or origin. "Classical Greek philosophy
is anachronistic because it was created by Dead White Males."

Abusive ad Hominem: Attacking the character of the opposing speaker rather his or her thesis. "We shouldn't elect her
because she's a lesbian."

Circumstantial ad Hominem: Attacking the opposing speaker by implying vested interests.

Tu Quoque: Attempting to show that an opponent does not act in accord with his or her thesis. "How can my father tell me to
stop drinking when I know he's an alcoholic?"

Poisoning the Well: Attempting to preclude discussion by attacking the credibility of an opponent. "President Clinton lied
about his affair with Monica Lewinsky therefore he must be lying about social security, education and the environment as
well."

Mob Appeal: Using emotion-laden terminology to sway people en masse. "Stand up for Afro-American civil rights! Acquit
O.J. Simpson of murder!"

Appeal to Pity: Seeking to persuade not by presenting evidence but by arousing pity. "Don't send the Menendez brothers to
the gas chamber because their father abused them."

Appeal to Authority: Seeking to persuade not by giving evidence but merely by citing an authority, in the form of an: 1)
appeal to the one, 2) appeal to the many, 3) appeal to the select few, 4)appeal to tradition. "Use this mouthwash because
Madonna uses it." "Everybody owns a car so buy one soon." "If you use this perfume, you will be set apart from the crowd."
Marriage is sacred because it's been around for ages.

Appeal to Ignorance: Emphasizing not the evidence for a thesis, but the lack of evidence against it. "There must be an
afterlife because no one has proven for sure that there isn't."

Appeal to Fear: Seeking to persuade through fear. "Fuzzy, if you don't stop meowing, Mommy won't give you any yum
yum."

Fallacies of Presumption

Sweeping Generalization: Applying a generalization to an exceptional case by ignoring the particularities of the case. "Since
step aerobics is good for the heart, they should make it mandatory in nursing homes."

Hasty Generalization: Using insufficient evidence or an isolated example as the basis for a widely general conclusion. "I was
raped by a black man, therefore all black men are potential rapists." (This fallacy is often the basis for racism.)

Bifurcation: Considering a distinction or classification exclusive or exhaustive when other alternatives exist. "You're either
for me or against me!"

Begging the Question:

o

Offering, as a premise, a simple restatement of the desired conclusion. "Immortality is impossible because when we
die that's it." 2) A circular argument. "I'm always right." Why/" "Because I'm your mother and I say so." "How do we
know that mothers are always right?" "Because I'm your mother and..."

(Wider generalization) "He must be depressed: he's an existentialist!"

Question-Begging Epithets: Using strongly emotional language to force an otherwise unsupported conclusion. "Democrats
are amoral, lustful, greedy politicians who don't care about fetuses and family values."

Special Pleading: Applying a double standard that is exemplified in the choice of words "Horses sweat, men perspire, women
glow."

False Analogy: Reaching a conclusion by likening or comparing two significantly incomparable cases. "How can you tell
your children no to take money from others when the government they live under does it all the time?"

False Cause: Inferring a causal link between two events when no such causal connection has been established. "The only
reason crime went down was because Agosto became mayor." (Crime also went down in every other city.)

Slippery Slope: Assuming, unjustifiably, that a proposed step will set off an undesirable and uncontrollable chain of events.
o

"Today it's Kevorkian, tomorrow everyone over 65 will be euthanized, and by 2001 we'll have a BRAVE NEW
WORLD!"

Irrelevant Thesis: Seeking, perhaps succeeding, to prove a conclusion not at issue. "Hunting isn't cruel because it makes so
many people happy and well-employed.

Argumentation

The first element is the claim. The claim of the argument is the conclusion that someone is trying to justify in the argument.

The second element is the grounds. The grounds of an argument are the facts on which the argument is based.

The third element of the argument is the warrant. The warrant of the argument assesses whether or not the claim is legitimate
based on the grounds.

The fourth element is the backing. The backing of the argument gives additional support for a warrant by answering different
questions.

The modal qualifier is the fifth element of the argument. The modal qualifier indicates the strength of the leap from the data
to the warrant.

The sixth and final element of the argument is the rebuttal. The rebuttal occurs when the leap from grounds to claim does not
appear to be legitimate.

Toulmin Basics

The Claim: an assertion ("a conclusion whose merits we are seeking to establish" [Toulmin] or "the conclusion you reach
after testing the evidence that supports your belief"

The Data/Support: data used as evidence, reasons, or grounds for the claim. (How do you know the claim is true?).

The Warrant: the assumption or inference necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience; the warrant links the data to the
claim; it answers the question "Why does that data mean your claim is true?"

Backing (or support) gives additional backing to a warrant by answering different questions.

The Qualifier: when used (e.g., "usually," "probably," "in most cases," "most likely") restricts the terms of the claim and
limits its range, indicating the degree of strength delivered by the warrant. Usually adverbs, but may be accounted for with a
"maybe," "many," "most," "few," of "sometimes."

The Reservation: explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier.

Rebuttal: gives voice to objections, providing the conditions that might refuter or rebut the warranted claim.

TOULMIN:
Because (data), therefore, or so (qualifier?) (claim), since (warrant) because or on account of (backing), unless (reservation).
Because it is raining, I should take my umbrella...since I don't want to get wet...because the material is waterproof...unless there is a
hole in it.
Aristotelian Appeals

Logos - Appeals to the head using logic, numbers, explanations, and facts. Through Logos, a writer aims at a person's
intellect. The idea is that if you are logical, you will understand

Ethos - Appeals to the conscience, ethics, morals, standards, values, principles

Pathos - Appeals to the heart, emotions, sympathy, passions, sentimentality

General Points about Warrants:

Warrants are principles which direct thinking toward a given conclusion. As such, they must be stated as universal
propositions (A or E).

The sophistication of the warrant can vary greatly, depending on style and purpose. Warrants can be either academic
(scientific, religious (i.e... commandments or statements of belief), psychological, economic, political, sociological, etc.) or
personal.

Warrants are the product, and therefore a reflection, of the people thinking them. Therefore, they can be accurate or distorted,
carefully reasoned or half-baked, bland or bizarre. As the product of human reasoning, our warrants (beliefs) reflect dramatic
diversity of thought (or thoughtlessness).

The following briefly stated argument for evolution shows us the datum and conclusion, but also allows us to understand the
unstated warrants of the argument as well.

The fossil record (datum), among other things, has led scientists to consider a process which explains the relationship of
extinct species to extant species. After a year of careful research, Darwin concluded that all current species are, in fact, the
descendants of extinct species which were best able to survive changes in their environment ("natural selection"). In order to
draw this conclusion, Darwin had to accept as evident two things: that environmental changes were the mechanism for
selection and that variation occurred within species, enough variation to allow for natural selection to occur. Thus, the
elephant with the better trunk (i.e.. longer, more manipulative) would survive natural hardships that elephants with shorter,
less manipulative trunks would not. Therefore, the theory of natural selection becomes the accepted warrant, as opposed say
to divine creation, which leads to the conclusion that all present life has evolved from past, now extinct, life forms.

Writing an unstated warrant begins with recognizing the conclusion and working backward to reconstruct the author's
thinking. The question becomes "What must the author believe in order to draw this conclusion?"

Rhetorical Devices in Developing Writing

Theme - the general idea or insight about life that a writer wishes to express. Linking devices that hold a text together
structurally; all of the elements of literary devices contribute to theme

Tone Vs. Mood

Tone: the attitude a writer takes towards a subject or character: serious, humorous, sarcastic, ironic, satirical, tonguein-cheek, solemn, objective

Mood: the overall emotion of the text; sometimes, the mood is reflected from and to other characters

Repetition for effect:

o

Anaphora: deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive verses, clauses, or
paragraphs; use of any element of language more than oncesound, word, phrase, sentence, grammatical pattern, or
rhythmical pattern

Asyndeton: Figure of omission in which normally occurring conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) are
intentionally omitted in successive phrases, or clauses; a string of words not separated by normally occurring
conjunctions.

Diction & Language

Clichs: words or expressions that have lost their freshness and originality through continual use. For example, "busy as a bee,"
"pretty as a picture," and "hotter than hell"
Colloquial expressions: informal words, phrases, and sentences that are generally more appropriate for spoken conversations than for
written essays
Connotation: an association that comes along with a particular word. Connotations relate not to a word's actual meaning, or
denotation, but rather to the ideas or qualities that are implied by that word.
Denotation: the exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may imply
Dialect: speech pattern typical of a certain regional location, race, or social group that exhibits itself through unique word choice,
pronunciation, and/or grammatical usage
Euphemism: substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer meaning might be harsh or
unpleasant.
Idiom: refers to a grammatical construction unique to a certain people, region, or class that cannot be translated literally into another
language (e.g., "To be on thin ice," "To pull someone's leg").
Jargon: special language of a certain group or profession, such as psychological jargon, legal jargon, or medical jargon. When jargon
is excerpted from its proper subject area, it generally becomes confusing or meaningless, as in "I have a latency problem with
my backhand" or "I hope we can interface tomorrow night after the dance."

Slang: casual conversation among friends; as such, it is inappropriate for use in formal and informal writing, unless it is placed in
quotation marks and introduced for a specific rhetorical purpose: "Hey dude, ya know what I mean?" See also colloquial
expressions.
Syntax & Structure
Declarative: makes a statement

The king is sick.

Imperative: gives a command

Cure the king!

Interrogative: asks a question

Is the king sick?

Exclamatory: provides emphasis

The king is dead! Long live the king!

Natural Order: constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate
Oranges grow in California
Inverted Order: constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject
In California grow the oranges.
Loose or Cumulative: makes sense, but brings to a final close by the actual end
We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of
stories to tell our friends and neighbors.
Periodic: makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached
That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.
Balanced: the phrases or clauses balance each other by likeness of structure, meaning, or length
He maketh me lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.
Periodic Sentences postpone the main idea (usually in an independent clause) until the very end of the sentence. Useful for creating
tension or building toward a climactic, surprise, or inspirational ending.
Cumulative Sentences begins with an independent clause and then adds details in phrases and in dependence clauses. Useful when
you want to provide both immediate understanding of the main idea and a great deal of supporting detail.
Antithesis: establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in
parallel structure; antithesis can convey some sense of complexity in a person or idea by admitting opposite or nearly
opposite truths:
To err is human; to forgive, divine. --Pope
That short and easy trip made a lasting and profound change in Harold's outlook.
That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong
Though surprising, it is true; though frightening at first, it is really harmless.
If we try, we might succeed; if we do not try, we cannot succeed.
Success makes men proud; failure makes them wise.
Apostrophe interrupts the discussion or discourse and addresses directly a person or personified thing, either present or absent. Its most
common purpose in prose is to give vent to or display intense emotion, which can no longer be held back:
O value of wisdom that fadeth not away with time, virtue ever flourishing, that cleanseth its possessor from all venom! O
heavenly gift of the divine bounty, descending from the Father of lights, that thou mayest exalt the rational soul to the very
heavens! Thou art the celestial nourishment of the intellect . . . . --Richard de Bury
O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you faithfully! -Richard de Bury
Asyndeton: lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and
the success of liberty. J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural
But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. Lincoln, Gettysburg Address

Chiasmus might be called "reverse parallelism," since the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced or paralleled by the
first part, only in reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g., "learned unwillingly") paralleled by another A,B structure
("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So instead of writing, "What is learned unwillingly
is forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten." Similarly, the parallel sentence, "What
is now great was at first little," could be written chiastically as, "What is now great was little at first." Here are some
examples:
He labors without complaining and without bragging rests.
Polished in courts and hardened in the field, Renowned for conquest, and in council skilled. --Joseph Addison
For the Lord is a Great God . . . in whose hand are the depths of the earth; the peaks of the mountains are his also. --Psalm
95:4
If you come to them, they are not asleep; if you ask and inquire of them, they do not withdraw themselves; they do not chide
if you make mistakes; they do not laugh at you if you are ignorant. --Richard de Bury
Epithet is an adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the
subject, as in "laughing happiness," "sneering contempt," "untroubled sleep," "peaceful dawn," and "lifegiving water."
Sometimes a metaphorical epithet will be good to use, as in "lazy road," "tired landscape," "smirking billboards," "anxious
apple." Aptness and brilliant effectiveness are the key considerations in choosing epithets. Be fresh, seek striking images, pay
attention to connotative value.
A transferred epithet is an adjective modifying a noun which it does not normally modify, but which makes figurative sense:
At length I heard a ragged noise and mirth of thieves and murderers . . . . --George Herbert
Blind mouths! that scarce themselves know how to hold / A sheep hook . . . . --John Milton
In an age of pressurized happiness, we sometimes grow insensitive to subtle joys.
Metonymy is another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche (and, in fact, some rhetoricians do not distinguish between the
two), in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with (but not an actual part of) the subject
with which it is to be compared.
The orders came directly from the White House.
In this example we know that the writer means the President issued the orders, because "White House" is
quite closely associated with "President," even though it is not physically a part of him. Consider these
substitutions, and notice that some are more obvious than others, but that in context all are clear:
Parallelism is recurrent syntactical similarity. Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed similarly to show that the
ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly,
clarity to the sentence. Any sentence elements can be paralleled, any number of times (though, of course, excess quickly
becomes ridiculous). You might choose parallel subjects with parallel modifiers attached to them:
Ferocious dragons breathing fire and wicked sorcerers casting their spells do their harm by night in the forest of Darkness.
I have always sought but seldom obtained a parking space near the door.
Quickly and happily he walked around the corner to buy the book.
Polysyndeton: the use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. The
rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic
enumeration, and building up.
They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and played and talked and flunked.
We have not power, nor influence, nor money, nor authority; but a willingness to persevere, and the hope that we shall
conquer soon.
Synecdoche is a type of metaphor in which the part stands for the whole, the whole for a part, the genus for the species, the species for
the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short, any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself
(or vice versa).
Farmer Jones has two hundred head of cattle and three hired hands.
Here we recognize that Jones also owns the bodies of the cattle, and that the hired hands have bodies attached. This
is a simple part-for-whole synecdoche. Here are a few more:
If I had some wheels, I'd put on my best threads and ask for Jane's hand in marriage.
The army included two hundred horse and three hundred foot.
Get in here this instant or I'll spank your body. [Whole for part--i.e. "body" for "rear end"]
Put Beethoven on the turntable and turn up the volume. [Composer substituted for record]
A few hundred pounds of twenty dollar bills ought to solve that problem nicely. [Weight for amount]
He drew his steel from his scabbard and welcomed all comers. [Material for thing made]
Patty's hobby is exposing film; Harold's is burning up gasoline in his dune buggy. [Part for whole]
Okay team. Get those blades back on the ice. [Part for whole]

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Zeugma includes several similar rhetorical devices, all involving a grammatically correct linkage (or yoking together) of two or more
parts of speech by another part of speech. Thus examples of zeugmatic usage would include one subject with two (or more)
verbs, a verb with two (or more) direct objects, two (or more) subjects with one verb, and so forth. The main benefit of the
linking is that it shows relationships between ideas and actions more clearly. In one form (prozeugma), the yoking word
precedes the words yoked. So, for example, you could have a verb stated in the first clause understood in the following
clauses:
Pride opresseth humility; hatred love; cruelty compassion. --Peacham
Fred excelled at sports; Harvey at eating; Tom with girls.
Alexander conquered the world; I, Minneapolis.
A more important version of this form (with its own name, diazeugma) is the single subject with multiple verbs:
. . . It operated through the medium of unconscious self-deception and terminated in inveterate avarice. --Thomas
Love Peacock
Mr. Glowry held his memory in high honor, and made a punchbowl of his skull. --Ibid.
This terrace . . . took in an oblique view of the open sea, and fronted a long track of level sea-coast . . . . -- Thomas
Love Peacock
Fluffy rolled on her back, raised her paws, and meowed to be petted.
Figurative Language

Imagery - using the senses

Analogies
o

Metaphors - Non-literal, imaginative substitutionsstates it is

Similes - Non-literal, imaginative substitutionsstates it is like or as

Personification - giving human-like qualities to inanimate objects

Hyperbole - Exaggeration or overstatement

Oxymoron - A contradiction in terms

Parody - Reveals a kind of truth which at first seems contradictory

Counter-points - Contrasting ideas

Symbolism - Using an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning

Flashback - Action that interrupts to show an event that happened at an earlier time which is necessary to better
understanding

Allusion - A reference to something real or fictional, to someone, some event, or something in the Bible, history, literature, or
any phase of culture

Irony - The difference between what is thought to happen and what actually happens

Sarcasm - A cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound

Satire: literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of correcting, or changing,
the subject of the satiric attack

Foreshadowing - The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in literature

Characterization - The method used by a writer to develop a character. The method includes showing the character's
appearance displaying the character's actions revealing the character's thoughts letting the character speak getting the
reactions of others

Plot development - Linear or fragmented, chronological or driven by a theme or some other unifying device

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Point of view
o

1st person: The I-narrator may be part of the action or an observer

2nd person: the narrator speaks directly to the reader

3rd person: bring the focus tightly in on the central character by limiting observation only to what that character
could possible witness or recall permits the author to be omniscient (all-knowing)

The third person point of view is a form of storytelling in which a narrator relates all action in third person,
using third person pronouns such as "he" or "she." Third person point of view may be omniscient or
limited.

Omniscient: is a method of storytelling in which the narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all of the
characters in the story; a writer may bring to life an entire world of characters

Limited: is a method of storytelling in which the narrator knows only the thoughts and feelings of a single
character, while other characters are presented only externally. Third person limited grants a writer more
freedom than first person, but less than third person omniscient.

The reader will only know a characters thoughts and responses insofar as he reveals them through
his actions. But the characters thoughts will be shared throughout the story. It's his reactions and
his interpretations of events that the reader will understand and follow.

Summary
This section of (Author's Name) Title of Work is about theme, main idea, conflict in the work.
It begins key point or the introduction of setting, characters and conflict. (Elaborate/Explicate!)
Developments occur when key point or the conflict changes/climax occurs. (Elaborate/Explicate!)
Ending with key point action, authors/ character's name what is the author/character doing now.
Argument Thesis
Because (data)_____, therefore (claim)_____, since (warrant)_____.
The general argument made by author X in her/his work is ______ (title) ____ is that _____.
More specifically, X argues that _____. S/He writes, "_____."
In this passage, X is suggesting that _____. In conclusion, X's belief is that _____.
In my view, X is wrong/right, because _____.
More specifically, I believe that _____. For example, _____.
Although X might object that _____, I maintain that _____.
Therefore, I conclude that _____.
Explication Thesis
In ________ (title of poem/novel/play), ________ (author's name) uses ________ (1st literary device/diction), ________ (2nd literary
device/ diction), and ________ (3rd literary device/ diction) to ________ (Say what you mean word, i.e. elucidates, illuminates,
reveals, supports) ________ (some aspect of human naturethe theme/main idea).

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The Down and Dirty on unique Punctuation

Colon :

Use a colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items

o
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two strong clauses (sentences) when the
second clause explains or illustrates the first clause and no coordinating conjunction
(bridge word) is being used to connect the clauses
o
Garlic is used in Italian cooking: It great enhances the flavor of pasta dishes. It
also enhances the flavor of eggplant.

Semi-colon ;

Use a semicolon to off-set conjunctive adverbs

o
I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has
been left out, but that are balanced
o
Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then.

Hyphen

hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a noun and act as a
single idea.
o
friendly-looking man
Hyphenate when adverbs other than -ly adverbs are used as compound words in front of a
noun.
o
The well-known actor accepted her award.

Dashes 2 hyphen marks

Use dashes to indicate added emphasis

o
My agreement with Fiona is clearshe teaches me French and I teach her
German.

Use dashes to indicate an interruption

o
You are the friendthe only friendwho offered to help me.

Use dashes to indicate clarification to illustrate or define a point

o
Her father went on his final sojourn: a brief visit or short stay.
Commas ,

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the flow of the sentence.
o
I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.
When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use
a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause.
o
If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
o
That is my money, not yours.
Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction--and,
or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short.
o
I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors.
If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, DO NOT use a comma.
o
He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly.
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No Words Listnot an exclusive list

Do NOT ever use:
Gunna
Gonna
YRB4
w/
w/o
&

General or Vague:
Good/Bad
Short/Tall
Fat/Skinny
Pretty/Ugly
Happy/Sad
Hot/Cold

Replace:
Get
Put
Went
Said
Replied

Indefinites & Absolutes

Always
All
Every
Some
Things
Stuff

Any
A lot
Very
Really
Any thing
Every one

Every thing
Some times
Pretty
Nice
Beautiful
Good

Overused
So
Like
And

Then
Next
Extremely

Awesome
Great

Opinion Statements
I think
I feel
I believe

In my opinion
What I think s/he is saying
It shows

It tells
It says

Contractions
Cant = cannot
Doesnt = does not
Dont = do not
Hasnt = has not
Havent = have not
S/Hed = s/he would

Pronouns
S/He
They/Them
It
NO: You, Your(s)
I/Me/Mine
We, Us, Our(s)

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Say What You Mean!

The following words can be used in place of show or tell to ensure that your writing is as
clear and meaningful as possible! Make sure you are using the best possible word for the context.
Acknowledges
Acquaints
Acts out
Appears
Appraises
Asserts
Bestows
Brings forth
Boasts
Clarify
Concludes
Confesses
Confirms
Consists
Declares
Delineation
Demonstrates
Denotes
Depicts
Describes
Discerns
Discloses
Displays
Distinguishes
Documents
Draws

Elucidates
Embellishes
Enacts
Exacerbates
Exemplify
Exhibits
Explain
Expresses
Generates
Give as an example
Guides

Quotes
Recounts
Recognizes
Reinforces
Reiterates
Relates
Replaces
Represents
Reveals

Illustrate
Imitates
Indicates
Influences
Informs
Interpretations

Sets forth
Simplifies
Sketches
Stands out
States
Suggests
Symbolizes

Manifests
Matters

Teaches
Typify

Narrates

Validates
Verifies

Paints
Personates
Plans
Polishes
Portrays
Proclaims
Provides

Weighs

S.E.E.
The following format is the lay-out you must use when writing a response:
Statement, Evidence, Evaluation
Writing Goal:
Write a well-organized response that demonstrates your knowledge and analysis of the text
Statement
change prompt/question stem into the topic sentence with the answer [the thing you
want to say about topic] + because
Evidence (using layered elaboration)
support the topic sentence [STATEMENT] with:
NEEDS PARENTHETICAL CITATION

direct quote: word-for-word from text

indirect quote: paraphrase (own words) or summary (shortened version) of words

from text

text-based evidence: examples, reasons, opinions, details, quotes, facts, stats,

definition
life-based evidence: anecdotes, scenarios, examples, description, details, definition,
facts, stats, opinions, reasons

Evaluation
extend by explaining what you have writtenthis does NOT mean more summary
Elaboration through explicationexplication means to unfold; to give a detailed
explanation of; to develop implication of; to analyze logically; to determine importance
by answering: why is this important?
Questions to ask:
Importance?
We do not write
Significance?
because we want to.
Implications?
Results?
We write because we
Outcomes?
have to.
Authors purpose?
Authors intent?
Somerset Maugham
This also entails the following:
Use clear word choice
Write complete sentences
Dont leave the reader hanging with unanswered statements
Answer all the parts of the question
End with a conclusive statement

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