EN0175

09 / 26 / 06

Review on coordinate transformation (change of basis) for tensors.

v
e3

v
u ev '

v'
e2

v
e2

v'
e3

v
e1
v
v
v
u = ui ei = u 'p e p'

v v
v v
u 'p = u e p' = ui ei e p'

v v
v v
ui = u ei = uq' eq' ei

)
(

)(

)(

v v v v
u 'p = uq' ei eq' ei e p' = u q' Qiq Qip

Combining the above 2 equations yields

Therefore

Qiq Qip pq

Similarly, we can show

Qip Q jp ij

(v

v' v v'

(Hint: using ui = u j e j e p ei e p = u j Qip Q jp )

In matrix form:

QQ = I , Q Q= I
T

Such matrices/tensors are called orthogonal matrices/tensors.

Example: Transformation from 2D Cartesian coordinate to 2D Polar coordinate.

v
e2

v
er

v
e
r

v
e1

EN0175

cos
Q=
sin

09 / 26 / 06

sin
cos
T
, QQ =

cos
sin

sin cos
cos sin

sin 1 0
=
cos 0 1

Chap 3. Stress in a solid

Continuum Continuous media ignoring the atomic and other discreteness of matters.
Density

M
V

(V 0) .

( V is smaller than all important dimensions but still contains sufficient number of atoms)

v Pv
n
v
F

Homogeneity All points have the same material properties.

(Opposite term: Heterogeneity)
Isotropy Material properties are the same in different directions.
(Opposite term: Anisotropy)
Forces in a continuum:
External (applied) forces
Body (volume) forces

v
F total body force on V (e.g. gravity).
v
v
F

f = lim
V 0 V

For example: The body force due to gravity can be written as

EN0175

09 / 26 / 06

3
2

g
1
v
v
f = g e3
Surface forces

v
P total surface forces on S .
v
v
P

t = lim
S 0 S

For example: A uniform pressure on top of a block can be written as

3
2
1
v
v
t = p e3
Internal forces

v (nv )
tv
nv
n

v ( nv )
t

vv
t (n ) : traction vector at a point.

EN0175

09 / 26 / 06

According to Newtons action-reaction law,

vv
v v
t ( n ) = t ( n )
Simple example for 1D:

Let us put these concepts in terms of base vectors:

vv
v (ev ) v v (ev ) v v (ev ) v
t (e1 ) = t1 1 e1 + t2 1 e2 + t3 1 e3
vv
v (ev ) v v (ev ) v v (ev ) v
t (e2 ) = t1 2 e1 + t2 2 e2 + t3 2 e3
vv
v (ev ) v v (ev ) v v (ev ) v
t (e3 ) = t1 3 e1 + t2 3 e2 + t3 3 e3
We can define

ij = t j (e ) ,
i

which is the so-called Cauchy stress. The subscript i denotes the direction of plane normal and
j denotes the direction of force.

33

32
31
13

23

11 12

21

1
v

Traction on an arbitrary plane with normal vector n

22

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09 / 26 / 06

3
S1

v
n

S 2

v
n

v ( ev2 )
t

v ( ev1 )
t
v (nv )
t

S3
1

v v
t ( e3 )

Consider force equilibrium on the tetrahedron shown above:

v
vv
v v
v v
v v
t (n ) S + t ( e1 ) S1 + t ( e2 ) S 2 + t ( e3 ) S 3 + f V = 0 ,
v

where f is the body force (which can also include inertia forces). Let S 0 ,

v V
v v v v S v v S v v S
t (n ) + t (e1 ) 1 + t (e2 ) 2 + t (e3 ) 3 + f
=0
S
S
S
S
1
V
~ S 2 0 as S 0 (This is the same as saying that the surface-to-volume ratio
S

becomes very large as the volume shrinks to zero.)

Consider the volume of the tetrahedron, V =

1
1
S h = S1 h1
3
3

S1 h
v
= = cos 1 = n e1 = n1
S h1

3
S1

h1

h1

S
1
5

EN0175

09 / 26 / 06

Similarly,

S 2
S3
= n2 ,
= n3
S
S
v

where n1 , n2 , n3 are the components of the normal vector n ( n = n1e1 + n2 e2 + n3e3 ).

Hence,

vv vv
vv
vv
t (n ) = t (e1 )n1 + t (e2 )n2 + t (e3 )n3
In index notation,

v (nv ) v (ev )
t j = t j i ni = ij ni
i.e.

vv
T v
t (n ) = n
Special cases:

vv
v
v v v
v
t (e1 ) = e1 = ij (ei e j )ei = 1 j e j
vv
v
t ( e2 ) = L = 2 j e j
vv
v
t (e3 ) = L = 3 j e j

11 , 22 , 33 are called the normal stresses (on a base plane).

12 , 13 , 23 etc. are called the shear stresses (on a base plane).