Unit I

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Surveying
Science and art of determining the relative
positions of various points above or below the
surface of earth
Simple in concept requires great skill and
practice
Requires basic knowledge of various disciplines
such as mathematics, physics etc

Surveying

Relative positions

Horizontal Distances
Vertical Distances
Horizontal Angles
Vertical Angles

Civil Engineering perspective

Surveying is required prior to and during the planning
and construction of buildings

History of Surveying

One of the oldest arts/science practiced by man

(consciously or un-consciously)
Practiced for more than 5,000 yrs
Egypt and India Taxation purposes (~1400
B.C.)
3,4,5 rope technique
Construction of pyramids and huge buildings

Primary Division of Surveying

Curvature of Earth
Oblate Spheroid
Flattened at the poles and bulging at equator
Division of Surveying

Plane Surveying
Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying
Curvature of Earth neglected i.e. earth is flat
Distances and angles are assumed to be
projected on a horizontal plane
Horizontal plane and vertical line at that point
Plumb bob lines at all points of the area are
parallel

Plane Surveying (contd.)

Arc distance of 18.5 km on earths surface and
corresponding chord distance: less than 10 mm
Areas less than 250 sq. km.

Geodetic Surveying
Curvature of earth is taken into consideration
and a very high standard of accuracy is
maintained
Purpose: to determine precise location of
widely spaced points on the surface of earth
Control stations of the primary surveys
Secondary surveys less precision, are
connected to these control stations

Surveying Functional Classification

Mine Surveys
Engineering Surveys
Construction Surveys
Defense Surveys
Archaeological Surveys
Route Surveys
Geographical Surveys, etc

Surveying Place of Survey

Land Surveying
Underground Surveying
Hydrographic Surveying
Aerial Surveying

Surveying - Instruments used

Chain Surveying
Compass Surveying
Leveling
Plane Table Surveys
Theodolite Surveys
Tacheometric Surveys
Photogrammetric Surveys
EDM Surveys

Principles of Surveying

Principle 1: Always work from whole to part

Principle 2: Always locate a point by at least two
measurements
Principle 3: Always choose the method of survey
that is most suitable for the purpose
Principle 4 :Always make provisions of adequate
checks
Principle 5: Always record field data carefully

Basic Measurements - Instruments

Horizontal Distances
Chains, Tapes, Tacheometers

Vertical Distances
Leveling Instruments, Tacheometers

Horizontal Angles
Magnetic Compasses, Theodolites, Tacheometers

Vertical Angles
Theodolites, Clinometers, Tacheometers

Errors
Every measurement contains errors of
unknown magnitude due to several reasons.
True error is the difference between true value
of the quantity measured and measurement
Sources of Error

Natural
Instrumental
Personal

Natural Errors
Caused by changes in natural phenomenon:
Temperature, Refraction, Magnetic Field, Wind,
Humidity
Beyond the control of the surveyor.
Can be minimized by taking precautionary
measures and adopting suitable methods to fit
the conditions.
Example: Using measuring tape in hot weather

Personal Errors

Occurs due to human limitations:

Sight
Touch
Hearing

Example: error in taking a reading properly

Instrumental Errors
May arise due to imperfection or faulty
adjustment of the instrument used for
measurement.
Can be eliminated or minimized by adopting
suitable procedures and by applying corrections
and adjustments.
Example: steel tape might be too long or
improper graduations on the tape.

Types of Errors

Errors in Surveying may be classified into three

major types
Mistakes
Systematic Errors
Accidental Errors

Mistakes

Errors arising from inattention, inexperience,

carelessness and poor judgment or confusion in
the mind of observer.

If undetected, produces serious effect upon the

final results

Systematic (Cumulative) Errors

Under the same conditions, will always be of
the same size and sign.
Follows some definite mathematical or physical
law, and a correction can be determined and
applied.
If once positive, will always be positive and vice
versa. Their effect is always Cumulative.
Example: Measurement by a tape of
shorter/longer length. It used N times, then the
total error is cumulative.

Accidental (Compensating) Errors

Which remain after mistakes and systematic
errors have been eliminated and are caused by a
combination of reasons beyond the ability of
the observer to control.
Sometimes in one direction and sometimes in
the other.
They obey laws of chance and therefore
handled according to mathematical laws of
probability.

Linear Measurements
Measurement of horizontal distance most basic
operation of surveying as well as most difficult.
Distance between two points is always
horizontal distance
Methods

Rope stretching
Bamboo
Pacing
Chaining
Optical (Tacheometry)
Electro Magnetic Distance Measurement

Methods of Linear Measurements

Depending on degree of precision:

Direct methods
Optical methods
E.D.M (Electro Magnetic Distance Measuring
Instrument) methods

Direct Methods
Distance are actually measured on the ground
with the help of chain or tape or some other
instrument
Different methods

Pacing
Passometer
Pedometer
Odometer and speedometer
Measuring Wheel
Chaining

Direct Methods

Pacing: Average length of pace for a normal man

varies from 75 cm to 85 cm. Average length of pace can
be calculated by counting number of paces required to
walk a known distance.

Passometer and Pedometer: Instruments work

with the motion of the body as a person works. These
instruments records number of paces on the dial.
Pedometer counts the distance walked (number of
paces times pace length)

Direct Methods

Odometer, speedometer and measuring wheel

Basic principle is a number of revolutions of a rotating
wheel

Chaining
Measuring distance with the help of chain or tape.
Most accurate of all the methods used for direct
measurements
For ordinary precision, chain is Ok but for higher
precisions, tape is used.

Chaining
Distances are measured with chain and tape and
the operation is called as chaining
Instruments for chaining

Chain or Tape
Arrows
Pegs
Ranging Rods
Offset Rods
Plumb bob
Cross Staff, etc.

Chains
Straight links of galvanized steel bent into rings
at the ends joined by three small circular or
oval rings.
Two brass handles at the end
Length of the chain is from outside of one
handle to the outside of another
Length of the link is distance between the
centers of two consecutive middle rings

Chains

Types of chains in common use

Metric chain
Gunters chain or surveyors chain
Engineers chain
Revenue chain
Steel band or band chain

Metric Chain

Metric measurements
100 links in 20 m chain and 150 links in 30 m
chain
Lengths of 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters
For 5 and 10 meters, tallies at every 1 meter
For 20 and 30 meters, tallies at every 5 meters
In addition small brass rings are provided at 1
meter.

Gunters or Surveyors Chain

66 feet long with 100 links (0.6 ft per link)

Engineers Chain
100 feet long with 100 links (1 ft per link)
Brass tags at every 10 links.

Revenue Chain

33 feet long with 16 links (2 161 ft per link)

Ranging
Process of establishing a number of
intermediate points on survey line joining two
stations in the field, so that the length between
the stations may be measured.
Distance is less than a chain length.
Distance is more than a chain length.

Direct Ranging
In-direct Ranging

Direct Ranging
Two ends of the survey lines are intervisible.
Ranging can either be done by eye or by some
optical instruments.
Process

In-direct or reciprocal Ranging

Two ends of the survey lines are not visible due
to raising ground or long distance.
Process

CHAIN SURVEYING

Chain Surveying
That type of surveying, where only linear
measurements are made in the field.
Suitable for surveying of small extent on open
ground for exact description of boundaries
Principle involved is: Chain Triangulation
Skeleton or framework of number of connected
triangles

Chain Surveying

Terminology

Main Station
Tie Station
Main Survey Line
Tie Line
Base Line
Check line
Offset
Chainage

Chain surveying - terminology

Main station: is a point where two sides of a

traverse or triangle meet. A, B, C etc.
Tie station: is a station on the survey line
joining two main stations. a, b, c etc.
Main survey line: line joining two main survey
stations. AB, BC etc
Tie line: line joining two tie stations
Base line: longest main survey line and passing
through the center of the area

Chain surveying - terminology

Offset: distance of the object from the survey
line. May be perpendicular or oblique
Chainage: distance of a well-defined point from
the starting point.

Offsets

Lateral measurements to chain line for locating

ground features are known as Offsets.
There are two types of offsets used in chain
surveying i.e. PERPENDICULAR OFFSET and
OBLIQUE OFFSET.
In case of perpendicular offset, foot of the
perpendicular on chain line is found from the object
and the surveyor notes down offset distance and the
chainage of foot of the perpendicular.
In case of oblique offset, the distance of the object
from two convenient points on the chain lines are
measured and noted down.

Offsets

Offsets

Setting out Perpendicular Offsets

To a chainline
Swinging Technique

Setting out Perpendicular Offsets

From a chainline
Isosceles Triangle Technique
3-4-5 Method

Obstacles in Chain Surveying

Obstacles to ranging but not to chaining
Obstacles to chaining but not ranging
Obstacles to both chaining and ranging

Obstacles to ranging but not to chaining

Obstacles to chaining but not to ranging

Obstacles to chaining but not to ranging

Obstacles to both chaining and ranging

Problem 1

A chain line ABC crosses a river, B and C being

on the near and distant banks respectively. D is a
point 60 m measured at right angles to AB from
B. Angle CDA = 900 and AB being 32 m. Find the
width of the river.

Problem 2

In passing an obstacle in the form of a pond,

stations A and D, on the mainline, were taken on
the opposite sides of the pond. On the left of AD,
a line AB, 225 m long was laid down, and a second
line AC, 275 m long, was ranged on the right of
AD, the points B, D and C being in the same
straight line. BD and DC were then chained and
found to be 125 m and 137.5 m respectively. Find
the length of AD.

Problem 3:

A survey line PQ intersects a high building. To

prolong the line past the building, a
perpendicular QA, 100 m long is set out at Q.
From A, two lines AB and AC are set out at
angles 450 and 600, with AQ using a chain only.
Determine the distances AB and AC such that B
and C lie in the prolongation of PQ. Also
determine the obstructed distance QB.

Problem 4

For obtaining the width of a canal PQ, a line PB,

perpendicular to PQ and 60 m long is laid out.
Also from a point A, 30 m from P on QP
produced, a line AC, perpendicular to APQ, 120
m long is set out so that C, B and Q are
collinear. Determine the width of the canal.

COMPASS SURVEYING

Introduction
Chain Surveying for small areas and fairly flat
areas
For larger areas, chain surveying alone is not
sufficient and convenient.
Additional instrument is essential that enables
angles and directions of survey lines.
Measurement of Directions

Compass

Measurement of Angles
Theodolite

Compass Surveying
In compass survey, chain or tape is used for linear
measurements and compass is used for fixing
direction.
In compass, freely suspended magnetic needle
directs to north-south and the bearing of line is
obtained by line of sight.
Traverse Surveying (Traversing): is that type of
survey in which a number of connecting survey
lines form the frame work and the directions and
lengths are measured with the help of an angle
measuring instrument and tape respectively.

Traversing

Close Traverse

Open Traverse

Bearings and Angles

Direction of a survey line can be established in

two different ways:
With relation to each other
With relation to any meridian

Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given

meridian
Meridian is any direction such as

True Meridian
Magnetic Meridian
Arbitrary Meridian

Designation of Bearings

Common systems of notations of bearings are:

Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B.) or Azimuthal System
Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B.)

Whole Circle Bearing (Azimuthal System)

Bearing of a line is measured with respect to
magnetic north in clockwise direction
Always between 00 and 3600
Measured with a Prismatic Compass

Quadrantal Bearing (Reduced Bearing)

Bearing of a line is measured eastward or

westward from north or south, whichever is
nearer.
Both north and south are used as reference
meridians.
Either clockwise or anti-clockwise
Quadrant have to be mentioned.
Angle between 00 and 900.
Measured with Surveyors Cmopass

W.C.B and R.B.

Conversions: W.C.B to R.B.

Line

W.C.B.

Rule for R.B.

Quadrant

AB

00 and 900

R.B. = W.C.B

NE

AC

900 and 1800

R.B. = 1800-W.C.B.

SE

AD

1800 and 2700

R.B.=W.C.B.-1800

NW

AE

2700 and 3600

R.B. = 3600-W.C.B.

SW

Conversions: R.B. to W.C.B.

Line

R.B.

Rule for W.C.B.

W.C.B. Between

AB

NE

W.C.B. = R.B.

00 and 900

AC

SE

W.C.B. = 1800- R.B.

900 and 1800

AD

S W

W.C.B. = 1800+ R.B.

1800 and 2700

AE

N W

W.C.B. = 3600- R.B.

2700 and 3600

Problem 5

Convert the following from W.C.B to R.B.

211054
22030
327024
170012

Problem 6

Convert the following from R.B. to W.C.B.

S 6806 W
N 12030 E
S 31036 E
N 5042 W

Fore Bearing and Back Bearing

Bearing of a line differs according as the
observation is made from one end of the line or
from the other.
Bearing of AB measured from A towards B, it is
known as forward bearing or Fore Bearing
If the bearing is measured from B towards A, it is
known as backward bearing or Back Bearing
B.B = F.B.1800

Calculation of Angles from Bearings

Problem 7
The following bearings were observed with a
compass. Calculate the interior angles.
Line
AB

Fore Bearing
600 30

BC
CD
DE

1220 0
460 0
2050 30

EA

3000 0

Problem 8
The following interior angles were measured in a
closed traverse. The bearing of AB was
measured as 600 0. Calculate the bearings of all
other lines if A = 140010, B = 990 8, C =
600 22 and D = 690 20

Problem 9
The bearing of the side AB of an equilateral triangle
ABC, run in the clockwise direction, is S 200 W.
Find the reduced bearings of BC and AC.

Problem 9
A survey line crosses the river and stations A and B
are established on the opposite banks. A
perpendicular AC, 60 m long is set out at A. The
bearings of AC and CB are 500 and 2900,
respectively. The chainage of A is 1817.2 m. Find
the chainage of B.

Magnetic Compass
Directly gives the bearing of a line
Bearings can be W.C.B or Q.B.
Features of a Compass

Magnetic Needle
Line of Sight
Graduated Circle
Compass Box
Tripod/stand

Two types
Prismatic Compass
Surveyors Compass
Transit / Level Compass

Prismatic Compass
Most convenient and portable form
Whole Circle Bearing

Surveyors Compass
Graduated ring attached to the box, not to the
needle.
Quadrantal Bearing

Adjustments to a Compass
Permanent Adjustments
Temporary Adjustments

Centring
Levelling
Focusing the Prism

Magnetic Declination
Horizontal Angle between the true meridian and
the magnetic meridian shown by the needle at
the time of the observation
Eastern or Positive Declination

If magnetic meridian is to the right side of the true

meridian

Western or Negative Declination

If magnetic meridian is to the left side of the true
meridian

Isogonic Line
Agonic Line

Magnetic Declination

True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing Declination

Problem 10
Magnetic Bearing of a line is 480 24. Calculate the
True bearing is the declination is 50 38 East.

Problem 11
Magnetic Bearing of a line AB is S 280 30 E.
Calculate the True bearing is the declination is 70
30 West.

Local Attraction

Local attraction is a term used to denote any

influence, which prevents the needle from
pointing to the magnetic North in a given locality.

Detection of local attraction

Elimination of Local Attraction

First Method
Second Method

Problem 12
The following bearings were observed while
traversing with a compass.
Line

F.B.

B.B.

AB

45045

226010

BC

96055

27705

CD

29045

209010

DE

324048

144048

Mention which stations are affected by local

attraction and determine the corrected bearings

Problem 13
The table gives the fore and back bearings of the
sides of a closed compass traverse. Correct the
values for the local attraction.
Line

F.B.

B.B.

AB

N 55000 E

S 54000 W

BC

S 67030 E

N 66000 W

CD

S 25000 W

N 25000 E

DE

S 77000 W

N 75030 E

EA

N 64030 W

S 63030 E

Problem 14
The following bearings were observed in running a
closed traverse
Line

F.B.

B.B.

AB

7505

254020

BC

115020

296035

CD

165035

345035

DE

224050

4405

EA

304050

12505

At what stations do you suspect the local

attraction? Determine the correct magnetic
bearings. If declination was 5010 E, what are the
true bearings