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Using the above data, the design engineer must then decide what type of scrubbing is required. An aqueous
solution may need to be pH adjusted, have an oxidizing agent added, as well as other possible factors or
adjustments, as they may apply. For example, as seen for odor problems at a wastewater treatment plant,
multiple pollutants such as NH3 and H2S are often present. In order to target the individual pollutants, two
stages or possibly more, of wet scrubbing may be required to compensate for conflicting chemistries.
Ammonia is usually first scrubbed with an acid solution, then the hydrogen sulfide is scrubbed with an alkali
solution, and an added oxidizing agent may also be required.
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Page1
After choosing the correct chemistry or chemistries, the design engineer must then proceed to crunch the
numbers. The calculation exercise will determine:
(Note; for an air stripper column, where the mass transfer is from liquid to gas, not from gas to liquid
as in the above, the terms would substitute Hol for liquid film controlled mass transfer.)
Commercially available packing(s) have various values of Hog. The packing supplier provides these values
which are often derived empirically. This value is an inverse relationship, the smaller the reported value (in
feet or meters) indicates a higher claimed packing efficiency. Stated another way: if less depth of packing is
required to achieve the same mass transfer efficiency, comparing one packing product to another, the
product with the lower Hog value is seen as the more attractive packing. Selection of the lower value would
facilitate a lower total packing depth, necessary to achieve the targeted performance and efficiency.
The choice of packing is not always driven by which packing can be identified as being the most efficient for
a given service. Generally, packing that is smaller in size, (i.e. a 1-inch size packing vs. a 3-inch sized
product) will have the lower reported value of Hog. However, pricing for smaller sized packing generally
makes for a higher total packing cost, as more pieces of the packing are required to fill a towers given unit
volume (ft3 or m3). Smaller sized packing also tends to have greater pressure drop per unit depth (P/ft or
P/m) vs. larger sized packing. Smaller packing choice is usually a cost adder, in terms of the initial
purchase of the packing product as well as that for the fan size and horsepower requirements, as determined
for that needed to motivate the gas through the scrubber systems predetermined minimum face flow area.
As a result, the design engineer must arrive at an initial scrubber tower design that:
Achieves the required scrubbing efficiency.
Can be manufactured economically through the selection of a standard tower size.
Or, if a non-standard fabricated tower must be used, the engineer must consider whether the tower
is a practical size that can be locally fabricated, or can be shipped at a total reasonable cost (if it
were fabricated some distance from the project site).
Operates at a predicted and reasonable (calculated and actual) pressure drop. The pressure drop
correlates directly with the cost of the scrubber fan and the operating costs.
The system fan should not be excessively expensive, and should have a predictable long-term lower
operating cost.
(For very large projects, a complete tower shipment is often not possible. This consideration is
beyond the scope of this discussion, except to note that it is an additional cost adder, or it may be
prohibitively expensive; as on-site fabrication or panelized construction may be required.)
The design engineer must perform iterative calculations, until all of the required criteria are satisfied.
Gas Phase Absorption; Mass Transfer vs. Particulate Capture:
Another very important consideration:
When an engineer derives a process design for a counter-current, packed-vertical-bed, wet
scrubber; it is usually assumed that the species to be absorbed in the tower (e.g., H2S, ClO2, HCl,
etc.) is gaseous.
Consequently, if the fine mists are not effectively captured in the towers top mist eliminator, they will exit the
scrubber stack as a white fog. This occurs, despite the scrubber typically performing at 99% or greater
efficiency for the gas phase HCl absorption, as the remaining presence of the fine aerosol HCl passes
through the tower, ultimately forming the distinctive white plume.
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Page2
For the above just cited examples; hydrogen sulfide and chlorine dioxide can be assumed to be totally gas
phase. However, hydrochloric acid is notorious for forming extremely fine fogs or aerosols. Also called mist,
the aerosols are typically composed of very small droplets, typically ~2-m droplet diameter. These small
and lightweight particles, when carried along in the gas phase of a packed bed scrubber simply zigzag past
the packing.
In addition to acid gases, the problem of aerosol formation is a common problem in the manufacture of
fertilizers. Typically in a scrubber processing phosphates, fluorine and silicon are common contaminants. HF
and SiF4 are usually present as gaseous contaminants that must be removed before discharge to the
atmosphere. However, HF like HCl, as well as H2SiF6 (formed when SiF4 reacts with water) form aerosols
composed of very fine particles, typically 1 to 6-m in size.
Examples of poor performance of air pollution control scrubbers at NPK plants are unfortunately all too
common due to reliance upon gas phase mass transfer designs which ignore aerosols. Cross flow
scrubbers, using the Kimre, Inc. KON-TANE structured mesh type packing and B-GON structured mesh
(3)
mist eliminators, have been shown to be very reliable in this type of service .
Cross Flow Design Advantages vs. Counter Current Design:
The mathematics discussed above may be arcane; however the principles involved in counter-current flow,
normally liquid down and gas up, are straightforward. Thus, over the years, the briefly discussed design
model has become very well established within the chemical engineering profession.
Cross-flow scrubbing, normally with the gas flowing horizontally with the liquid flowing perpendicularly
downwards across the gas flow, does not present a simple and easily derived mathematical model. Indeed,
the mathematics of a cross flow scrubber are so convoluted, mathematical solutions have essentially been
ignored by academics and others for many years. It is very important to note that even though the counter
current pattern is considered to be much more mathematically straightforward, than the cross-flow pattern as
previously mentioned, values of Hog are almost always empirically determined.
It is very simple to accommodate multiple stages within a cross-flow scrubber. For the prior cited odorcontrol scrubbing example (in which ammonia is first scrubbed, then hydrogen sulfide at an alkaline pH)
a traditional counter-current system would usually require two individual towers in series. Hydrogen
sulfide odor problems are usually treated in two scrubbing stages: first a caustic-only scrub of the smelly
gas at pH ~12, then a second stage scrub of the hydrogen sulfide at pH ~9 with an added oxidizing
agent. This is usually done to conserve chemicals; typically using sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) as an
oxidizing agent is expensive. The 1st stage promotes solubility for approximately 80% of the H2S present.
The 2nd stage, before the gas being treated is discharged, oxidizes the remaining H2S to sulfate, at a
very high efficiency. The 2nd stage scrubbing NaOCl solution is returned to the sump of the 1st stage
tower, assuring that 100% of the expensive oxidizing agent is ultimately consumed. Figure 1 shows a
typical odor control system common to many large wastewater treatment plants in the USA.
A single, multi-stage vertical tower is possible, but in practice it is very difficult to fabricate. Such a single
tower would also challenge the height of the tree line behind the scrubbers shown in Figure 1. Even if an
OEM firm did succeed in fabricating such a multi-stage tower which isolated the chemistry of both
stages, coping with any slight corrosion (or other long-term vessel fatigue over the life of the tower)
would result in contamination of the lower stage by the upper stage chemicals.
The above noted problems do not exist in a cross-flow scrubber. A scrubber with two, three or any
number of stages, all using different chemistries, is very practical to design and fabricate. With high
efficiency mist capture between the separate stages, any cross contamination of the various chemistries
is easily prevented.
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Page3
However, cross-flow scrubbers are quite common. A Google Internet search using the simple terms
horizontal scrubbers returns a plethora of web sites.The University of Arizona chemical engineering
department reports that horizontal, cross-flow scrubbers are the most common type of scrubber found in the
semiconductor industry (4).This itself emphasizes the distinct advantages of the cross-flow versus the
counter-current (vertical) flow design:
A cross flow scrubber has a much lower profile compared to a counter-flow tower.
The low profile can be very important in urban or other locations. In most instances only a cross-flow is
practical when a scrubber must be located on a rooftop, Figure 2 indicates a typical urban industrial roof
top installation.
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Page4
When designing a cross-flow scrubber, it is often very practical to fabricate a skid-mounted unit. Such a
design permits shop testing before shipment and provides the customer (5) delivery of a fully tested,
ready-to-install, ready to operate pollution control system. System startup problems are by large
eliminated.
Cross-flow scrubbers provide an extremely simple system layout (6): pumps, valves and control panel are
easily side mounted on the cross-flow system with access doors to each stage available on the opposite
side. Operational control and system maintenance, even for multi-stage systems, is straightforward.
Cross-flow scrubbers are also very practical at very low L/G ratios. This can be important if blowdown
(i.e., spent scrubbing solution) of the scrubber must be maintained within a close specific concentration
range. For example, a hydrochloric acid gas scrubber blowdown target may be 16% salt. The needed
counter-current scrubber controls can be very complicated, although relatively simple for a cross-flow.
Upset and/or variable (non-steady-state) operations are much more easily managed by a cross-flow
scrubber vs. a counter-flow design. Horizontal cross-flow scrubbers are less sensitive to poor water
distribution vs. counter-flow. Total media coverage/wetting by the liquid inlet nozzles is important in a
cross-flow scrubber. However, even when a small area of the packing is not wetted, the gravity downflow of scrubbing liquor will still wet the entire media. In contrast, when a counter-flow scrubber spray
nozzle malfunctions, the resultant dead area of the packing face will tend to propagate deep into the
media bed, causing a severe malfunction.
The work of Fthenakis(8) is supported by the results published by a University of Southern Queensland(9)
student. Although only an undergraduate level study, the paper confirms that some packing media, in this
case LANPAC, can be found to have an identical Hog value in both cross and counter-current-flow.
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Page5
Fthenakis(8) presented one of the few detailed studies of efficiency of cross-flow vs. counter-current-flow
scrubbers. Interestingly, the results of that study indicated that the Hog of spherically shaped packing material
was not significantly different in either flow regime. However, the Hog of saddles was found to be 50% greater
in a cross-flow vs. counter-current-flow scrubber. The author presents a plausible theory that packing of
certain shapes could confer greater efficiency in cross-flow than they provide in counter-flow regimes. The
author predicted that cylindrical rings would perform more efficiently in vertical-flow than horizontal-flow.
No.2 Type R Tellerette packing was found to have a 10% greater Hog value in cross-flow than in countercurrent-flow. Therefore, the packing geometry did appear to degrade plug flow in some instances, while not
in others. So, it could be seen, that with the correct choice of packing, it appears possible to build an equally
efficient cross-flow scrubber of the same (or smaller) size as the counter-current scrubber.
However, another consideration in scrubbers filled with random dumped packing is that this packing tends to
settle. Suppliers of such products routinely recommend that 3% to 10% extra product be ordered to allow for
a later top up, compensating for the settling. This is of particular importance when discussing a cross-flow
scrubber employing dumped packing material. Any settling of the packed bed will create a gap between the
top of the packed bed and the roof of the scrubber. Preferential gas bypass flow through this open space
will degrade the performance of the scrubber. This might well have happened in the undergraduate research
conducted at the University of Southern Queensland. If the Tellerette bed happened to settle faster, or was
not properly installed in the first place, this would create a plausible theory as to why the performance of the
cross-flow scrubber was observed to be inferior to the counter-current-flow scrubber with the same packing.
Kimre, Inc. holds a solution to the settling problem of packed bed scrubbers. As explained below, Kimres
structured packing has provided high efficiency scrubbing in horizontal cross-flow scrubbers, for decades.
(Three KON-TANE Conditioning Stages and Sprays, followed by One B-GON Mist Elimination Stage.)
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Page6
As opposed to a standard cross-flow design, where the scrubbing liquor is sprayed onto the horizontal face
of the packing, the Kimre SXFTM scrubber employs concurrent conditioning spays. This provides some of the
impetus to improve efficiency, by lowering solids level in the gas stream being treated, in addition to cooling
and saturating the gas flow, followed by concurrent spray of the scrubbing liquor onto the face of the
KON-TANE stage (or stages). In some instances, a conditioning spray is also introduced on the
downstream side. The scrubbing liquor then flows down through the KON-TANE media, crossing the
horizontal gas flow, discharging into the bottom sump(s) of the scrubber. Lastly, carry-over mist is captured
Description
Formation Type
Gaseous
<1 - 6 Fog
50 - 500 Drops
Ammonium-Fluoride/Bi-Fluoride
Aerosols
Ammonium Fluorosilicate
Use of KON-TANE for assurance of: non-Clogging Flow; No Gas Bypass or Short Circuits.
The use of random dumped packing in a cross flow scrubber can result in compromised efficiency due to the
settling of the packing. KON-TANE Tower Packing, produced by Kimre, Inc. of Miami FL has solved the
settling problem. Kimre KON-TANE Tower Packing additionally offers numerous operational advantages.
KON-TANE is custom-designed structured media, supplied as a multi-layered pad, usually round or square,
although almost any shape or configuration is possible. The rectangular or square configuration is ideally
suited to cross-flow design. As seen in Figure 4, the mono-filaments of Kimre KON-TANE , and Kimre
B-GON products, are about 93% perpendicular to the direction of gas flow, a result of the unique
interwoven structure of the Kimre media. With void fractions commonly ranging from 94% to 97%, the
pressure drop through this tower packing is very low, and very predictably calculated. The structured media
elements perpendicular to the gas flow assure that maximum renewal of liquid and gas phase surfaces
occurs, which in turn yields maximum mass transfer efficiency.
Figure 4
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Page7
Kimre, Inc.
Kimre has developed two proprietary media installation systems; BATTEN BAR and PANTS HANGER
modules. Individual Kimre KON-TANE media assemblies can be framed as large as 6 ft wide (~1830 mm)
to 10 ft long (~3050 mm), or longer. Both designs assure that no gas bypass occurs, while providing for easy
media access and removal for cleaning. The minimal pressure drop across the scrubber (typically ~1 WC) is
sufficient to assure that a seal is formed between the media frame and the scrubber internals. Multiple
KON-TANE pads and modules are used for large vessel configurations. Kimre SXF and AEROSEP
cross-flow scrubber internal design along with the proprietary media frame systems provide for easy media
installation (and removal). KON-TANE framed media (PANTS HANGER), presently in service at the
(10)
Namhae NPK South Korea facility, is shown on the left in Figure 5. Figure 5 (right) indicates a BATTEN
BARTM assembly schematic.
The uniformity of KON-TANE media also ensures uniform plug flow throughout the entire scrubbing section,
thus providing a high efficiency that may even exceed that of a counter current scrubber of equal length.
KON-TANE Media
Figure 5
Figure 6
Example of BATTEN BARTM support frame.
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Page8
KON-TANE Media in
PANTS-HANGERTM Modular Holder
Kimre KON-TANE scrubber media and B-GON mist eliminator (ME) media assemblies are custom made
to accommodate almost any required shape. Figure 7 shows several B-GON mist eliminator (ME) pad
shapes and materials; round PVDF ME pad (left) and a rectangular PP ME pad for the vessel presented on
the right. Figure 7, right, is an example where a cross-flow mist capture vessel is much more suited for a
rooftop installation, than for a vertical tower.
Examples of other possible shapes and configurations are seen in Figure 8.
Figure 7
Rectangular shaped mist capture system.
Figure 8
Additional examples of Kimre media cut and mounted to special shapes and needs.
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Page9
Another advantage of the Kimre SXFTM Semi-Cross-Flow Scrubbers is that the media can usually be
exchanged quickly on-line for maintenance or replacement; thus preventing costly down time. In a multi
stage semi-cross-flow scrubber, one stage of KON-TANE media is often removed as the scrubber
(10)
continues to operate within required emission limits . A spare stage can be quickly inserted in place of the
removed KON-TANE media. This type of maintenance can be accomplished within a few minutes, and the
removed KON-TANE media cassette can then be serviced at the operators convenience.
Cross Flow Scrubber Design Example:
Typical design parameters for a SXFTM scrubber are:
NTU per stage:
Superficial Gas Velocity:
Liquid Flux per Stage:
Pressure Drop:
Page10
Cross-flow scrubbers can provide equal or even greater efficiency than counter-current scrubbers of equal
length. A flue gas desulfurization study reported an operating efficiency so high in a cross-flow scrubber as to
question the accuracy of the instrumentation used (11). Cross-flow scrubbers present a cost advantage in
many applications. Without question, a cross-flow arrangement will be much more convenient than a verticalcounter-current scrubber. (See the tabulation below.)
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Difficult
Higher
Equal
References:
(1) McCabe et al.; Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 5th Ed., McGraw Hill, 1993
(2) L.K. Wang, ed., Air Pollution Control Engineering, Volume 1; Humana Press, 2004
(3) G. C. Pedersen and W.M. Schott, Cross-Flow Mesh vs. Counter-Flow Dumped Scrubbers: A
Comparison, ACHEMA International Meeting on Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology,
June 1997.
(4) SRC/SEMATECH Engineering Research Center for Benign Semiconductor Manufacture, Dept.
of Chemical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson AZ, www.erc.arizona.edu
(5) Case Study, Record size cross flow scrubber installed at B.C. Kraft mill,
www.fabricatedplastics.com
(6) Ron Patterson and Andrew Bartocci, Wet Scrubber Design for Brick Kiln Applications, Pollution
Engineering, May 1, 2005.
(7) Personal experience of the author
(8) Vasilis M. Fthenakis, Cross-Flow versus Counter-Current Flow Packed Bed Scrubbers: A
Mathematical Analysis, AIChE Spring National Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 1996
(9) Yap Lee Jiuan, Evaluation of Wet Scrubber Systems; BA Mechanical Engineering Thesis, Uni
versity of Southern Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, www.usq.edu.au, Oct. 2005
(10) M.J. Derenthal and W.M. Schott, Meeting the challenge of environmental control problems,
Phosphorus and Potassium No. 216, pp. 38-43, July-August 1998
(11) Shattuck, D. et. al., A History of Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) The Early Years,
www.ue-corp.com/news/wp-fluegas.pdf
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Page11
Trademark Acknowledgements:
SXF; AEROSEP, KON-TANE B-GON; PANTS-HANGER; BATTEN BAR;
Kimre Technology are registered trademarks of Kimre, Inc. Miami Florida, USA
LANPAC is a registered trademark of Lantec Products, Inc.
Tellerette is a registered trademark of Ceilcote APC, Inc.
TM
Secondary Features:
Customized Design:
Wide Range of
Monofilament Diameters:
Composite Construction
Extraordinary Strength
Flexibility
Gas Flow Spreads-out within the Media which Evens the Flow
Across the Media, Providing Flow Stability, Complementing other
Products such as Chevrons, Making for Excellent Operation for
Carbon Bed Supports, as well in Cyclone Separators.
One-Piece Construction
Materials of Construction:
Media is Stabilized