Unit 6 Experimental Physics

Errors in a measurement
1. Random error (accidental error):
Errors which occur in a random manner and cannot be associated with a systematic cause
are called random error.

Eg:

Random error can be reduced by repeat reading.

Anomalous values are results of random errors. (anomalous values are values that are
deviated more from the given set of readings)
20.99,

21.02,

20.99,

27.02,

20.99,

21.01

The degree of exactness with which the measurement can be taken ( for a group of
measurement).
Or
Precision indicates the limit up to which the measurement can be taken accurately.
(for a single measurement).

Precision is determined by the least count of a measurement.

The smaller the least count the greater the precision.
A measurement is said to be precise, if it has little random error. ( for a group of
measurement)
Generally more number past the decimal, the greater precision.

Precision of:

Anomalous value

Source

Precise (precision) reproducibility

The readability of instrument.

The observer being less than perfect
External effect on the observed item.

2. Systematic error:
The error that occurs in each measurement in a similar manner.

Meter ruler
Vernier Caliper
Screw Gauge

= 1mm
= 0.1 mm
= 0.01 mm

= 0.1cm
= 0.01 cm
= 0.001cm

NB: Precision = Least Count of the measuring instrument.

NB:
Precision of 10.012 cm is 0.001 cm.
Precision of 0.82 sec is 0.01 sec.

Systematic error cannot be reduced by repeat reading but can be eliminated by

finding the source of the error and applying a correction to the measured values.

NB: If the reading taken / obtained are too close to each other, the readings are more precise,
but may or may not be accurate.

Source

eg. The diameter readings measured for a wire using screw gauge are

Measurement made with instrument with a zero offset error.

The observer being less than perfect in the same way each time.
Taking measurement with an instrument that is improperly calibrated.
Simplification and assumption.

eg: If we neglect the air resistance in a free fall experiment to find g by

1
using the equation, = + 2
where,
u = 0,
1

= 2
2
2

a=g
Time of fall = t
Vertical distance fallen = S

= 2

t will be larger with air resistance causing g to be smaller each time.

Trial
/ 2
1
8
2
8
3
8
4
8
Mean value = 8 ms -2
\

But accepted value of g = 9.81 ms -2

0.61, 0.62, 0.61, 0.61

are precise because the values are close enough to each other (short range and doesnt
have anomalous value), but the reading will be accurate only if it doesnt have zero error
(systematic error).
Accurate (Accuracy) close to actual value:
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how close a measurement is to the
true / actual / accepted / original value of the quantity.

A measurement is said to be accurate, if it has little systematic error.

To increase accuracy we should,

avoid anomalous value,

reduce systematic error and
reduce random error (by increasing trial and taking average).

NB: Analyzing the set of reading taken by different students in an experiment to find g.
Expt. No: 1
Trial
g
1
12
2
14
3
8
4
6
Av.g = 10

Expt. No: 2
Trial
g
1
3
2
4
3
4
4
3
Av.g = 3.5

Expt. No: 3
Trial
g
1
9
2
10
3
9
4
9
Av.g = 9

Expt. No: 4
Trial
g
1
3
2
6
3
1
4
8
Av.g = 4.5

Accurate but
not precise.

Precise but
not accurate.

Precise and
accurate

Inaccurate and
imprecise.

% Uncertainty in X and

eg.

X = YZ
%U in X = %U in Y + %U in Z.

eg.

X = Y / Z.
%U in X = %U in Y + %U in Z.

eg.

That which we dont know, for certain.

Steps involved in finding %U in addition and subtraction :

NB: The last digit in any measurement is uncertain (some time known as doubtful digit).
Uncertainty in a single measurement - (Absolute Uncertainty)
Uncertainty = Precision = Least Count of a Measurement.
Uncertainty of range of values / measurement:

. .

Calculate the total absolute uncertainty by adding or subtracting the absolute

uncertainty of each measurement which are added or subtracted.

Calculate the sum or difference of given measurement.

Calculate %U in addition or subtraction of measurements by dividing total absolute

uncertainty with sum or difference of given measurement.
=

Eg.

% = (

Relative Uncertainty:
It is the ratio of uncertainty to true value / original value / mean value / accepted
value / actual value.

=

NB: For a range of values
( . . )/
=

Random Uncertainty Not included in Edexcel A Level Physics Syllabus.
( . . )
=

where N = number of trials.

Percentage Uncertainty (% U):
% = %

% =

% U in + and

% =

In multiplication and division, the total %U is the sum of individual %U s.

%U in Q = %U in P + %U in Z + %U in Y.

Uncertainty (U) (Uncertain)

, =

( .. )/

% = (

Percentage Difference (% D):

The percentage difference between the true / original value and the measured /
calculated value is calculated as,

% = (

NB: If two calculated values given are true values, then

..

% = (

Comparing % D with % U:
1.
2.

If, %D > %U , then the measurements are not reliable .

If, %D < %U , then the measurements are reliable .