Data Communications Equipment (DCE)

Data Communications Equipment (DCE) can be classified as

equipment that transmits or receives analogue or digital signals
through a network. DCE works at the physical layer of the OSI model
taking data generated by Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and
converting it into a signal that can then be transmitted over a
communications link. A common DCE example is a modem which
works as a translator of digital and analogue signals.
DCE may also be responsible for providing timing over a serial link. In a
complex network which uses directly connected routers to provide
serial links, one serial interface of each connection must be configured
with a clock rate to provide synchronisation.
Other common DCE examples include:
ISDN adapters
Satellites (including base stations)
Microwave stations
NIC (network interface cards)
DCE is sometimes said to stand for Data Circuit-terminating
Equipment.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) is any equipment that is either a

source or destination for digital data. DTE do not generally
communicate with each other to do so they need to use DCE to carry
out the communication. DTE does not need to know how data is sent or
received; the communications details are left to the DCE. A typical
example of DTE is a computer.
Other common DTE examples include:
Printers
File and application servers
PCs
Dumb Terminals
Routers

DTE
What is DTE?

a)

A timing device at both ends of the communication

b)

A device, such as a computer, which is a source or destination of

digital data

c)

A device that transmits or receives analogue signals

d)

A device that converts analogue to digital signals

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DCE
What is DCE?

a)

A device that check data for errors

b)

A communications device that makes transmission fast

c)

A device that transmits or receives signals over a network

d)

A dumb terminal

DCE
Which of the following is an example of DCE?

a)

NIC

b)

Printer

c)

PC

d)

File Server

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DTE
Which of the following is an example of DTE?

a)

File Server

b)

Modem

c)

Satellites

d)

Base Stations for Satellites

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Transmission Modes
Data transmission may take place in one direction only or it may be bi-directional. There
are 3 groups into which the channel can be classified:
Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex

Simplex

Data is transmitted from the sender to receiver only, eg: from a central computer to a
dumb terminal. The communication can only take place in one direction and it is not
possible for the receiver to send data back. An example of simplex transmission would be
data being sent to an electronic notice board such as those found in train stations and
airports.

Half-Duplex

Data can travel in both directions but not at the same time. Each end of the
communications link acts as sender and receiver, eg: two-way communication between
computers and other computers that may be connected to a hub. Controls will exist to
ensure that the devices do not send at the same time. One human example of this type
of communication is the use of walkie-talkies, where each person communicating must
indicate when they have finished speaking.

Full-Duplex

Data can travel in both directions simultaneously, eg: two or more computers connected
to a network device such as a switch that provides full duplex activity.
Note: as well as the data that is sent between systems there is also control information,
eg: ready to send and ready to receive. Therefore, although the data may be only one
way in a passive simplex system there may be the need for control information to be
collected and used by the sender.

Baud and Data Rates

You may have heard the term 'baud rate' used in relation to modems.

Baud rate is the speed at which data is transmitted over a channel. It is named after the
French scientist: Emil Baudot, who devised one of the earliest data transmission codes,
ie: Baudot Code. At low speeds one baud is equivalent to one bit per second, therefore, a
1200 baud channel will transmit data at the rate of 1200 bits per second.
When the transmission rate of a line is defined for DCE the term baud is often used. If
used correctly baud indicates the number of line signal changes per second, therefore, if
each transmitted signal is either a one or a zero then baud rate and the actual
transmission rate, ie: bits per second (bps) are the same. However, there are many
instances when the line signal can take on more than two states and as such each signal
can be used for more than one single bit.

Baud versus Data Rates

Baud rate is the measurement of signal units required to transmit the data. The ideal is to
create an efficient system using as few signals as possible. The fewer signals there are,
the less bandwidth is required to move data. Baud rate determines that amount of
bandwidth required in communications links.
Bit or Data Transmission Rate (DTR) is measured in bits per seconds (bps). The data
transmission rate indicates how long it will take to transmit the data, in terms of the user
and computer this is the most important information, because DTR is used to compare
speeds and performance.
Note: Baud will always be less than or equal to the DTR.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an organization that is
responsible for the standardizing of methods by which computers communicate with each
other. In 1984 the ISO devised their model for network communication. This model is
called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model or more commonly
the OSI model.
The OSI model divides network communications into seven layers. Each layer is
responsible for carrying out specific functions when transmitting data on the network.
Each layer of this 7 layer structure has a definite function.
These layers can be recalled using the following acronyms:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing. (Layers 7 down to 1)
People Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away (Layers 1 up to 7)
Each of the letters represents a different layer (note that the order of these layers is
critical)

Layers of the OSI Model

No

Layer Name

Layer Function

Application Layer

Network process to application

Presentation Layer

Data representation and encryption

Session Layer

Interhost communication

Transport Layer

End-to-end connections and reliability

Network Layer

Path determination and logical addressing (IP)

Data Link Layer

Physical addressing (MAC & LLC)

Physical Layer

Media, signal and binary transmission

The OSI reference model divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer
covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols. The table below represents
the layered architecture of the OSI reference model. The OSI reference model defines
how each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately above and below it.

OSI Model Explained

Each layer of the OSI model provides some service or action that prepares the data for
delivery over the network to another computer. The lowest layers, ie: 1 and 2 define the
network's physical media and related tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network
interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest layers define how applications access
communication services. The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called
interfaces. All requests are passed from one layer, through the interface to the next layer.
Each layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer below it.
The sending end carries out a process called encapsulation on the information to be sent
over the network. Each layer has a protocol data unit (PDU) that it prepares before giving
it to the lower layer. Therefore, the information goes down from layer 7 to layer 1 and is
then sent to the receiving end. At the receiving end, the process is reversed, ie: deencapsulation, with the PDU of each peer layer being processed before being moved to
the upper layer.
With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can pass
information directly to its peer. Instead, information on the sending computer must be
passed down through each successive layer until it reaches the physical layer and then
passed back up at the receiving end.

Layer 7: Application
The top, or seventh, layer of the OSI model is the Application layer. The Application layer
provides interfaces to the software that enable it to use network services. Some of the
services provided by the Application layer include file transfer, electronic mail and web
services.

Layer 7 PDU:

Data

Layer 6: Presentation
The Presentation layer serves as a translator between the Application and the Session
layer. At the Presentation layer data are formatted in a representation that the network
can understand, eg: ASCII. The Presentation layer also takes care of data encryption and
decryption, such as password encryption.
Common protocols found at the presentation layer include ASCII, EBCDIC, JPG and MIDI.
Layer 6 PDU:

Data

Layer 5: Session
The Session layer allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close
a connection, ie: a session. A session is a highly structured dialogue between two
workstations. The session layer is responsible for managing this dialogue. It performs
name recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two
applications to communicate over the network.
The Session layer synchronises user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data stream. The
checkpoints break the data into smaller groups for error detection. This layer also
implements dialogue control between communicating processes, such as regulating which
side transmits, when, and for how long. Common protocols used by the session layer
include RPC, SQL and NetBIOS names.
Layer 5 PDU:

Data

Layer 4: Transport
The Transport layer is primarily responsible for ensuring that data is transferred from one
point to another reliably and without errors. For example, the Transport layer makes sure
data are sent and received in the correct sequence.
The Transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates in solving
problems concerned with the transmission and reception of packets. Common examples
of Transport layer protocols are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX).

Layer 4 PDU:

Segment

Layer 3: Network
The Network layer handles addressing and routing of data based on logical addressing.
Routers belong to the Network layer because they use logical addresses to intelligently
direct data from sender to receiver. A router determines which path the data should take
based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic
problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the
congestion of data.
Examples of Network layer protocols are Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet
Exchange (IPX).
Layer 3 PDU:

Packet

Layer 2: Data Link

The data link layer sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It is
responsible for the control of the signals that enter and leave the network cable. On the
receiving end, the data link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into data
frames. The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding methods, and
tokens) is known to this layer only.
Layer 2 PDU:

Frame

Layer 1: Physical
The bottom layer of the OSI model is the physical layer. This layer transmits the
unstructured raw data, ie: bits, over the physical medium. The physical layer is totally
hardware based and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link
between communicating computers.
The physical layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines
how many pins a connector has and the function of each. It also defines which
transmission technique will be used to send data over the network cable.
This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronisation. The physical layer is
responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one computer to another and
because different types of media physically transmit bits differently, the physical layer

also defines the duration of each impulse and how each bit is translated into the
appropriate electrical or optical impulse for the network cable.
Layer 1 PDU:

Bit

OSI Model in a Human Context

James Bond and the OSI Model

The OSI model is probably the most important networking model used today, and as
such, it is useful to learn as much about it as possible. The web site link below gives us
another way to look at the OSI model by having James Bond deliver a secret message.

Click on this link to have a look at how James Bond works with the OSI model.
Have a look at the following web site which looks at the OSI model from the view of the
Mafia