HistoryofPhiladelphiaCommunityGardening

AlthoughPhiladelphiahasparticipatedinhadrootsinurbangardeningand
farmingsincethel890s,itisonlyrecentlythattheseprojectshavestartedtobeviewedas
longterm,sustainableurbanpractices.BeginningwiththeVacantLotCultivation
Association(VLCA)in1897,Philadelphiaresidentsbeganurbanfarmingasawayto
gainaccesstolocallygrownfood.TheprimaryfocusoftheVLCAwasforlocal
residentstohaveaccesstocheapfoodsduringthedepressioneraofthe1890s(Goldstein,
1997;Lawson,2004;Vitello,2009).TheVLCAprovidedaccesstolandonemptylotsin
promotionofforprofitfoodgardensthatalsoprovidededucationongardeningto
children(Goldstein,1997;Vitello,2009).Theselots,approximately27acres,produced
$61offoodperlotandeverydollarputintothelotsyieldeda$3return(Spears,Lindsay,
&Kirkbride,1898,pg.).Thedepressionperiodbegantosubsideandthegardens
becameahobbyistactivity(Lawson,2009).WhileVLCAswereinstitutedinother
placessuchasNewYorkandDetroit,thePhiladelphiaVLCAwasuniquebecauseit
lastedwellintothe1920s(Lawson,2004).
TheUSinvolvementinWorldWarIalsoplayedapivotalroleinthedevelopment
ofurbanfarms.Vitello(2009)arguesthatbecausefood(aswellasotherproducts)was
scarce,peopledependeduponlocalizedurbangardens.Relatedly,Lawson(2004)argues
thatthegovernmentpromotedcommunitygardenstoallowfortheexportationoffood
intothewareffortinEurope.Thecommunitygardensalsohelpedsupportlocal
neighborhoodsthroughtheGreatDepression,butlackedoverallsupportuntilthe

VictoryGardensduringWWII.Asintheearlierconflict,thiswasinaneffortto
decreasenationaldemandforfoodinordertosupportthewarabroad(Lawson,2004).
Forexample,postersbytheUSDAdepictedfamiliesworkingingardenswithslogans
likeUncleSamsays:Gardentocutfoodcosts(UnitedStatesDepartmentof
Agriculture,1917)andPlantavictorygarden:ourfoodisfighting:agardenwillmake
yourrationsgofurther("UnitedStates,OfficeofWarInformation,1943).These
VictoryGardenssuppliedalargepercentageoffoodforhouseholdsandoneofthese
gardensstillexistinPhiladelphiatoday(Vitello,2009).
Duringthe1950sand60ssupportstartedtowaneforurbanfarms,butthenbegan
torefocus,specificallyinPhiladelphia,duringthe1970s.Philadelphiaseconomywas
dependentuponindustryandduringthe1970s,100,0000manufacturingjobswerelost
andPhiladelphiaspopulationdecreased,leadingtovacantpropertiesandderelictland
(Vitello,2009).In1974,thePhiladelphiaHorticulturalSocietys(PHS)Philadelphia
GreenProgramwasagrassrootscampaigninitiatedtoclaimtheselotsinaneffortto
beautifyneighborhoodsbygrowingvegetables(PhiladelphiaHorticulturalSociety,
2011).WhilethePHSprovidedaccesstoland,compost,andfencing,thePennState
UrbanGardeningProgram(a6cityUSDAprogramin1977)providedtechnicaltraining
andseedstopotentialurbanfarmers(Vitello,2009).
Thesetwoprogramsalongwithahandfulofothersledtoover500lotsin
Philadelphiathatwereactivelygrowingfood.Vitellos(2009)researchstudyshowsthat
duringthistime,almost$2millionofvegetablecropswerebeingproducedperyear.
EvenwiththemodestsuccessofthePHSandPennState,in1996,theUSDAcutfunding

forurbanprogramswhilePHSsimultaneouslyshiftedfundsawaygardeninginitiatives
(Vitello,2009).Duetothelackoffunding,coupledwithPhiladelphiashighdemandfor
realestate,almosthalfofthecommunitygardenshadceasedtoexistby2000(Vitello,
2009).WhiletheCityofPhiladelphiaacquiredsomeofthislandthroughits
NeighborhoodTransformationInitiative(NTI)forredevelopment,privatedevelopment
increasedasneighborhoodschanged(includingPoweltonVillage,NorthernLiberties,
andQueensVillage)andbecamemoreaffluent.Inothercircumstances,manyofthese
gardensweresimplyabandoneddueastheoldergenerationpassedaway,people
relocatedoutofthecity,orastheirlifesituationschanged(Vitiello,2009).
In2003,thecitysNTIprogram,themainprogramresponsibleforrevitalizing
neighborhoodsinPhiladelphia,adoptedtheGreenCityStrategyreclaimingvacant
land,communitygreening,andlongtermlandscapemanagement(PHS,2011)and
granteda$4millioncontracttoPHStobeginitsimplementation(Pennsylvania
HorticulturalSocietyLaunchingtheGreenCityStrategy).In2010,theCityof
PhiladelphiareleasedtheVacantLandManagementReportthatconsistsofover40,000
properties(EconsultCorporationandPennInstituteforUrbanResearch,2010)whilethe
PennsylvaniaHorticulturalSociety(PHS)continuesitsTheGreenCityStrategy,which
promotestheenhancementofcommunitygardenstoteachgardeningskillstocity
residentsandfundsfromNTIwillsupportthecreationof20newcommunitygardens
(PHS,2011)torevitalizethecitybothsociallyandeconomically.Thecooperation
betweenPHSandthecityreflectsthegrowingimportanceofgreen,sustainable
initiativeswithinthecity.

OutlinedinSection3oftheGreenworksPhiladelphia,Target10istoBringLocal
Foodwithin10Minutesof75%ofLocalResidents.Duetostronginterestinlocalfood
initiatives,in2008,MayorMichaelNuttercreatedthePhiladelphiaFoodCharter.The
goalofthischarteristo
facilitatethedevelopmentofasustainablecityfoodandurbanagriculturesystem
onethatcontributestocommunity,economic,healthandenvironmentalgoals;
encourageslocalproduction,protectingournaturalandhumanresources;
recognizesaccesstosafe,sufficient,culturallyappropriateandnutritiousfoodas
abasicrightforallPhiladelphians;fosterscommunitygardensandfarming;
createseconomicopportunitiesforneighborhoodresidents;encourages
collaborationandbuildsupontheeffortsofexistingstakeholdersthroughoutthe
cityandregion;andcelebratesPhiladelphiasmulticulturalfoodtraditions.(p.
51)
TheMayorhasalsoestablishedaFoodPolicyCouncilthatwillcreatea
SustainableFoodPolicyPlaninwhichtheCitywillworkwithpartnerstoachievemany
localfoodinitiativestogether.TheinitiativesunderGreenworksPhiladelphiaTarget10
areasfollows:
IncreaseAccesstoFreshFood:expandthenumberofneighborhoodfarmers
markets,publicizelocalfoodsourceefforts,providetechnicalassistance,leverage
vacantland,fosterschoolbasedefforts,
TheCitycallforthecreationofanadditional59foodproducinggardens,12
farmsand15farmersmarkets(amaponpage53oftheGreenworksdocument
showsneighborhoodsthatlackaccesstofreshfood)
CreateDemandforLocallyGrownFoods:fostercommercialfarming,
encouragedistributionofhealthyfoodinneighborhoodstores,supportfood
cooperativeexpansion
EntrepreneurshipandWorkforceDevelopmentOpportunityandNeeds:support
greenkitchendevelopment
CombatingHungerandMoreImmediateNeeds:createandurbanagriculture
workforcestrategytogrowgreenjobs,integrateantihungereffortsintofoodand
urbanagriculturegoals.

Philadelphiatodayhascloseto240urbangardensthatproducefoodandfourteen
largescaleurbanfarms(Hunold&Traveline,2010).Infact,manypeoplewithinthecity
nowseecommunitygardensasawaytomanagevacantlandanddevelopagreener,
moreenvironmentallyfriendlycity.
AuthorssuchasMichaelPollanhavebroughtnationalattentiontothefood
industry.PollanarguesinTheOmnivoresDilemmaandFoodRules:AnEater's
Manual"thatthemodernindustrialfoodsystemdisconnectstheconsumerfromthefood
theyconsumeandthatpoliciesneedtoshifttowardalocallyproducedagriculturalmodel
(Pollan,2007,2009).AlongwithPhiladelphia,otherurbanareasareincreasingthe
numberoffarmsthatarelocatedonvacantlots.ScholarsColassanti,Litjens,andHamm
(2010)ofMichiganStateUniversitysurveyedDetroit,Michiganin2009,usingaGIS
systemandaerialimagery,andfoundover31,000vacantlotstotalingmorethen3,500
acres.Thesescholarsarguethatfarmingfruitsandvegetableson1,660acrescould
produceupto76percentofvegetablesand45percentoffruitforDetroitscitizens
(Colassanti,Litjens,andHamm,2010).
TheincreaseinurbanfarminginDetroitledtothecreationoftheDetroit
AgricultureNetwork(2011),acollaborativeeffortbyTheGreeningofDetroit,Detroit
AgricultureNetwork,EarthWorksUrbanFarm/CapuchinSoupKitchen,andMichigan
StateUniversitythatconnectsover185businessandhundredsofindividuals.This
networkoffersabroadrangeofinformationincludinghowtostartagarden,current
fundingoptions,upcomingevents,educationandjobopportunities,andaguidethat
displaysthearearestaurantsthatbuylocalproduce(DetroitAgricultureNetwork

date?).ThisgrassrootsmovementhasbeguntoaffectDetroitsfoodpolicies.OnMarch
18,2010,theCityPlanningCommissionreleaseditsdraftproposalthatoutlinesa
twentypointplantofostersustainablefoodpracticesusingthetriplebottomline
approach(economic,environmental,andsocialandhealth)(DetroitCityPlanning
Commission,2010).
Health
IntheU.S.,accesstoadequatenutritionisnotdistributedequitablyamongall
people.Astheresultofanunevendegreeofaccesstoadequatenutrition,negativehealth
outcomesanddietrelateddiseasearebecomingincreasinglyprevalent.Accessisan
importantcomponenttostudybecausethereisbothaliterallackofaccesstonecessary
nutrition,aswellasalackofaccessduetotheperceptionofinadequacy,whichcanalso
bepairedwithalimitedknowledgeofnutrition.Limitednutritionalaccessisagrowing
healthissuethathasdevelopedintoanationalpublichealthproblem.
Inthepublichealthfield,aparadigmshifthasoccurredovertimewhichhas
requiredamovefromfocusingprimarilyoninfectiousdiseasestolearninghowto
addressmorechronichealthproblems.Chronichealthproblemsareoftenarelationto
dietandnutrition(Mead,2008).CasesofType2diabetesareonanunprecedentedrise
amongvariousagegroups,cardiovasculardiseaseisamajorthreat,andotherissues
associatedwithdietrelatedhealthoutcomesarebecomingincreasinglyprevalent
(Beaulac,Kristjansson,&Cummins,2009).Manyofthesechronicdiseasesarea
consequenceofdietslimitedinfruit,vegetable,andfiberconsumption,andhighinfats,
sugars,andprocessedstarches(Mead,2008).Chronicdiseasesareveryexpensiveto

treat(onanindividualaswellasanationalbasis),andoncedevelopedtheymaycontinue
tobecomemoreseverethroughoutthepatientslife.Theyaretheleadingcausesofdeath
anddisabilityintheU.S.(CDC,2010).However,chronicdiseasesareforthemostpart
preventablethroughhealthylifestyles(Costello,Healey,&McGowan,2007).
Asanexampleofadietrelatedchronicdisease,type2diabetesanditscomplicating
factorsareagrowinghealthproblemandthusitisimperativethatgreaterunderstanding
ofthepreventionandtreatmentstrategiesforthispandemicbedeveloped(Unger&
Moriarty,2008,p.646).UngerandMoriarty(2008)proceedtofurtherexplainwhytwo
unprecedentedhistoricalchangesindevelopedsocietyhaveconvergedtocreatean
environmentperfectfortheriseoftype2diabetes.Thefirstfactoristhat,inthelasthalf
century,eatingandfoodpreparationhavetransitionedfromtakingplaceprimarilyinthe
hometooutsidethehome;thusmanypeoplenoweatoutmorethantheypreparefoodfor
themselves(2008).Thesecondfactoristhatatthesametime,withtheshiftfroma
production/manufacturingbasedeconomytoamoretechnologicallybasedone;lifestyles
havebecomemuchmoresedentary(2008).

Carnethon(2008)supportsthisassessment,describinghowthehealthbehaviors

ofbecomingsedentaryandeatingexcessivelyhighcaloriefoodshascontributedto
energyimbalanceandweightgain(p.942).Thesetwooccurrenceshavesetthestage
foranenvironmentthatlendsitselfquitewelltoanincreaseinadiseasesuchastype2
diabetes.Formanypeopletheelevatedriskoftype2diabetesistheresultofinadequate
nutrition.Thisisnotnecessarilyinadequatenutritioninthesenseofnothavingfood,but

ratherintermsofnothavingtherightfoods,ortheunderstandingofwhattodowiththe
rightfoods.

Astheresultoflimitedaccesstofoodsthatpromoteahealthierdiet,people

sufferingfromchronicdiseasedonotalwayshavetheabilitytoadheretotheir
recommendeddietsandmaygettrappedinacycleofunhealthyeatingcontributingto
theirdiseaseoutcome(Smith&Morton,2009).Accesstonutritiousfoodsisan
importantfactorinhelpingtostaveoffhealthproblemssuchasthese,butphysicalaccess
mustalsobepairedwithknowledge.Unlesstheunderstandingamongpeopleofhowto
preparehealthyfoodsiscorrespondinglyincreasedalongwithimprovedphysicalaccess,
thenconsumptionofhealthierfoodswillnotnecessarilyoccur.Therefore,knowledge
couldbearguedtobeabranchunderanoveralldefinitionofaccess.Ifpeopledonot
haveaccesstoappropriatenutritionwhetherbecauseofrealand/orperceivedbarriers,
thentheratesofaforementioneddietrelatedhealthproblemsarelikelytocontinue
increasing.

In2001,theUSDepartmentofHumanServicesarguedthatwithintheUS,
healthyfoodswerenotaccessibleandthepublicreliedonavarietyofsnackfoods,
sugarybeverages,fastfoods,andothertypesoffoodthatwerehighinsugar,fat,and
calories(USDHHS,2001;Cohen&Farley,2008).Scholarsarguethatincreasinghealthy
foodswoulddecreasetheriskforchronicdiseases,highbloodpressure,somecancers,
obesity,andotherhealthisuues,especiallyinlowincomecommunities(PiSunyer,2002;
Moreland,2006;Blancketal.,2007).Theconsumptionofhealthyfoods,suchasfruits

andvegetables,withinlowincomeminoritycommunitiesisdisproportionallylowerthan
inmiddleclassCaucasiancommunities(Blancketal.,2007).
Fruitandvegetableconsumptiondataindicatepeoplewithlowincomelevelsor
peopleinracialandethnicminoritycommunitieseatfewerfruitsandvegetablesthanthe
generalpopulation(Blancketal.,2007).Thesecommunitieslackgrocerystoresand
otheralternativesforfreshandhealthyfoodswhilerelyingoncornerstoresthatsell
convenientortertiaryprocessedfoodsthatareshelfstableforlongperiodsoftime
(Mikkelsonetal.,2007).Recentstudyresultsshowedthatinneighborhoodswithlower
incomesthedistancetothenearestchainsupermarketincreasedwithahigherproportion
ofAfricanAmericans,butremainedsimilaracrossraceintheaffluentneighborhoods
(Zenketal.,2005b).Theseneighborhoodresidentsalsomaylacktransportationtoand
fromthehealthyfoodlocations,especiallycarryingmultiplebagsofgroceries.(Clifton,
2004)
Communitygardensareeffectivewaystoprovideaccessandincreasefruitand
vegetableconsumptionwithinlocalneighborhoods.Whileprovidingaccesstohealthy
foods,gardensalsoprovideadditionalbenefitssuchasconnectingfamiliesand
neighbors,beautifyingneighborhoods,andpromotinghealth(AlthausOttman,2010).
Otherscholarsshowhowgardensreducecrime(Armstrong,2000),promote
neighborhoodparticipation(Teig,2009),improvementalhealth,nutrition,physical
activity,andincreasesocialcapital(Wakefield,2007).

LandRightsandSocialCapital

Oneofthemostsignificantchallengesfacingtheexpansionofcommunity
gardensisaccesstoland,particularlybecausemanyorganizationshavelittletono
resourcestoobtainlandbylegalmeans.Asmentionedabove,Philadelphiacurrentlyhas
severalthousandvacantlots;inthe19104zipcode,therearealmost800vacantlots
totalingtwosquaremilesoflandwithnobuildingstructures(DatafromVacantLand
Report).Intheselots,gardensarebeginningtobecomepopular.Oftentimes,
neighborhoodgardensarestartedonempty,vacantlotswhereeitherthecityoran
absenteeownerownsthelot,makingthesustainabilityofthegardenuncertain.Since
gardenersplantheircropsoftenmonthsaheadoftime,communitiesmaybehesitantto
begingardensorlacksecurityinregardstothesecrops,especiallyinareasthatare
transitioningorgentrifying(Holland,2004).Whilecityofficialsmayhavesupported
(directlyorindirectly)gardensinthepast,cityofficialsoftensupportdevelopmentover
communitygardens(Schmelzkopf,1995).Themostsuccessful,longtermgardensare
duetocooperationbetweentheneighborhood,cityofficials,localchurches,schools,and
nonprofitorganizationsthatsecurelandrightsforthegardenswhiledevelopingother
programssuchasafterschoolprograms,foodbanks,andotheractivitiesincoordination
withthegardens(Schmelzkopf,1995).
Landrightsarecriticaltothelongtermsuccessofcommunitygardens,butother
resourcessuchascommunityconnectionsandneighborhoodskillsandknowledgeare
alsoinstrumentalinthesuccessofcommunitygardens(Glover,2005).Glover(2005)
arguesthatthemoreconnectedtheneighborhoodgardenistothecommunityitserves,

themorelikelypotentialparticipantsarewillingtoengageinprovidingsupportboth
financialandinregardstodaytodayoperationsforthegarden.
Theseresourcesarevaluabletocommunitygardensnotonlyfortheamountof
fruitsandvegetableproduced,butinmarketing,fundraising,andhostingofeventsthat
connectthegardentothecommunity.Thegardenbecomesmorethanagarden,buta
spaceforcommunitytogather,meet,makefriends,anddeveloptheneighborhood
(Glover,2005).Inneighborhoodsthatarediverseinpopulation,gardensalsohavethe
potentialtoserveasabridgeforbringingtogetherpeople;however,somestudieshave
shownthatparticipationmaybereducedincaseswheretheracialmakeupofthoseseen
toberunningthegardendiffersfromthatofneighborhoodresidents(Glover,2004).
Theliteraturesuggeststhatcommunitygardensincreasethesocialaspectsofa
communityandthemoresocialthegarden,themorepeoplearelikelytogetandremain
involved(Gloveretal.,2005;Kingsley&Townsend,2006).KingsleyandTownsend
(2006)showthedailyandweeklyrelationshipsleadpeopletodevelopingstrongertiesto
theneighborhood.Communitygardensarealsoshowntodecreasecrimeandrevitalize
neighborhoodsandmanyneighborhoodsstartgardenstoassistwiththesetwoareas
(Glover,2005).Communitygardens,therefore,canactasasourceoflocalcontrolover
existinginstitutionssuchaspoliceandthecooperationbetweenneighborhoodmembers,
nonprofits,andinstitutionsbothenablingandstemmingfromthegardenalsogivesthe
neighborhoodlegitimacy(Glover,2004).

GISandFOODDESERTS

Theliteratureregardingfoodaccessibilityfrequentlydiscussesthenegative
impactsoffooddeserts.Afooddesertisadescriptionusedtoindicateanareathathas
limitedaccesstohealthier,moreaffordablefoods(LarsenK.G.,2008).Theimpactof
fooddesertshelpstodemonstratetherolethatthebuiltenvironment(thefeaturesofa
personshabitatthatarecreatedbypeopleandarenotnaturallyoccurring)playsinhow
peopleobtainfood(Papas,Alberg,Ewing,Helzlsouer,Gary,&Klassen,2007).Whether
certainfoodsareavailableornotisafeatureofthebuiltenvironmentandhasa
considerablecontributiontowardsthedevelopmentofeatinghabits,termedthesocial
patterningoffoodavailability(Papas,Alberg,Ewing,Helzlsouer,Gary,&Klassen,
2007,p.141).
Thissocialpatterningoffoodavailabilityisevidenceofthestructuralinequities
thatarefoundinthedistributionandtypeoffoodstoresthatareavailableamong
differentneighborhoods(Papas,etal.,2007,p.141;Beaulac,Kristjansson,&Cummins,
2009).Inanastuteobservationofhowtheenvironmentcanhaveaneffectonnutrition,
Webber,Sobal,andDollahitewriteaboutsomeoftheirstudyparticipantsaslivinginan
environmentwherepizzasbutnotgroceriescanbehomedelivered(2010,p.301).
Accesstopropernutritionhaspreviouslybeenexaminedintermsoftheabilityof
residentstoeasilygettovarioustypesoffoodstores,rangingfromhealthier
supermarketsandhealthfoodstorestofastfoodrestaurants.
IntheirstudyoftheabilityofNewYorkCityresidentstowalktofood
establishments,Rundleetal.foundthattheratioofhealthfoodestablishmentsto
unhealthyoneswas4:31persquarekilometer(2009).Similarly,anobservationalstudy

performedinTexasevaluatedthetypesofhealthyfoodestablishmentsthatwere
availableintworuralcommunities,whichagreedthatagreaternumberoffoodstores
theyfoundhadmoreunhealthythanhealthyoptions(Bustillos,Sharkey,Anding,&
McIntosh,2009).Thusfar,therehavebeenattemptstodealwiththeeffectsofpoordiets
throughprogramsaimedatindividualparticipantslearningaboutnutrition,andthen
makingtheappropriatechangesintheirlives.However,unlessananalysisoftheirfood
environmentisalsotakenintoaccount,theywillbelimitedinhowmuchofachange
theycanactuallymake(Sallis&Glanz,2009).
Thedevelopmentoffooddesertshasoccurredalongsidethemovementsof
populationsfromlivingincitiestolivinginthesuburbs.Aspeoplewithenoughmeans
wereabletobuycars,theyalsostartedtomoveawayfromthecitiesandgrocerystores
movedwiththemtocontinueservingtheirneeds.Asthesestoresmovedtoless
populatedareas,theywereabletobuylargertractsoflandatlowerprices,thereforethey
couldexpandtheirstores(Larsen&Gilliland,2008).Asthesestoresbecamecapableof
carryingalmosteverythingthatwasneeded,smallerstoreswereputoutofbusinessas
theywerenotabletocompete.Asaresult,spatialinequalitiesinaccesstosupermarkets
ha[s]increasedovertime(Mead,2008,p.A335).Therearenowareasfoundincities
thatdonothavegrocerystoresbutinsteadhavetorelyonconveniencestores(small
marketswithalimitednumberofproducts)whichtendtosellhigherenergy/caloriefoods
andlessqualityproduce(RundleA.,etal.,2009).Citieshavenotbeenaffected
throughoutthough,asmoreaffluentareaswithincitiescontinuetohavegoodvalue
grocerystores(2009).Thegrocerystoresfollowedtheircustomerswiththelargest

financialbaseasthisallowedthemtoincreaseprofits(Larsen&Gilliland,2008).
Thoughthetermfooddesertcanbearguedwithbecauseareaswithincitiesarenot
completelylackingofplacestobuyfood,itismoreindicativeofthefactthatthereis
limitedabilitytobuyfoodsthathelptopromoteahealthydietandlifestyle.

WiththereleaseoftheVacantLandManagementReport,Philadelphiahasan
opportunitytopromotemorelocalizedfoodproductionwhileincreasingsocialcapital
andgrowthwithineconomicallydisadvantagedurbanneighborhoods.Manyofthese
propertiesarecurrentlybeingsoldforlessthan$10(EconsultCorporationandPenn
InstituteforUrbanResearch,2010).AGISsystem,suchasArcGIS,coupledwith
mobilemapperdevicesthatcanascertainpicturesandgeocodetheinformation,canshow
whatneighborhoodstheselotsarein,showthequalityofthelots(soil,pavement,trash,
etc),andalsoquantifythepotentialfornewurbangardensandtheamountofcropsthey
canproduce.
ScholarssuchasDmochowskiandCooperfromtheUniversityofPennsylvania
recentlybeganaresearchstudyinDecemberof2010titledUsingMultispectralAnalysis
inGIStoModelthePotentialforUrbanAgricultureinPhiladelphiathatwilllocate,
code,andassistcityplanners,entrepreneurs,communityleaders,andcitizens[to]
understandhowurbanagriculturecancontributetocreatingasustainablefoodsystemin
amajorNorthAmericancity(Dmochowski&Cooper,2010).WhileDmochowskiand
CooperareseekingtofindhowgeotaggingvacantlotscanimprovethePhiladelphia
urbanagriculturesystems,otherareassuchasHanoi,Vietnamhavealreadycompleted

thisprocess.InastudybyauthorsThapaandMurayama(2007)theyshowedhowGIS
canevaluatesoil,landusepatterns,roadaccessibility,wateravailability,andmarket
accessibilitytodemonstratewhatareasarefeasibleforurbanagricultureandprovidea
frameworkforgovernmentofficialstodedicatecertainareastoagriculture,while
utilizingotherspacesforalternativeideas.
AcentralizedGISalsoallowsforistheabilitytocomparethesaturationof
healthyandunhealthyfoodoptionswithinaspecifiedproximityofanareaanddetermine
whichareasareinneedofaccesstohealthyfoods.AstudybyLarsenandGilliland
(2008)calculatedtheimpacturbangardensandfarmshaveonlocalresidents.Thestudy
showedthatresidentsofdegenerativeinnercityneighborhoodshavethepoorestaccess
tosupermarkets.Aswellasmappingaccesstofoods,aGISsystemcanhelplowercosts
associatedwithtransportationandotherenergyefforts.Theaveragesupermarket
producetraveled,onaverage,150milesbeforereachingtherefrigeratorandthenanother
fivebeforelandinginahousehold(FutureofFood,2004).AlocalizedGISsystemthat
linkssupermarkets,farmersmarket,CSAs,gardens,andfarmscanlowerthisnumberto
lessthan25miles(FutureofFood,2004)

KnowledgeofNutrition
Anothercomponentoftheproblemofnutritionalaccessisthatthereisagap
betweenwhatisactuallyrecommendedindietaryguidelines,andtheperceptionofwhat
thoseguidelinesmean.Inanexaminationofmothersinterpretationsofhealthyeating
recommendations,oneparticipantstatedsaturates,polyunsaturates.Whatsthat?Its

justawordunlessyouknowwhattheyactuallymean(Wood,Robling,Prout,
Kinnersley,Houston,&Butler,2010,p.54).Itwasdiscoveredthatiftheparticipantsof
thisstudyperceivedtheirdietstobeinaccordancewithrecommendations,thenthey
wouldnotbelikelytomakechanges,whethertheywereaccurateornot.Theresearchers
determinedthatknowledgeofnutritionwassuperficial,however,andthediscussion
rarelywentbeyondanacknowledgmentthatfruitandvegetableswerehealthyfood
(2010,p.53).Therestillwasalackofunderstandingastowhythesefoodswere
healthieroptions,orwhatspecifichealthbenefitstheyoffered.Thisexamplesupports
thenecessityofamultifacetedapproachinmakingdietarychange.Creatingan
appropriatefoodenvironment,wherehealthyfoodsareavailableisonlypartofthegoal;
knowledgeneedstobeaddressedaswell.
InapapertitledInterviewswithLowIncomePennsylvaniansVerifyaNeedto
EnhanceEatingCompetencebyJodiStottsKrall,PhDandBarbaraLohse,PhD,they
reportedthatconvenience,mood,family,andavailabilityoffoodathome,butnot
nutritionweresalientfactorsguidingmealandsnackplanningfortheparticipantsthey
workedwith(2009,p.468).Thisindicatesthatmethodsforspreadingtheimportanceof
eatinghealthyandtheimportanceofgoodnutritionarelackingasthemessageisnot
beingreceivedorcomprehendedbyall.
Inasystematicreviewoftheeffectivenessofcommunityeffortstoincreasethe
consumptionofproduce,researchersdiscoveredthatthebestinterventionsforthis
purposewerethosethatweremultiprongedanddeliveredverycoherentmessagesabout
theimportanceoffruitandvegetableconsumption(Ciliska,etal.,2000).Inusinga

multiprongedapproach,interventionswerefoundtobemoreeffectivewhentherewasa
greaterfocusonbehaviorchangeratherthanjustincreasingknowledge(2000).
However,evenwithamultiprongedapproach,ifparticipantsdonothaveaccesstothe
appropriatefoods,oranawarenessofhowtofindandpreparefoods,interventionswillbe
hinderedintheirsuccess.
Ifindividualsarelimitedintheirknowledgeofnutrition,ithasbeenfoundthat
evenwithinformationallabelingonfoodproducts,healthieroptionswillnotalwaysbe
selected.Forinstance:themorefamiliarsomeoneiswithanutrient(likevitaminC),the
morelikelytheywillbetoidentifyanassociatedhealthbenefitfromthatnutrientandthe
foodthatclaimstocontainit(Lin,2008).Thispersonmaybemorelikelytobuyorange
juice(especiallybearingalabelthatboastsofitsvitaminCcontent)whentheyaresick
becauseofthefairlyubiquitousinformationabouthowvitaminChelpstofendoffcolds.
Conversely,thesamepersonmaynotpurchasealesserknownfooditemthatcontainsa
nutrientthatismoreunfamiliartothemevenifthenutrientisexplainedonthefoodlabel.
Thesometimesconfusingworldofdietandhealthrelatedmessagesmaybea
contributingfactortothisoccurrence.
Evenamongthoseexposedtohealthmessages,therecanbelimitationstofull
comprehensionbytheirviewers.Inapopulationofmostlymiddleaged,married,
immigrantblackmentherewasconsensusthateatingproducecouldleadtohealth
benefits.However,noparticipantswereabletodescribeaspecifichealthbenefitgained
fromconsumingproduce,andthereforeperhapsdidnotseethebenefitsassufficiently
outweighingtheperceivedbarrierslikecost,restrictedavailability,andthepotentialneed

forpreparation(Wolf,etal.,2008).Informationcontainingtheactualbenefitsof
includingfruitsandvegetablesinadailydiethadnotadequatelybeenabsorbedor
understoodbytheparticipantpopulation.Thisthemewaspresentthroughoutthe
literature,anditindicatesthatmostpeoplehavesomesenseofgoodversusbadand
healthyversusunhealthy,thoughitcanoftenbeavagueunderstanding.Without
sufficientnutritioneducationpeoplecannotknowwhatstepstotaketomakethebest
behavioralchanges(Unger&Moriarty,2008).

ConfusingandContradictoryMessages
Duetotheeverpresentnatureofadvertisingandhealthmessagesthesedays,
peoplearegrowingskepticalofwhatinformationtheycanactuallytrust.Trendsin
recommendedhealthbehaviorschangefrequentlyenoughtowarrantuncertainty;are
peoplesupposedtoeatbreadornot?Whataboutmargarine?AstheresearchersOKey
andHughJonesexplain,makinggooddietarychoicesforonesfamily,atleastinways
thatareconsonantwithadviceandinformation,[is]construedasaminefieldformothers,
andasafutile,ifnotrisky,endeavour(2010,p.527).Whenseeminglymixedmessages
arepresentedtothepublicconcerningwhatisandisnotappropriatelynutritious,andis
pairedwithapotentiallylimitedknowledgeitcanleadtowhatWoodandcolleagues
presentasareasonfornonadherencetodietaryadvice(2010).Theauthorsstatethat
individualsmaynotperceivetheirdietstobeunhealthybecauseofthepotential
misinterpretationofdietaryinformation(Wood,etal.,2010).Oneofthefindingsfrom
the5ADayforBetterHealthcampaignwasthatforprogramstobeeffective,their

healthpromotionmessagesneededtobespecificwithalimitedcapacityfor
misinterpretation(Havas,etal.,1998).
Knowledgeaboutfoodisoftenlearnedthroughadvertisementsandmarketing.
Foodproductsaremarketedtoconsumersinmanydifferentwaysandcanbehighly
influential.Whenpeopleareinundatedwithadvertisementsforcertainfoods,thenthose
foodsmaybewhattheybegintoeat.Researchhasfoundthattheexcessconsumptionof
highcaloriefoodstuffscanbeinfluencedbyadvertisementsthatcontributetoan
obesigenic,orobesityprevalent,environment;throughheavymarketing,eatingcertain
waysorcertainfoodscanbecomenormative(Grier&Kumanyika,2008;Yancey,etal.,
2009).Thus,iftheonlyfoodsthataremarketedtopeopleareunhealthyones,thenthe
dietsofthosepeoplearelikelytobeunhealthier.Thissaturationofneighborhoodswith
unhealthyfoodmessagesandmarketingmaybeviewedasbarriertothedevelopmentof
healthiereatingpractices(Grier&Kumanyika,2008).

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