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I. I NTRODUCTION
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have received significant
research attention as a result of the numerous military and
civilian applications that they enable. Quadrotors have proven
themselves as favourable platforms for research, since they
are inexpensive, easy to fly, agile and safe to operate [1].
Conducting outdoor experiments with quadrotors requires
ideal weather conditions and compliance with local aviation
regulations, uses significant resources, and puts platforms at
risk. It is therefore preferable to evaluate scenarios in simulation prior to experimentation, where possible. However,
the suitability of such an approach depends largely on the
fidelity of the simulator. The work in this paper is therefore
motivated by the need for a quadrotor simulator that (i)
enables multiple platforms to be simulated at the application
level, (ii) provides realistic models for dynamics, wind and
sensor noise, and (iii) balances accuracy with speed, thereby
enabling real-time, or near real-time, performance.
A great number of simulators exist as tools to for training
radio control enthusiasts, but not as platforms for research.
Research simulators based on first principles have been developed for USARSim [2] and Gazebo [3]. Both capture the behaviour of an ideal platforms mechanics and aerodynamics,
but not of the low-level controller used to perform rotational
stabilization control. The design of the stabilization control
algorithm is usually proprietary, and therefore cannot be
modelled by first principles. Although effort has been made
to investigate the effect of wind and turbulence on quadrotor
dynamics [4], such research remains to be integrated into the
widely-used simulators. More recent simulators are based on
the Robotic Operating System (ROS) and include SwarmSim
X [5] and Hector Quadrotor [6], which use a PhysX and
978-1-4799-6934-0/14/$31.00 2014 IEEE
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1 Source
Z,W, r,
4J
Figure 3. The static experimental set up (left) was used to obtain data for
calibrating the thrust model, while the dynamic experimental setup (right)
was used to obtain data for calibrating the rotation and translation models.
Fth
(1)
[p,q,r]T
(2)
(3)
' , ']T
[u,v,w
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(4)
(5)
FD T 1
|FD | < 1 T
(6)
F th =
1
D <0
1
FD 0
qw + rv + gu + Kuv (u wu )
ru + pw + gv + Kuv (v wv )
Fth
w = pv + qu + gw
+ Kw (w ww ) (8)
m
Fig. 5b shows the proof of match for the translational
dynamic model. The platform was flown for 100s, and its
position was compared to post-processed GPS measurements.
The large translational residual error may be explained by the
fact that noisy accelerations are integrated twice with respect
to time through a noisy orientation to update position.
u
v
=
=
(9)
Cov(s , t |0 = c)
cet
(11)
2 |ts|
e
e|t+s| .(12)
2
A. Wind
Deterministic wind models require significant computational resources, and so the simulator adopts a simpler model
that is comprised of a mean field plus stochastic turbulence.
Both components are defined in a right hand coordinate
system, where the Z axis is parallel to gravity and the Y
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(a) Difference between measured angle (black) and predicted angle (red)
over a 100 second period, for roll (top), pitch (middle) and yaw (bottom).
Figure 5. Proof of match for the rotational (left) and translational (right) models.
axis points in the direction of the mean wind field. Take note
that the wind vectors must therefore be rotated into the body
frame to be used in the dynamic model.
1) Mean Field: A mean wind field is described by a
magnitude u20 at 20 feet from the ground. As a result of
wind shear, the resultant wind speed depends logarithmically
on altitude. The navigation-frame wind vector wc at some
altitude pz can be modelled [17] by Eqn 13.
h
iT
z /0.15)
0
0
wc = u20 log(p
(13)
log(20/0.15)
Lv = Lu
pz
pz
(0.177 + 0.000823h)1.2
w = 0.1u20
u
v
1
=
=
(14)
w
w
(0.177 + 0.000823h)0.4
The Dryden spectrum can be implemented [18] as the filter
in Eqn 15, where V is the airspeed of the platform, T is
T
t+T
1 VLTu wut + 2V
u
L
u
wu
q
T
wvt+T =
1 VLTv wvt + 2V
(15)
v
Lv
q
t+T
ww
2V
T
VT
t
1 Lw w w
+
Lw w
The simulators turbulence model was experimentally
validated against the Dryden implementation in Matlabs
Aerospace Toolbox. Fig. 6 shows 200s of sample turbulence,
with a mean intensity and bearing of 2 feet per second and
30 degrees respectively. The graph on the left shows that the
intensity of both processes decay similarly with frequency,
while the graph on the right shows that the individual wind
direction components exhibit similar statistical properties.
B. Global Navigation Satellite System
Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) position error
depends on the total number, configuration and accuracy of
the satellite vehicle positions, the dielectric constants of the
ionosphere and troposphere, and noise at the receiver. GNSS
satellite vehicle orbits change periodically and are difficult
to simulate, so recordings of real Global Positioning System
(GPS) orbits are used in the simulator. This data is freelyavailable from the International GPS Service (IGS)2 .
Modelling GNSS error is simplified by working with
measured distances to satellites (pseudo-ranges) rather than
the position solution. Each satellite has time-correlated error,
as a result of the ionosphere, troposphere, ephemeris and
clock drift. These errors are bundled into a single zero-mean
Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process si , specific to satellite i.
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2 GPS
Figure 6. Proof of match between the Dryden model in Matlab (black) and in QRSim (red).
(16)
iS
3386
Figure 7. Proof of match between real (black) and synthetic (red) GPS errors, for the same date, location and satellites in view.
xt
xt+1
dt,i
ai
dt+1,i
xT
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3 Available:
https://code.google.com/p/ceres-solver
(a) Result
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an open-source multi-robot simulator, 2004 IEEE/RSJ International
Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE Cat.
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and Unmanned Unlimited Conference, (Seattle, WA), Apr. 2009.
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Simulation, Modeling, and Programming for Autonomous Robots,
vol. 7628 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Berlin, Heidelberg:
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[17] Military Spec., Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes. MIL-F-8785C.
[18] S. Gage, Creating a Unified Graphical Wind Turbulence Model
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