Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
RICHARD J. GOLDFARB,
U.S. Geological Survey, Box 25046, MS 964, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225-0046, and
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, 2200 Colorado Ave., Campus Box 399, Boulder, Colorado 80309
AND JEREMY
P. RICHARDS
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3
Abstract
Thermal decay of Earth resulted in decreased mantle-plume intensity and temperature and consequently a
gradual reduction of abundant komatiitic basalt ocean plateaus at ~2.6 Ga. In the Neoarchean, ocean crust was
~11 km thick at spreading centers, and abundant bimodal arc basalt-dacite magmatic edifices were constructed
at convergent margins. Neoarchean greenstone belt orogenesis stemmed from multiple terrane accretion in
Cordilleran-style external orogens with multiple sutures, where oceanic plateaus captured arcs by jamming
subduction zones, and plateau crust melted to generate high thorium tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite suites.
Archean cratons have a distinctive ~250- to 350-km-thick continental lithospheric mantle keel with buoyant refractory properties, resulting from coupling of the buoyant residue of deep plume melting to imbricated
plateau-arc crust. In contrast, Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle is <150 km thick,
denser, and less refractory and therefore easily reworked in younger orogens. The supercontinent cycle has operated since ~2.8 Ga: Kenorland assembled at ~2.7 Ga, Columbia ~1.8 Ga, Rodinia ~1 Ga, and Pangea ~0.3
Ga. Dispersal may have been triggered by superplumes.
Komatiite-hosted Ni deposits are related to plumes, where sulfide saturation resulted from crustal contamination. Base metal-rich volcanic rock-associated massive sulfide (VMS) deposits accumulated on thinned, fractured lithosphere within extensional oceanic suprasubduction environments, or back arcs, which were intruded
by anomalously hot subvolcanic sills; hence, their abundance in the Superior province of Canada (thick continental lithosphere), contrasting with few in the Yilgarn craton of Australia (thick lithosphere). Orogenic gold
deposits formed in sutures between accreted terranes associated with assembly of Kenorland. Diamonds were
created by reaction of carbonate-rich asthenospheric liquids with continental lithospheric mantle at >240-km
depth, mostly pre-2.7 Ga. They were entrained in kimberlitic to lamproitic melts related to superplume events
at 480, 280, and ~100 Ma. Preservation of resulting mineral provinces stems from their location on stable
Archean continental lithospheric mantle.
Decreased plume activity after 2.6 Ga caused sea level to fall, leading to the first extensive passive-margin
sequences, including deposition of phosphorites, iron formations, and hydrocarbons, during dispersal of
Kenorland from 2.4 to 2.2 Ga. Deposits of Cr-Ni-Cu-PGE were generated where plumes impinged on failed
rifts at the transition from thick Archean to thinner Proterozoic continental lithospheric mantle, e.g., the Great
Dyke, Zimbabwe, and later at Norilsk, Russia. Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts, for example, the Trans-Hudson
orogen in North America and the Barramundi orogen in Australia, welded together the new continent of Columbia. Foreland basins associated with these orogens, containing reductants (graphitic schists) in the basement, led to the formation of unconformity U deposits, with multiple stages of mineralization generated from
diagenetic brines for as much as 600 m.y. after sedimentation. Plume dispersal of Columbia at 1.6 to 1.4 Ga led
to SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits in intracontinental rifts of North America and Australia, extensive belts of Rapakivi
A-type granites on all continents, with associated Sn veins, and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. All were controlled by rifts at the transition from thick to thin continental lithospheric mantle. Plume impingement on Rodinia at ~1 Ga formed extensive belts of anorogenic anorthosites and Rapakivi granites in Laurentia and
Baltica, the former hosting Fe-Ti-V deposits. Sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits formed in intracontinental
basins from plume dispersal of Rodinia at ~800 Ma.
Iron formations and mantle plumes have common time series: Algoman type occur from 3.8 Ga to 40 Ma,
granular iron formations precipitated on the passive margins of Kenorland at ~2.4 Ga, Superior-type formed
on the passive margins of Laurentia, and Rapitan iron formations were created in rifts during latter stages of
dispersal of Rodinia at ~700 Ma. Accordingly, such deposits are not proxies for the activity of atmospheric O2.
Rich Tertiary placer deposits of Ti-Zr-Hf, located on the passive margins of Australia and Southern Africa, reflect multiple cannibalistic cycles from orogens that welded Rodinia and Pangea.
Orogenic Au deposits formed during Cordilleran-type orogens characterized by clockwise pressure-temperature-time paths from ~2.7 Ga to the Tertiary; Au-As-W and Hg-Sb deposits reflect the same ore fluids at progressively shallower levels of terrane sutures. The MVT-type Pb-Zn deposits formed in foreland basins, with
Corresponding
1097
1098
KERRICH ET AL.
Phanerozoic Pb-Zn SEDEX ores localized in rifted passive continental margins containing evaporites at low
latitudes. Porphyry Cu and epithermal Au-Ag deposits occur in both intraoceanic and continental margin arcs;
ore fluids were related to slab dehydration, peridotite fusion, and hybridization with upper-plate crust. Deposits exposed today are largely <200 m.y.-old, given their low preservation potential in topographically elevated ranges.
for; and (4) extrapolation to the Precambrian met with uncertainties as to tectonic processes during that era. Windley
(1995) compiled a concise list of metallic and nonmetallic resources for each era, documenting their geodynamic and geologic settings.
It is now generally accepted that plate tectonics operated
from ~3.4 Ga, albeit in some early form that likely differs
from today, with intermittently more intense plume activity to
1.9 Ga (Fyfe, 1978; Isley and Abbott, 1999). Archean cratonscale faults are commensurate with lithospheric plate interactions (Sleep, 1992). In addition, Cenozoic-type convergent
margin arc associations, including the presence of boninites,
Mg andesites, and adakites, in Precambrian supracrustal terranes require that arc-trench migration occurred (Polat et al.,
2003). An alternative precept of Archean geodynamics is
given by Hamilton (1998).
Advances in geochronology have resolved many of the uncertainties in the timing of both metal deposits and metallogenic provinces. This constraint permits evaluation of functional relationships between lithotectonic associations,
magmatism, pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) conditions
and fluid compositions, and geodynamic setting, concurrently
resolving the syngenetic issue (e.g., Kerrich and Cassidy,
1994). Based on Meyers (1981, 1988) compilations of the
space-time distribution of metallogenic provinces, Barley and
Groves (1992) provided insights into the episodic development of distinct classes of metallic deposits as a function of the
supercontinent cycle. Geologic processes are intrinsically stochastic, so there is progressive uncertainty in reconstructing
the supercontinent cycle back through the Precambrian. Yet,
this framework confers an elegant account for metallogenic
provinces and their episodicity from 2.7 Ga to the present.
During the last 25 years there have been profound gains in
knowledge as to how plate tectonics operates through time,
stemming from the heuristic approach of geology as a field and
analytical science. In addition to development of the concept of
the supercontinent cycle, knowledge has advanced on many
fronts relevant to metal deposits, including: (1) how evolution
of lithospheric mantle controls crustal evolution (Jordan, 1988);
(2) recognition of superfamilies of orogenic belts (Sengor and
Natalin, 1996); (3) the role of mantle plumes and their interaction with lithospheric plates (Condie, 2001; Wyman and Kerrich, 2002); (4) transitions in both plume and convergent margin magmatism near the Archean-Proterozoic transition
(Taylor and McLennan, 1995; Isley and Abbott, 1999); (5) development of, and processes in, convergent margins (see review by Richards, 2003); (6) characterization of geothermal systems on land (Elder, 1981) and submarine counterparts, some
of which are actively depositing sulfide minerals, such as in the
Lau back-arc basin (Ishibashi and Urabe, 1995; Mills and Elderfield, 1995); (7) quantification of global geochemical cycles
(Jacobson et al., 2000); (8) seismic tomography (van der Hilst
et al., 1998); (9) precise geochronology (Dalrymple, 1991); and
(10) the fractal, or scale-invariant, nature of many geologic
1098
1099
1099
1100
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 1. A. Map of continental and oceanic lithospheric plates. Triangles signify polarity of subduction, trenches migrate
in the opposite direction as slabs sink approximately vertically. Length of arrows proportional to plate velocity. Red symbols
= Cordilleran superfamily of orogenic belts; green symbols = continent-continent superfamily of orogenic belts. Modified
from Condie (1997). B. Distribution of Archean cratons and Proterozoic and Phanerozoic terranes. After Kusky and Polat
(1999). C. Thickness of continental lithospheric mantle from Artemieva and Mooney (2001).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1100
FIG. 2. A. Cross section through oceanic lithosphere, modified from Keary and Vine (1996). B. Cross section through continental lithosphere, illustrating the thick, refractory irregular base or keel of the continental lithospheric mantle, distinctive
of Archean cratons. This mantle includes subcreted plateau lithosphere metasomatized by subduction at shallower levels, the
source of Neoarchean and Proterozoic cratonic norites. Deeper levels are the residue of plume melting, buoyantly coupled
to overlying continental lithospheric mantle and crust. Such Archean mantle is refractory and thus is responsible for the high
preservation potential of Archean mineral deposits; this level includes the diamond facies. Translithospheric structures are
focused at the transition to thinner Proterozoic and younger continental lithospheric mantle, controlling the location of
plume-related Ni-Cu-PGE and Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE deposits. Modified from Nixon and Davies (1987), Artemieva and
Mooney (2001), and Wyman and Kerrich (2002). C. Cross section through oceanic crust, illustrating the location of VMS deposits that form in back arcs and podiform Cr deposits generated at intraoceanic suprasubduction zones. Modified from
Keary and Vine (1996). D. Age-thickness relationship of continental lithospheric mantle from velocity structure (after
Artemieva and Mooney, 2001). E. Depth-differential strength relationships of oceanic and continental lithosphere; for
oceanic lithosphere this relationship controls the thickness of obducted ophiolites; for continental lithosphere the minimum
at ~35 km controls the thickness of accreted terranes. F. Depth-shear wave velocity relationships of different geodynamic
settings. (E) and (F) modified from Keary and Vine (1996).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1101
1101
1102
KERRICH ET AL.
1102
asthenospheric and crustal magmatism. Delaminated continental lithospheric mantle has been imaged by teleseismic tomography beneath the Alpine-Himalayan orogen (Schott and
Schmeling, 1998). Delamination is in progress beneath the
Basin and Range province and Tibetan plateau, is interpreted
to have occurred beneath the Puna plateau of northwestern
Argentina (Kay and Kay, 1993), and characterized the late
stages in the development of the Variscan and Grenvillian
continent-continent orogens (Windley, 1995).
The low-velocity zone is the thermal boundary layer between torsionally rigid lithospheric plates and the convecting
asthenosphere; low S wave velocities result from domains of
partially melted lherzolite, conferring low strength. This zone
is 100 to 200 km thick below ridges where thermal gradients
are high, thinner below normal continental lithosphere, and is
thin to absent beneath Archean continental lithospheric mantle where thermal gradients are low (Fig. 2 A, B; Keary and
Vine, 1996).
Characteristics of plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries: As oceanic plates separate at
ridges due to far-field extensional forces, decompressional melting of asthenospheric mantle generates mafic magmas that accrete to the edges of plates to form new crust (Keary and Vine,
1996). Upwelling of asthenospheric upper mantle beneath
ridges is passive, in response to plate separation. In a simplified
cross section, the oceanic lithosphere is composed of lower ultramafic mantle (mantle tectonites, dunites, lherzolites, and
harzburgites) at the base, and mafic crustal rocks (gabbros,
sheeted dike complex, and basalts) at the top, bounded by the
oceanic Moho. The thickness of the lithosphere increases from
zero at ridges to 70 to 100 km at an age of ~70 m.y., then maintains approximately uniform thickness, as plates move away
from spreading centers. Commensurately, the depth of the
ocean floor increases with the age of oceanic lithosphere, due to
thermal cooling of the lithosphere associated with thickening
and subsidence (Fig. 2A; Parsons and Sclater, 1977).
Convergent plate boundaries: At convergent margins, the
plate with higher density sinks beneath the lighter plate,
forming a subduction zone, and the leading edge of the overriding plate becomes a paired fore arc and magmatic arc.
Where two oceanic plates converge, the older and denser
oceanic plate generally sinks beneath the younger and lighter
one, generating oceanic island arcs, such as the Marianas and
the south Sandwich arcs. Given its higher density, oceanic
lithosphere subducts underneath continental lithosphere to
form a continental magmatic arc, such as the Andean, Sumatran, and Japanese arcs.
Convergent margins generally feature the following tectonic elements: (1) a deep marine trench seaward of the fore
arc; (2) a subduction-accretion complex located between the
underriding plate and the fore-arc basin; (3) a fore-arc basin
between the arc axis and the subduction-accretion complex;
(4) a magmatic arc; and (5) an inboard foreland basin-thrust
belt, which undergoes subsidence and sedimentation due to
tectonic loading, tectonic imbrication, and later compressiondriven uplift (Fig. 4). Porphyry Cu deposits form in oceanic
and continental arcs, and most preserved volcanic rock-associated massive sulfide deposits form in oceanic arcs or
oceanic or continental back arcs.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1103
1103
1104
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 4. A. Life span-geodynamic relationships of sedimentary basins. Modified from Woodcock (2004). Abbreviations: BA
= back arc, FA = fore arc, FL = foreland, IA = intra-arc, O = oceanic, PM = passive margin, R = continental margin rift, RA
= retro-arc, SS = strike slip, T = trench, TS = trench slope. (A) after Kyser et al. (2000), (B), (C), and (D) modified from Ross
(2000), (E) a composite from miscellaneous sources and R. Kerrich.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1104
1105
1105
1106
KERRICH ET AL.
pillow basalts in many cratons (de Wit, 2004). Higher geotherms in the Archean are reflected by the widespread highgrade gneissic basement rocks, which, with refractory continental lithospheric mantle, have preserved the mid-crustal
Cordilleran-like greenstone belts for billions of years. Similarity in the geologic evolution of Precambrian and Phanerozoic Cordilleran-style continental margins is reflected in a
similar metallogenic record being preserved in metamorphosed rocks of all such orogens, regardless of geologic age
(Goldfarb et al., 2001).
Continent-continent orogens: A second type of orogen is
termed continent-continent collisional or Tethyan. It is typically marked by the closure of an ocean basin, a single welldefined Z- or C-shaped suture zone containing ophiolites between blocks of continental crust, a magmatic arc on the
active margin, and deformation of passive margin sequences.
Collision is orthogonal to oblique, with an exceptional amount
of crustal thickening, and reworking of the older crustal
blocks (Windley, 1995; Sengor and Natalin, 1996a). This tectonism includes metamorphism, widespread partial melting
of the lower crust during lithosphere thickening, delamination, and commonly underplating by mafic magmas. Depending on the structural complexity, these orogens may show
abundant, high-level overthrusting exemplified by the Alpine
type or limited thrusting of allochthonous blocks as in the Himalayan type (Sengor, 1990; Sengor and Natalin, 1996a).
Mantle plumes
Pirajno (2000) gives a comprehensive treatment of mantle
plumes and ore deposits upon which this section draws extensively. Jets of anomalously hot mantle are ejected from
thermal boundary layers, most likely the core-mantle boundary at 2,900 km, which advect through the mantle by thermal
buoyancy on timescales of only 10 to 50 m.y. The plume head
is 500 to 1,000 km in diameter, whereas the tail, which feeds
the head, is ~100 km in diameter. At the top of the upper
mantle, ambient temperature is ~1,280C, the plume head
~1,480C, and the tail ~1,700C. Plumes conductively heat
ambient mantle, which is entrained into the plume head. On
impinging upon normal lithosphere at ~150-km depth, the
plume head flattens to 1,000 to 2,000 km while undergoing
extensive decompressional melting (White, 1992). Anomalously hot plumes, with high buoyancy-driven flux, advect
basalts through continental lithosphere to erupt as continental flood basalts. Basaltic liquids from cooler plumes, or from
adiabatically decompressed asthenosphere under thinned
continental crust, pond at the Moho density filter (Herzberg
et al., 1983); here they fractionate to form anorogenic gabbroanorthosite complexes that may host Fe-Ti-V deposits
(Cawthorn et al., 2005) and also fuse refractory lower crust
into A-type granites with which Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE
provinces are associated (Fig. 2B; Windley, 1995; Williams et
al., 2005).
Crucial to the understanding of magmatic Ni-Cu (Arndt et
al., 2005; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005) and chromite deposits
(Cawthorn et al., 2005), as well as deposits associated with
anorogenic magmatism, is that plumes do not melt by decompression at ~250 km beneath Archean continental lithospheric mantle but rather penetrate laterally as dikes. These
include the 2596 Ma Great Dyke and 2200 Ma Matachewan
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1106
1107
continental lithosphere followed by sedimentation, magmatism linked to thinned continental lithosphere, and evolution to ocean lithosphere. The Atlantic margin, with its continental shelf, continental slope, and rise, is a typical
example. The sedimentary wedge may be deposited at normal, oblique, or transform continental margins. Transfer
faults accommodate differential extension rates and patterns
of sedimentation. Subsidence initiates by lithospheric thinning from far-field forces and then evolves by thermal contraction and sediment loading. Basins driven mainly by thermal subsidence are characterized by concave-up subsidence
patterns, as documented for aging oceanic lithosphere,
whereas foreland basins have concave-down subsidence patterns (Fig. 4C; Ross, 2000).
Phosphorites and iron formations accumulated on passive
margins from ~2.4 Ga. Rifted passive-margin clastic sedimentary sequences, formed at low latitudes, are favorable
hosts for Phanerozoic Pb-Zn ores. The deposits are generated
by metal-rich brines that evolved in adjacent carbonate units
and basement (Leach et al., 2005a,b). Placer deposits of TiZr-Hf are preserved in Teriary and younger passive margin
sequences (Freeman and Donaldson, 2004).
Where extension is focused within a continent, as in the
Basin and Range province, a continental back-arc basin may
develop. The Bathurst and Iberian pyrite VMS provinces are
examples of continental back-arc basins that closed; sill-sediment complexes in the Gulf of Cortez may be a present-day
analog (Boulter, 1993).
The supercontinent and/or superevent cycle
The concept of the supercontinent cycle emerged in the
late 1980s from recognition that the continental masses assemble and disaggregate in a cyclic pattern on a timescale of
200 to 500 m.y. (Fig. 5; Hoffman, 1988; Murphy and Nance,
1992; Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004). All of the
present continents formed a single landmass, Pangea, that
broke up ~180 Ma. Previous supercontinents were Kenorland
at ~2.7 to 2.2 Ga, Columbia at ~1.7 to 1.4 Ga, and Rodinia at
~1.0 at 0.6 Ga (Fig. 5; Condie, 2004; Zhao et al., 2004).
A consensus has emerged that rifting of continents and dispersal of supercontinents is generally triggered by a mantle
plume, in keeping with Zieglers (1993) estimates of tractional
forces for plumes that impinge on continents (White, 1992;
Duncan and Turcotte, 1994; Carlson, 1997). Sill-sediment
complexes of the Mesoproterozoic Sullivan Pb-Zn deposit and
Neoproterozoic basalt sequences associated with the Central
African Cu province are expressions of mantle plumes that dispersed the supercontinents Columbia and Rodinia, respectively. Condie (1998, 2004) envisaged superevent cycles at 2.7,
1.9, and 1.2 Ga in which graveyards of subducted oceanic
lithosphere, stored at the 670-km D' boundary, avalanched to
the core-mantle boundary, thus ejecting plumes from that
boundary and causing plume bombardment under the lithosphere (Fig. 5). Larson (1991) associated the increased rate of
ocean crust formation at ridges and plateaus in the Pacific
Ocean with a superplume ejected from the core-mantle
boundary, coinciding with cessation of magnetic field reversals
at 41 Ma (for a contrary view see Anderson, 1994).
Murphy and Nance (1992) recognized two principal styles
of supercontinent aggregation, which they termed internal
1107
1108
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 5. A. Secular distribution of collisional orogens and juvenile crust, with supercontinents (modified from Condie,
1997; Columbia after Zhao et al., 2004). B. Secular distribution of mineral deposits, modified from Meyer (1988). C. Supercontinent cycle, modified from Rodgers (1996).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1108
and external. Internal aggregation corresponds to continentcontinent collision, for exmple, the Alpine-Himalayan, Appalachian, and Grenville orogenic belts. External aggregation
corresponds to Cordilleran-style tectonics, where allochthonous tectonostratigraphic terranes are transpressively accreted to a continental margin. Neoarchean magmatic-accretionary events in the Superior and Slave provinces of Canada,
Finland, southern Africa, India, and Western Australia likely
correspond to an early external supercontinent aggregation
that was associated with development of orogenic gold
provinces (Kerrich and Wyman, 1994). Internal cycles involve
internal oceans between continents. The North and South Atlantic Oceans have opened and closed two or three times, as
North America-South America and Europe-Africa diverged
and then closed in Wilson cycles. The Pacific Ocean is an external ocean outboard of the external Cordilleran orogen.
Supercontinents may assemble in two configurations. Introversion involves breakup, opening then closing of interior
oceans, and reassembly. In extroversion, following supercontinent dispersal, exterior margins of continental fragments rotate and collide during reassembly. Combinations of the
processes may occur. The Paleozoic Appalachian-CaledonianVariscan orogen is an example of supercontinent introversion.
In contrast, during the Neoproterozoic East African and
Brasiliano orogens, the exterior ocean surrounding Rodinia,
which broke up at ~750 Ma, was consumed during the amalgamation of Gondwana, representing extroversion (Murphy
and Nance, 2003).
Metallogenic provinces in a supercontinent cycle framework
In an important synthesis for economic geology, Barley and
Groves (1992) showed that the temporal distribution of several major classes of metallic mineral deposits can be related
to the cyclic aggregation and breakup of the continents in the
supercontinent cycle. Metal deposits related to continental
rifting (sedimentary rock-hosted Cu and Pb) would form
mainly during initiation of supercontinent fragmentation,
whereas deposits related to convergent tectonics (porphyry
Cu, VMS, orogenic Au) predominate during periods of subduction and supercontinent aggregation (Fig. 5).
Superimposed on this ~500-m.y. cycle are variations arising from preservation, thermal decay, and subtleties of tectonic style. The scarcity of porphyry Cu and epithermal Au
deposits in rocks older than 200 Ma is widely considered to
be the consequence of their low preservation potential in
rapidly eroded magmatic arcs and collisional mountain
belts. Preservation potential is considered to be higher in
external (Cordilleran style) than internal (continent-continent) mountain belts (Barley and Groves, 1992). The
change in style of base metal-bearing VMS deposits, from
Archean Abitibi type to the Phanerozoic Kuroko and Cyprus
types, may reflect differences in style of subduction, nature
of the mantle wedge, and composition of arc magmas, and
these differences in turn stem from decreasing thermal gradients. Archean crust is resistant to reworking in younger
orogenic events due to its thick, refractory continental
lithospheric mantle. This characteristic accounts for preservation of the prodigiously rich orogenic gold provinces of
Neoarchean greenstone terranes (Cordilleran-type accretion), VMS (back-arc) camps of the Superior province, and
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1109
1109
1110
KERRICH ET AL.
(Figs. 1, 2C). Sparsity of these deposits in Precambrian terranes reflects the same process responsible for the absence of
blueschists and eclogites, or of complete ophiolite sections,
given that the upper basaltic sections of thicker oceanic
lithosphere were obducted (Fig. 2E; Moores, 2002; Polat et
al., 2004).
VMS deposits
VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 2005) form in oceanic
spreading centers, arcs, and rifts (Hannington et al., 2005),
but mid-ocean-ridge crust is rarely preserved in the geologic
record due to the likelihood that oceanic lithosphere will be
subducted (Cloos, 1993). Many VMS deposits formed at
convergent margins under extensional conditions, specifically
in back arcs, where thinned and fractured lithosphere,
upwelling asthenosphere, and high-temperature magmas
generate long-lived high heat flow and enhanced hydraulic
conductivity (Figs. 2C, 4E). Back-arc lithosphere is more
readily obductible, being young and hot. The fact that all
VMS deposits are associated with some mafic magmatism signifies a functional relationship to thermal anomalies in the
upper mantle (Barrie and Hannington, 1999). A lack of significant VMS deposits in the Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic (Hutchinson, 1981; Meyer, 1981, 1988) reflects the
drift stage in dispersal of first Columbia and then Grenville
orogens that stitched together Rodinia. These orogens now
expose deep erosional levels, which is ultimately due to delamination of mantle lithosphere (Fig. 5).
Based on rock associations, and therefore tectonic setting,
Barrie and Hannington (1999) and Franklin et al. (2005)
classified VMS deposits into five groups. Mafic and bimodal
siliciclastic rock-associated deposits are mainly restricted to
the Phanerozoic. The former consists of tholeiitic with minor
boninitic rocks and includes ocean-ridge deposits that were
obducted as part of ophiolite fragments, exemplified by
Tethyan ores of Cyprus and Turkey. The geodynamic setting
is a suprasubduction zone, and such magma-ore associations
extend to the Paleoproterozoic Flin Flon VMS province
(Wyman, 1999). The latter, characterized by large tonnages
with high Pb but low Cu contents, formed in a continental
arc or back-arc setting; VMS ores of the Bathurst and Iberian Pyrite Belt provinces are prominent examples of this
group.
The other three groups of VMS deposits have broader secular distributions. Bimodal-mafic and bimodal-felsic group
deposits occur in oceanic terranes back to the Neoarchean of
some cratons. The former represent primitive oceanic arcs or
back arcs; examples include Noranda and Matagami, Quebec,
some ores of Flin Flon, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and
Jerome, Arizona. The latter represents precipitation of VMS
deposits in mature arcs, such as the Mt. Read district, Tasmania. A mafic volcanic-volcaniclastic rock and turbidite association with VMS formation occurred from the Mesoproterozoic through the Phanerozoic. These deposits developed in
sediment-rich oceanic rifts, notably Windy Craggy, British
Columbia, or in propagating continental rifts, exemplified by
the Besshi district of Japan. The Middle Valley and Escanaba
trough, and the Sea of Cortez, are present-day metal-rich
analogs to these two environments in the final group, respectively (Barrie and Hannington, 1999).
1110
1111
1111
1112
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 6. A. Normal subduction configuration beneath a continental arc (from Richards, 2003; modified from Winter, 2001).
Slab dehydration leads to hydration of the overlying asthenospheric mantle wedge and partial melting in the hotter central
regions of the wedge. Hydrous basaltic melts pool at the base of the crust due to density contrasts, where they fractionate,
release heat, and interact with crustal materials to generate more evolved, less dense andesitic magmas (by melting, assimilation, storage, and homogenizationMASH process of Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988), which can then rise to upper crustal
levels. It is these evolved magmas that are directly associated with porphyry Cu deposit formation. B. Oblique convergence
leads to the generation of structurally permeable transpressional sites along trench-linked strike-slip faults, up which magma
may ascend from lower crustal MASH zones. Rapid, voluminous emplacement of magmas in the upper crust is regarded here
to be a prerequisite for the subsequent formation of large porphyry Cu deposits by magmatic-hydrothermal fluid exsolution.
a regional architecture of translithospheric structures may influence the location of magma ascent by providing relatively
permeable pathways. Optimal sites are extensional structural
domains formed at jogs and stepovers in large strike-slip fault
systems deforming under mildly oblique compressional stress
(Fig. 6B). Although magma ascent can occur in the absence
of such structures, their existence may act to focus magma
flux, thus enhancing subsequent ore-forming potential. A
1112
1113
one or the other environment but not necessarily both environments. For example, Bissig et al. (2002) recently proposed
that regional uplift and erosion history was critical in controlling the development of mineralized epithermal systems in
the El Indio-Pascua belt (Chile and Argentina), which are associated only with apparently barren plutons. Thus, drilling
beneath a known epithermal deposit will not necessarily reveal an economic porphyry deposit, although evidence of a
high-temperature magmatic hydrothermal system is likely to
be encountered.
Unlike high-sulfidation systems, low-sulfidation epithermal
deposits do not show a clear, exclusive relationship to subduction zone magmatism, and many deposits are generated
by thermal anomalies caused by crustal extension, such as
epithermal Au-Ag deposits in the Basin and Range district,
Nevada (Berger and Bonham, 1990; John, 2001; Simmons
et al., 2005). In this respect, the involvement of specific
magmatic components (both volatiles and metals) in low-sulfidation epithermal systems is less clear, and the key input for
such systems may simply be a heat source of any origin. By
contrast, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems are
commonly found in porphyry districts, and either a direct or
distal association with magmatism has been proposed in many
instances (e.g., Rye, 1993; Hedenquist et al., 1996; Hayba,
1997; Faure et al., 2002). A common structural control on
most epithermal-type deposits is extensional faulting and
brecciation, either generated regionally by tectonic stress
fields (as in the case of the Basin and Range) or locally by
forces involved with magma emplacement (crustal doming)
or by elevated fluid pressure (hydraulic fracturing). The latter
tectonic condition is commonly generated in association with
porphyry formation but not exclusively so.
Metallogeny of Cordilleran Orogens
Metallogenic context
In contrast to the shallow crustal regions that characterize
continental magmatic arcs, as described above, much of an
evolved orogen exposes rocks that were deformed and metamorphosed at deeper crustal levels. Crustal rocks that would
have hosted porphyry and related epithermal mineral deposits are typically unroofed and eroded in fore- and back-arc
regions. The exposed middle crustal rocks in these regions are
dominated, in contrast, by mineral deposits that reflect
deeper hydrothermal processes that are active in convergent
to transform continental margins. These processes form
mainly orogenic Au deposits, with commonly related As, W,
Sb, and Hg resources. In addition, preaccretionary mineral
deposits, such as podiform Cr and VMS deposits that were
described above, may also be present and hosted within the
same blocks of accreted juvenile crust (Fig. 1A).
High heat flow and intense fluid regimes are important tectonic features inherent to most Cordilleran orogens. The generation of Barrovian P-T conditions is typical for progressive
accretion of a broad zone of radiogenic juvenile material
scraped off a downgoing slab, where clockwise P-T-time trajectories generate deeper and later metamorphism. Under
these heat-flow conditions, peak metamorphism at mid-crustal
levels (greenschist facies) predates peak metamorphism in
the deeper crust, such that fluids generated by dehydration
1113
1114
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 7. Cordilleran-type orogens are recognized for the widespread distribution of orogenic gold deposits in metamorphosed juvenile rocks on either side of the magmatic arc. Ore-forming fluids in the fore arc may be derived from prograde
metamorphism of accreted material above a subducting slab and from the slab itself; where slab fluids are released into the
mantle wedge, mantle-derived melts may carry some of the fluid into the accreted oceanic rocks. The metalliferous fluids
are focused along major crustal shear zones in the fore arc, which previously may have been sites of terrane suturing.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1114
1115
observed in Alaska, older orogenic gold provinces reflect earlier subduction closer to the craton margin. Giant deposits
such as Olympiada and Zun-Kholba formed in Proterozoic
terranes along the southwestern side of the craton in the latest Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic, followed by ores in
more seaward regions of Kazakhstan and the Urals in the
mid-Paleozoic, and then the Permian ores developed along
the edge of the closing Paleo-Tethyan Ocean (Herrington et
al., 2005; Yakubchuk et al., 2005).
Significant characteristics of the Altaid orogen (Yakubchuk
et al., 2005) illustrate other broad tectonic controls on orogenic gold in Cordilleran orogens. First, the immense gold resource at the Sukhoi Log deposit, probably of mid-Paleozoic
age (Goldfarb et al., 2001), is hosted by carbonaceous and
pyrite-rich flysch in a retroarc location within complexly deformed Neoproterozoic pericratonic Baikal terranes (Bulgatov and Gordiyenko, 1999). The thermal event associated
with emplacement of the immense Angara-Vitim batholith
(Yarmolyuk et al., 1998) correlates with the major period of
orogenic gold deposit formation within 100 km of the craton.
Thus, there are clearly significant exceptions to the general
observation that orogenic gold ores in a Cordilleran orogen
will always be younger in an oceanward direction. Second,
with the exception of this Baikal region, large gold placers,
such as those that dominate the circum-Pacific goldfields, are
absent. Perhaps this reflects the fact that continent-continent
collision closed the Altaid orogen and has, at least temporarily, formed a Paleozoic craton. This preserved paleoCordilleran margin has thus not been susceptible to reworking and erosion of significant amounts of its contained lode
gold systems. Further support for such a concept is that much
of the interior of the Altaid orogen still contains numerous
Paleozoic porphyry and epithermal deposits (Yakubchuk et
al., 2002, 2005), whereas such shallow crustal levels have
been already removed by uplift and erosion from many of the
circum-Pacific Cordilleran terranes.
The Paleozoic Tasman orogen of eastern Australia, which
includes the gold-rich Thomson, Hodgkinson-Broken River,
and, particularly, Lachlan fold belts, may also be considered
an accretionary orogen but with important differences from
the more classic Cordilleran-type orogens of western North
America and the Altaids. Rather than a series of accreted terranes, much of the more deformed and metamorphosed sectors of the orogen reflect a single, quartz-rich turbidite fan
system shed off the Delamerian-Ross highlands in the earliest
Paleozoic. Ordovician-Silurian orogenesis was dominated by
shortening and folding, as is typical of Cordilleran orogens,
but these were thin-skinned tectonic events and lacked any
major uplift of basement blocks (Coney, 1992; Goldfarb et al.,
1998). This difference in crustal response may be indicative
of subduction and/or accretion in association with a large fan
system, rather than a series of terranes, along a continental
margin (Gray and Foster, 2000). The extensive ores of the
Victorian goldfields formed during Late Ordovician deformation, metamorphism, and subduction in the western province
of the Lachlan fold belt (~440 Ma: Bierlein et al., 2001); however, no magmatic arc developed during subduction beneath
the deforming turbidite wedge (Fergusson, 2003).
Thrust-fault development and uplift of the Victorian ore
host rocks began at ~455 Ma, with perhaps slab rollback ~15
1115
1116
KERRICH ET AL.
1116
1117
1117
1118
KERRICH ET AL.
1118
to the unconformity, where it was transected by northeasttrending faults that parallel the structural grain of Trans-Hudson orogen accreted terranes (Kotzer and Kyser, 1993, 1995).
This event was coeval with assembly of the Colombia supercontinent. A second mineralization stage developed at ~1400
Ma, coeval with intracontinental rifting of Columbia; a third
stage at 1260 Ma was related to extension during the Mackenzie large igneous province event; and a fourth occurred
during diking in the Athabasca basin or possibly in response
to distal tectonic events, such as Nipigon rifting, the Racklan
orogen in the Yukon, or the Grenville orogen (Kotzer et al.,
1992; Kyser et al., 2000; Ramaekers et al., 2005).
In Australia, the McArthur River foreland basin developed
during the 2.0 to 1.8 Ga Barramundi orogen. As much as 15
km of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments accumulated from
1800 to 1770 Ma in a marine to terrestrial environment with
intermittent volcanism. The principal unconformity-related
deposits are Jabiluka, Ranger, and Nabarlek, in the Pine
Creek sub-basin of the McArthur River basin. Uraninite precipitated at 1640 Ma from saline (Na-Mg-Ca-Cl), diagenetic
fluids >100 m.y. after termination of sedimentation, as in the
Athabasca basin. A pronounced change in the apparent paleomagnetic wandering path throughout the McArthur River
basin at 1640 Ma corresponds to the timing of both sedimentary rock Pb-Zn-Ag and U mineralization (Idnurm et al.,
1995). Diagenetic fluids advected through the basin intermittently for >900 m.y. (Kyser et al., 2000, and references
therein; Polito et al., 2004).
There are several common factors in the evolution of the
Athabasca and McArthur basins and their U deposits, as well
as the 2 Ga Oklo U province, Gabon. These include (1) Paleoproterozoic orogens that sutured supercontinents, such as
Baltica, Laurentia, and East Antarctica into Nena (Fig. 8A;
Rogers, 1996; Rogers and Santosh, 2004); (2) reductants in
the basement; (3) foreland basins that promoted high hydraulic conductivity in sediments, (4) evaporites in some sequences that generated saline diagenetic brines; and (5) evolution to intracontinental basins underlain by some amount of
Archean continental lithospheric mantle, which accounts for
their preservation compared to geodynamically equivalent
Phanerozoic basins. Protracted fluid flow was tectonically
triggered and generated multiple stages of mineralization
>100 m.y. after sedimentation (Hoeve and Quirt, 1987; Ramaekers et al., 2005).
Rollfront sandstone-hosted deposits on most continents
represent ~30 percent of global U resources; they formed at
<100 Ma (Fig. 5B). Key factors in their formation are (1) development of extensive upland terrestrial forests at ~100 Ma;
(2) intermontane or intracratonic basins with fluvio-lacustrine
sediments characterized by the conjunction of large hydraulic
conductivities, with both oxidized and reduced facies; (3) tectonic uplift induced orographic rainfall; and (4) topographically driven fluid flow (Nash et al., 1981).
Carbonate-hosted Pb-Zn
Carbonate-hosted MVT deposits of Pb-Zn are reviewed
by Leach et al. (2005a). These workers emphasize that orogenic uplift is a key factor to create elevated recharge for
topographically driven flow of formation fluids through
sedimentary rock aquifers in foreland basin sequences (but
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1119
1119
1120
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 8. A. Configuration of the Mesoproterozoic supercontinent Columbia of Zhao et al. (2004), illustrating the distribution of Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits proximal to Archean or Paleoproterozoic margins. Recast from
Lydon (2000). B. Columbia, after Zhao et al. (2004), with 1.8 to 1.5 and 1.4 to 1.1 Ga belts of anorogenic magmatism from
Haapla and Rm (1999).
1120
1121
mineralization predated the main stage of Lufilian orogenesis. Selley et al. (2005) similarly report an unpublished Re-Os
date of 816 62 Ma for stratiform sulfide deposition at the
Konkola deposit in Zambia, consistent with a diagenetic or
late-diagenetic timing for mineralization. Richards et al.
(1988a, b) also dated rutile and uraninite from late quartz
veins cutting the Ore Shale at Musoshi and obtained an age
of 514 Ma, indicating that these veins postdated the Lufilian
orogeny, and that they could, therefore, not have been responsible for original introduction of Cu into the Ore Shale.
Ore textures indicate a permeability control on metal distribution, reflected in the concentration of Cu sulfides within
more sandy laminae of the siltstone sequence, with finer
grained, less permeable laminae being almost devoid of sulfides except possibly syndepositional pyrite (Richards et al.,
1988b). Permeability in the sediments during introduction of
Cu implies an origin prior to regional metamorphism, perhaps during early diagenesis, because pore space would subsequently have been filled by diagenetic and then metamorphic minerals (Brown, 1978). An early diagenetic timing
would also coincide with advanced development of the rift
basin, involving crustal thinning and increased mantle-derived heat flow. In contrast, Selley et al. (2005) propose a
model involving secondary permeability development during
early orogenic fluid flow.
A common characteristic of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
deposits is that they are hosted by what were originally organic-rich black shales or dolomites, typically representing
the first marine transgression in previously subaerial clastic
sedimentary basins (Oszczepalski, 1999). In some Cu-Co
provinces, such as the Central African Copperbelt, the underlying clastic rock sequences are referred to as red beds, reflecting subaerial oxidation of relatively immature sandstones
(commonly dune-bedded), arkoses, and conglomerates; evaporitic horizons also occur locally (Jackson et al., 2003). Knifesharp contacts between the Ore Shale and underlying conglomerates attest to sudden flooding of the subaerial basin,
with a switch to deposition of fine-grained clastic sedimentary
rocks with high organic content, followed by deeper marine
carbonate deposits. A link is thus suggested between hydrocarbon maturation, diagenetic flow of oxidized basinal brines
in the footwall sequences, and base metal sulfide deposition
by reduction upon interaction between these brines and organic-rich shales (Annels, 1979; Kelly and Nishioka, 1985;
Sverjensky, 1987; Jowett, 1992; Mauk and Hieshima, 1992).
Red-bed formation has been suggested as a key precursor factor in this process, by causing the breakdown of primary silicate and oxide minerals to render trace concentrations of base
and other metals labile (Zielinski et al., 1983; Brown, 1984).
These metals are then available for dissolution by later fluxes
of warm, oxidized basinal brines (Rose, 1976).
Expulsion of metalliferous brines from the deeper parts of
sedimentary basins is recognized to be an essential part of the
ore-forming process, not only of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu
deposits but also of other sedimentary rock-hosted base metal
deposits such as MVT and SEDEX Pb-Zn deposits (Cathles
and Adams, 2005; Leach et al., 2005a). The different metal
inventory of these deposits, but otherwise similar environments of formation within intracratonic sedimentary basins,
may reflect simply the dominant composition of sedimentary
1121
1122
KERRICH ET AL.
rocks. For example, Sverjensky (1989) has suggested that Pband Zn-rich deposits form where brines have flowed predominantly through sandstone and carbonate aquifers, respectively, whereas Cu-rich deposits form where aquifers contain
a significant amount of immature sediments, such as red-bed
arkoses. The high Co contents of some Central African Cu
deposits may reflect leaching from mafic materials, either
present as clastic components in the arkosic sediments or sills
deep within the sedimentary sequence (Annels and Simmonds, 1984).
The onset of basin inversion is commonly regarded as an important tectonic driving force for fluid flow, resulting in high
fluid pressures in deeper parts of the basin that force fluids to
escape by percolation through normally impermeable shale
horizons, thereby bringing oxidized metalliferous brines into direct contact with reductants in these shales (Cathles and Adams,
2005). Metal deposition as sulfides also requires a source of reduced sulfur, which may be generated by in situ reduction of
sulfate carried by the same brines (McGowan et al., 2003).
The formation of sedimentary rock-hosted Cu deposits, like
other sedimentary basin-hosted base metal deposits, may thus
be seen as part of the larger supercontinent cycle, forming
during the early stages of rifting (Raybould, 1978; Barley and
Groves, 1992; Titley, 1993). Successful rifting will generate a
new ocean basin, with the original rift sediments forming part
of a passive margin sequence. However, such sequences are
either currently submarine, or have been caught up in and
potentially destroyed by later collisional events, and are
therefore either inaccessible to, or of low potential for, exploration. In contrast, failed rifts have high preservation potential within stable continental interiors and are thus the most
prospective regions for discovery of economic deposits.
Passive Margins
Phosphorites
Most sedimentary phosphate deposits accumulated on the
continental shelves of the western margins of continents and
in passive margin marine settings, within 45 of paleoequators. Deposition occurred in zones of high bioproductivity
from upwelling of cold polar currents moving toward the
equator in oceanic gyres. Ocean basins ~3,000 km wide are
required for gyres, implying deposition of phosphate 15 to 20
m.y. after rifting. Deposits may also form on east-facing passive margins, such as in the Miocene basin of Florida (Fig.
4C; Chandler and Christie, 1996).
Significant phosphorite units were deposited as the first extensive passive margins developed during dispersal of the supercontinent Kenorland at ~2.4 to 2.2 Ga (Fig. 5). Examples
are units in the 1.95 to 1.85 Ga Animikie Group in Minnesota
and in the 2.0 Ga Trans-Amazonian Central Guiana belt, Suriname. Major phosphate accumulations became widespread
on passive margins (e.g., Russian platform) following breakup
of the supercontinent Rodinia at ~600 to 500 Ma, which
marked the Neoproterozoic-Cambrian boundary. The largest
deposit is the Permian (300251 Ma) Posphoria Formation,
Montana and Idaho, deposited on the western margin of late
Paleozoic Pangea in an epicratonic sea. These deposits are associated with global sea-level high stands linked to maxima of
plume or ocean-ridge activity. Phosphates also occur on ocean
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1122
1123
global superplume event (Fig. 3A; Isley and Abbott, 1999; Pirajno, 2000). The Great Dyke, emplaced at 2050 Ma, represents extension in the Zimbabwe craton, following amalgamation of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons. The 2060 to 2050
Ma Bushveld Intrusive Complex was emplaced proximal to
the Murchison-Thabuzimbi lineament that also controlled
the architecture of the intracratonic Transvaal sedimentary
basin. These African cratons were possibly adjacent to the
Antarctic and Pilbara cratons at ~2.5 to 2.2 Ga (Pirajno,
2000). The intrusive complexes are likely an early stage of the
1.9 Ga superplume (Fig. 3A). In the Great Dyke and
Bushveld Intrusive Complex, oxide ores of Cr, Ti, Fe, and V
and sulfide ores of Ni, Cu, Co, and PGE were associated with
ultramafic liquids possessing high Mg number but low incompatible element abundances (Pirajno, 2000, 2005). Given
the constraint on depth of plume decompressional melting
imposed by the thick continental lithospheric mantle,
Archean intrusive complexes such as the Bushveld may either
reflect lateral flow of plume melts into the craton or, alternatively, hotter Archean plumes melted at greater depths (Xie et
al., 1993).
Critical factors for transition metal ores in ultramafic to
mafic magmatic bodies are an increase of SiO2 content to induce S saturation and open-system conditions. Increase of
SiO2 content of the parental liquid occurs either by assimilation of crustal rocks or by mixing with noritic melts (Fig. 2B).
In an open system, sulfides equilibrate with successive pulses
of melts or by mixing of melts. Many Archean and Proterozoic
mafic-ultramafic intrusive complexes have vast quantities of
norites. Norites are not evolved, or crustally contaminated,
tholeiitic basalts. Intriguingly, these intracontinental norites
feature incompatible element enrichment in conjunction
with depletions of Nb-Ta, the characteristics of convergent
margin mafic magmas (Hall and Hughes, 1990; Pearce and
Peate, 1995). Some intrusive complexes have units with Ushaped REE patterns compositionally akin to Phanerozoic
boninites and recent boninites of the Izu-Bonin-Mariana arc
(Stern et al., 1991; Taylor et al., 1994). Shallower mantle
lithosphere of Archean terranes acquired a subduction zone
signature in subcreted normal oceanic and ocean plateau
lithosphere during accretionary assembly of the terranes into
cratons. Subsequently, the deep residue of plume melting
coupled buoyantly to form the deeper continental lithospheric mantle (Wyman et al., 2002; Schmitz et al., 2004),
which later remelted at shallower depths by decompression
during extension and/or plume impingement. This generated
intracratonic norites with a subduction signature and allowed
mixing of plume material with high Si norite liquids in layered
complexes (Fig. 2B).
Other well-documented examples of magmatic Ni-, Cu-,
and Co-bearing sulfide deposits stemming from plume impingement on incipiently rifted lithosphere are discussed
below. In the circum-Superior craton belt, Ni sulfide deposits
in Manitoba occur at the cratonic margin, in ~1.8 Ga sills
compositionally evolved from dunite to pyroxenite, which are
an expression of the ~1.9 Ga superplume event (Fig. 3A;
Condie et al., 2001). The 1850 Ma Sudbury igneous complex
is located at the boundary between the Archean Superior craton and Proterozoic Southern province. Large volumes of
norite are present, hosting Cu-, Ni-, and Co-bearing sulfides
1123
1124
KERRICH ET AL.
with significant PGE. Crustal melting was induced by a meteorite inpact (Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005), so this igneous
complex is an exception to the association of magmatic Ni-Cu
sulfide ores with mantle plumes. In the Neoproterozoic, NiCu sulfide deposits occur in (1) the 1.1 Ga Duluth complex of
the mid-continent rift associated with the Keweenawan large
igneous province; (2) the 1.1 Ga Coppermine large igneous
province of the Northwest Territories, with the Muskox intrusive complex; and (3) the Jinchuan deposit, China, which
occurs in ultramafic bodies that intruded translithospheric
faults at the southwestern margin of the North China craton.
Deposits of the Insizwa complex, South Africa, are associated
with the Karoo large igneous province and formed at 200 to
180 Ma; impingement of the ancestral Iceland plume on Laurentia-Baltica induced their rifting, as part of the Tertiary
North Atlantic large igneous province. In Greenland, the 55
Ma Skaergaard intrusion, hosting PGE-Au deposits, is a relict
of that plume-lithosphere interaction (Fig. 3A; Saunders et
al., 1997; Pirajno, 2000).
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co-PGE deposits in the Norilsk-Talnakh
metallogenic province have clearcut expressions of the coupled geodynamic and magmatic elements that are associated
with this deposit type. The province is sited at the edge of the
Siberian craton, where the transition from thick (Archean) to
thinner continental lithospheric mantle guided the location of
the regional, translithospheric Kharayelakh fault. Incipient
rifting created intracontinental basins between the Siberian,
eastern European, and Taimyr cratons. Impingement of a
plume at 250 Ma near the failed triple junction led to extensive decompressional melting under thin continental lithospheric mantle, and plume magmas erupted onto a Devonian
epicontinental sedimentary sequence generating 3.5-kmthick continental flood basalts. Tholeiitic basalts are prevalent, with minor alkali basalts and picrites indicating melting
in an anomalously hot plume tail. Assimilation of low S continental crust led to increase of SiO2 content and S saturation
of basaltic melts, with gravitational accumulation of magmatic
sulfides that partitioned Ni-Cu-PGE from multiple pulses
through open-system magma conduits. More than 12 Gt of S
entered the system from stoping of sulfate-rich evaporites,
but only ~1 percent of this S entered the orebody (Naldrett,
1989; Lightfoot and Hawkesworth, 1997).
The largest komatiite-hosted Ni-Cu deposits are in the 2.7
Ga Norseman-Wiluna belt, Yilgarn craton. Komatiite flows
erupted in a deep marine environment over sulfidic sediments deposited in a ~200-km-wide intracontinental rift. Sulfur saturation of the ultramafic liquids may stem from assimilation of the sediments (Lesher and Keays, 2002). Similar
deposits are present in the 2.7 Ga Abitibi belt and
Neoarchean greenstone terranes of Botswana and Zimbabwe.
Paleoproterozoic equivalents formed in greenstone terranes
of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec (Ungava, Raglan), Finland
(Hitura), Russia (Pechenga), and Tanzania (Kabanga). A common geodynamic element for these deposits is eruption of
high-temperature, S-undersaturated ultramafic melts through
continental (Noresman-Wiluna) or dominantly oceanic
(Abitibi) crust (Naldrett, 1989; Eckstrand, 1996; Cassidy et
al., 2002; Lesher and Keays, 2002).
Tholeitic intrusion-hosted cumulus Ni-Cu sulfide deposits
occur dominantly in Archean greenstone terranes, with fewer
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
in Paleoproterozoic counterparts of Finland and Russia (Naldrett, 1989; Ekstrand, 1996). Their common secular distribution with komatiite-hosted deposits is consistent with plume
magmas advecting into an arc, back-arc, or sub-continental
flood basalt setting.
Magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulfide deposits at Voiseys Bay, Newfoundland, are sited on the 1.8 Ga translithospheric suture
between the Archean Nain and Paleoproterozoic Churchill
provinces. Troctolite magmas, likely part of the 1350 to 1290
Ma anorogenic Nain Plutonic Complex, intruded the suture
at 1.3 Ga, coeval with dispersal of the supercontinent Columbia, triggered by a mantle plume. Interaction with graphitebearing paragneisses of the host terrane by assimilation and
fractional crystallization added Si, K, Na, and S to the troctolites, triggering S saturation and segregation of immiscible
sulfide liquids (Eckstrand, 1996; Naldrett and Ripley, 2001).
In summary, magmatic Ni deposits have the same secular distribution as mantle plumes.
Economic stratiform chromite deposits are all Archean or
Paleoproterozoic in age. The largest deposits are Selukwe, in
the 3420 Ma Sebakwian sequence of the Zimbabwe craton;
Kemi in Finland (2444 Ma); and Campo Formoso in Brazil
(2000 Ma). All involve plumes interacting with Archean continental lithospheric mantle (Fig. 2B; Duke, 1996b). Stratiform chromite in the Neoarchean Bird River Sill, Manitoba,
and Big Trout Lake intrusion, Ontario, appear to be the result
of plume-related intrusions emplaced into Archean greenstone terranes (Duke, 1966b). Crystallization of chromite was
triggered by mixing of a high Mg primitive melt with SiO2rich norites, raising the Si activity in the former.
Diamonds
Diamonds form by reaction of asthenospheric carbonatitic
liquids with peridotite (p-type) and eclogite (e-type) of deep,
mostly Archean, continental lithospheric mantle (Gurney et
al., 2005). Accordingly, ages of inclusions in diamonds span
3.3 Ga to Mesoproterozoic (Fig. 2B; Kirkley et al., 1991). Carbon is introduced into the continental lithospheric mantle
both from deep asthenospheric fluids and from subducted
ocean crust, in keeping with independent evidence for residence of subducted material in Archean continental lithospheric mantle (Cartigny, 2005). Diamonds are transported as
xenocrysts from the continental lithospheric mantle to shallow crustal levels in kimberlites or lamproites, both incompatible element-enriched and volatile-rich ultramafic magmas (Mitchell, 1995; Dawson, 1999). Kimberlitic melts are
generated in the upper mantle, some at depths of 450 to 670
km as indicated by inclusions of beta majorite garnet, but may
also form below the 670-km D' transition zone. In southern
Africa, continental lithospheric mantle with slower P-wave
velocity correlates with a greater proportion of eclogitic silicate inclusions in diamonds, younger Sm-Nd ages of the inclusions, more depleted 13C, and fewer diamonds characterized by low N contents. Converse properties characterize
high P-wave domains of continental lithospheric mantle
(Shirey et al., 2004). Whereas mantle plumes do not undergo
decompressional melting at ~300 km beneath Archean continental lithospheric mantle, volatile-rich kimberlites possess
the buoyancy flux to penetrate this mantle along preexisting
structures (Fig. 2B).
1124
Three of seven known major kimberlite events are associated with superplumes: (1) ~480 Ma in Russia, China,
Canada, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; (2) ~280 Ma in Laurentia-Baltica; and (3) ~120 to 80 Ma in North America,
India, Siberia, Brazil, and Africa, linked to the Pacific Cretaceous superplume and associated dispersal of Gondwana
(Figs. 3A, 5). Jelsma et al. (2004) identified four lineament
trends in southern Africa, along which many kimberlites
occur, that they attributed to lithospheric structures formed
during breakup of Gondwana. Oceanic lithosphere, stored at
670-km depth, may avalanche to the core-mantle boundary,
ejecting superplumes that in turn cause dispersal of supercontinents (Condie, 2002). Kimberlite events not known to
be associated with plumes occurred at 1 Ga, 410 to 370 Ma,
200 Ma, and 50 Ma (Condie, 2001). Geodynamic settings of
kimberlites are reviewed by Helmstaedt (1993); plumelithosphere interaction is prevalent, but continental rifts and
transform faults are also significant for localizing kimberlite
emplacement in the crust.
Iron formations
Arguably the most significant insight into the fundamental
process for iron formations comes from the work of Isley and
Abbott (1999), reviewed by Clout and Simonson (2005). They
demonstrated that from 3.8 to 1.9 Ga, iron formations and
ocean plateaus that were erupted from mantle plumes have a
common time series (Fig. 9; see also Clout and Simonson,
2005). Reduced hydrothermal fluids enriched in Fe2+ and Si,
from convection through submarine basaltic lavas, were
transported by ocean circulation to shallower basins where Fe
precipitated in near-surface waters. Fryer et al. (1979) pioneered the concept of large volcanic-related hydrothermal
fluxes into Archean oceans, specifically to maintain an
Archean CO2 greenhouse. Simonson and Hassler (1996) argued for deposition of Archean banded iron formation (BIF)
below the wave base in deep water during global sea-level
high stands, in keeping with decreased continental freeboard
associated with oceanic plateaus (Fig. 3).
Isley and Abbotts (1999) insight explains the scarcity of
iron formations younger than 1.8 Ga (Fig. 9). Accordingly,
these deposits not only span the putative great oxygenation
event at ~2.2 Ga and, therefore, are not proxies for the oxidation state of Earths atmosphere-hydrosphere system but require oxygenated waters to precipitate Fe3+ (Ohmoto,
2004a,b). Corroborative evidence for this depositional
scheme of reduced source fluids and oxygenated surface marine waters comes from 2.9 Ga BIF in India, which are characterized by positive Eu but negative Ce anomalies. The former is indicated by the solubility of Eu2+ in reduced
hydrothermal fluids, whereas the latter is consistent with sequestration of Ce3+ from marine water by Fe3+ and Mn4+ oxides and oxyhydroxides (Kato et al., 2002). Not all Precambrian iron formations have such clear Eu and Ce anomalies.
Trendall and Blockley (2004) reject the conventional classification of iron formations into Algoman and Superior types.
They identify four main associations. The first is older BIF in
volcanic basins of Archean greenstone terranes of the Slave,
Superior, Baltic, Ukraine (Krivoi Rog BIF), Dharwar, Amazon, Yilgarn, Kaapvaal, and West African cratons. Microbands
are interpreted as chemical and seasonal varves, and BIF are
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1125
1125
1126
KERRICH ET AL.
FIG. 9. (A). Secular distribution of mantle plumes, after Isley and Abbott (1999). (B). Iron formations after Trendall and
Blockley (2004). Rapitan (C), Algoman (D), and VMS (E) after Ohmoto (2004a). (F). Volume of ocean crust from Condie
(1997).
1126
FIG. 10. Secular variation of specified classes of mineral deposits according to geodynamic setting. Peak height on the yaxis is scaled according to relative size of the metallogenic provinces. A. AM = anorogenic magmatism; CA = continental arc;
CC = continent-continent orogen; CO = Cordilleran orogen; CR = continental rift; IA = intraoceanic arc; PL = plume-lithosphere. Porphyry-epithermal and VMS deposits form in both intraoceanic and continental arcs, but for simplicity of illustration the former are plotted on the continental arc track. Similarly, magmatic Sn deposits occur in both Cordilleran and
continent-contenent orogens, but are illustrated only on the latter. B. Sedimentary basins. BA = back arc; FA = fore arc; FL
= foreland; IC = intracontinental; O = oceanic; PM = passive margin; RM = rifted continental margin; SS = strike slip. Placer
gold deposits accumulate in the fore arcs and back arcs of orogenic belts, but for simplicity of illustration are plotted in fore
arcs. Sources: Meyer (1988), Goldfarb et al. (2001) for orogenic Au, Groves et al. (2005) for Fe oxide-Cu-Au-REE.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1127
1127
1128
KERRICH ET AL.
elevated tectonic belts, such as magmatic Sn and porphyry-epithermal deposits, in the Archean; the sparsity of several deposit
types over the interval from ~1.8 to ~0.8 Ga; the onset of several classes of sedimentary rock-hosted deposits with the first
stable passive margins and increased freeboard; prevalence of
Fe-Ti-V deposits in belts of Proterozoic anorogenic magmatism;
and the low prospectivity of intracontinental settings.
In terms of preservation, the sparsity of many deposit types
from ~900 to 500 Ma may have resulted from a secular decrease in thickness and buoyancy of the continental lithospheric mantle, coupled with Grenvillian orogens having deep
levels of erosion due to delamination of continental lithospheric mantle. The secular distribution of ore deposits in the
Phanerozoic (Fig. 10) reflects enhanced preservation, especially of deposits in topographically elevated ranges, notwithstanding thinner continental lithospheric mantle.
Four potential future directions for research may provide
useful insights for exploration. At the scale of cratons, better
seismic imaging of continental lithospheric mantle topography
may assist in the exploration for magmatic Ni-Cu and Fe oxide
Cu-Au-REE deposits. Refined reconstructions of the supercontinent cycle allow projections of metallogenic provinces
(Fig. 8). At the scale of terranes, investigations on the conjunction of thermal, structural, and lithological factors will help to
determine the distinction between a metallogenic province
versus regions of subdued mineralization. At the scale of a
province, efforts to systematize Damkohler (NdD) numbers
(Johnson and DePaolo, 1994) will help to determine why large
or small deposits of a given type may form from the same oreforming fluids but with subtleties of geochemistry that may indicate size; e.g., large deposits may have high Nd signatures.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Bruce Eglington, Franco Pirajno, Paul
Ramaekers, Vlad Sopuk and Derek Wyman for reviewing
some, or all, sections of an intial draft of this manuscript. The
section on geodynamics draws on a document written by Ali
Polat and RK for an unpublished report to the Canadian Association of Mining Industry Research Organization
(CAMIRO). Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary
Volume reviewers, Dallas Abbott and David Groves, conferred
insights and identified errors that resulted in substantial improvement to the final version. Glen Caldwell, Kevin Cassidy,
Bruce Eglington, and Mike Lesher guided RK to information
where background was lacking. Karen McMullan and Ignacio
Gonzales are thanked for assistance with the text, and Ryan
Schmidt, June McLintock, and Tim Wardell for generating the
figures. RK acknowledges the George McLeod endowment to
the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of
Sasktchewan, and JPR and RK acknowledge support of Discovery Grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We appreciate the invitation by Jeff
Hedenquist to write this article.
REFERENCES
Abbott, D.H., and Isley, A.E., 2002, The duration, magnitude, and intensity
of mantle plume activity over the last 3.8 Ga: Journal of Geodynamics, v.
34, p. 265307.
Abbott, D.H., Burgess, L., and Longhi, J., 1994a, An empirical thermal history of Earths upper mantle: Journal of Geophysical Research, v.99, p.
13,83513,850.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Abbott, D., Drury, R., and Smith, W.H.F., 1994b, Flat to steep transition in
subduction style: Geology, v. 22, p. 937940.
Albino, G.V., Jalal, S., and Christensen, K., 1995, Neoproterozoic mesothermal gold mineralization at Sukhaybarat East mine, Saudi Arabia: Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 104, sec. B, p. B157B170.
Allegr, C., 1988, The behaviour of the Earth: Continental and seafloor mobility: Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 288 p.
Anderson, D.L., 1994, Superplumes or supercontinents?: Geology, v. 22, p.
3942.
Annels, A.E., 1979, Mufulira greywackes and their associated sulfides: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 88, sec. B, p. B15B23.
Annels, A.E., and Simmonds, J.R., 1984, Cobalt in the Zambian Copperbelt:
Precambrian Research, v. 25, p. 7598.
Arndt, N.T., 1994, Archean komatiites, in Condie, K.C., ed., Archean crustal evolution: Amsterdam, Elsevier, Developments in Precambrian Geology, p. 1144.
Arndt, N.T., Lesher, C.M., and Czamanske, G.K., 2005, Mantle-derived magmas and magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 523.
Arribas, A., Jr., Hedenquist, J.W., Itaya, T., Okada, T., Concepcin, R.A., and
Garcia, J.S., Jr., 1995, Contemporaneous formation of adjacent porphyry
and epithermal Cu-Au deposits over 300 ka in northern Luzon, Philippines:
Geology, v. 23, p. 337340.
Artemieva, I.M., and Mooney, W.D., 2001, Thermal thickness and evolution
of Precambrian lithosphere: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 106, p.
16,38716,414.
Ashley, P.M., and Craw, D., 2004, Structural controls on hydrothermal alteration and gold-antimony mineralisation in the Hillgrove area, NSW, Australia: Mineralium Deposita, v. 39, p. 223239.
Attoh, K., and Ekwueme, B.N., 1997. The West African Shield: Oxford
Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, v. 35, p. 517528.
Barley, M.E., 1982, Porphyry-style mineralization associated with early
Archean calc-alkaline igneous activity, eastern Pilbara, Western Australia:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 77, p. 12301236.
Barley, M.E., and Groves, D.I., 1992, Supercontinent cycles and the distribution of metal deposits through time: Geology, v. 20, p. 291294.
Barnes, S.-J., and Lightfoot, P.C., 2005, Formation of magmatic nickel sulfide
ore deposits and processes affecting their copper and platinum group element
contents: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 179213.
Barrie, C.T., and Hannington, M.D., 1999, Classification of volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits based on host-rock composition: Reviews in
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 8, p. 111.
Bartholom, P., Evrard, P., Katekesha, F., Lopez-Ruiz, J., and Ngongo, M.,
1973, Diagenetic ore-forming processes at Kamoto, Katanga, Republic of
the Congo, in Amstutz, G.C., and Bernard, A.J., eds., Ores in sediments:
Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 2141.
Ben-Avraham, Z., Nur, A., Jones, D., and Cox, A., 1981, Continental accretion
from oceanic plateaus to allochthonous terranes: Science, v. 213, p. 4754.
Benioff, H., 1964, Earthquake source mechanisms: Science, v. 143, p.
13991406.
Berger, B.R., and Bonham, H.F., 1990, Epithermal gold-silver deposits in the
western United States: Time-space products of evolving plutonic, volcanic and
tectonic environments: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 36, p. 103142.
Bickle, M.J., 1986, Implications of melting for stabilization of the lithosphere
and heat loss in the Archean: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 80, p.
314324.
Bierlein, F.P., Arne, D.C., Foster, D.A., and Reynolds, P., 2001, A geochronological framework for orogenic gold mineralisation in central Victoria, Australia: Mineralium Deposita, v. 36, p. 741767.
Bijward, H., and Spakman, W., 1999, Tomographic evidence for a narrow
whole mantle plume below Iceland: Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
v. 176, p. 4555.
Bilibin, Y.A., 1968, Metallogenic provinces and metallogenic epochs: New
York, Queens College Press, 35 p.
Bissig, T., Clark, A.H., Lee, J.K.W., and Hodgson, C.J., 2002, Miocene landscape evolution and geomorphologic controls on epithermal processes in
the El Indio-Pascua Au-Ag-Cu belt, Chile and Argentina: ECONOMIC GEOLGY, v. 97, p. 971996.
Blecha, M., 1974, Batchawana areaa possible Precambrian porphyry copper district: CIM Bulletin, August 1974, p. 7176.
Blevin, P.L., and Chappell, B.W., 1992, The role of magma sources, oxidation
states and fractionation in determining the granite metallogeny of eastern
Australia: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences,
v. 83, p. 305316.
1128
1129
Chernicoff, C.J., Richards, J.P., and Zappettini, E.O., 2002, Crustal lineament control on magmatism and mineralization in northwestern Argentina:
Geological, geophysical, and remote sensing evidence: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 21, p. 127155.
Christie-Blick, N.H., and Biddle, K.I., 1985, Deformation and basin formation along strike-slip faults: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 37, p. 134.
Clark, A.H., Farrar, E., Kontak, D.J., Langridge, R.J., Arenas, M.J., France,
L.J., McBride, S.L., Woodman, P.L.,Wasteneys, H.A., Sandeman, H.A.,
and Archibald, D.A., 1990, Geologic and geochronologic constraints on the
metallogenic evolution of the Andes of southeastern Peru: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 85, p. 15201583.
Clarke, C.J., George, R.J., Bennett, D.L., et al., 2000, Geologically related
variations in saturated hydraulic conductivity in the regolith of the western
wheatbelt of Western Australia and its implications for the development of
dryland salinity: Australian Journal of Soil Research, v. 38, p. 555568.
Cloos, M., 1993, Lithospheric buoyancy and collisional orogenesis: Subduction of oceanic plateaus, continental margins, island arcs, spreading ridges,
and seamounts: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 105, p. 715737.
Cloud, P., 1972, A working model of the primitive earth: American Journal of
Science, v. 272, p. 537549.
Clout, J.M.F., and Simonson, B.M., Precambrian iron formations and iron
formation-hosted iron ore deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 643679.
Coffin, M.F., and Eldholm, O., 1994, Large igneous provinces: Crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 32,
p. 6192.
Condie, K.C., 1997, Plate tectonics and crustal evolution: Oxford, Butterworth-Heinmann, 282 p.
1998, Episodic continental growth and supercontinents: A mantle
avalanche connection? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 163, p. 97108.
2001, Mantle plumes and their record in Earth history: Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 306 p.
2002, The supercontinent cycle: Are there two patterns of cyclicity?:
Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 35, p. 179183.
2004, Supercontinents and superplume events: Distinguishing signals in
the geologic record: Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, v. 146, p.
319332.
Condie, K.C., and Chomiak, B., 1996, Continental accretioncontrasting
Mesozoic and early Proterozoic tectonic regimes in North America:
Tectonophysics, v. 265, p. 101126.
Condie, K.C., Des Marais, D.J., and Abbott., D., 2001, Precambrian superplumes and supercontinents: A record in black shales, carbon isotopes, and
paleoclimates?: Precambrian Research, v. 106, p. 239260.
Coney, P.J., 1992, The Lachlan belt of eastern Australia and Circum-Pacific
tectonic evolution: Tectonophysics, v. 214, p. 125.
Coney, P.J., Jones, D.L., and Monger, J.W.H., 1980, Cordilleran suspect terranes: Nature, v. 288, p. 329333.
Conrad, C.P., and Lithgow-Bertelloni, C., 2002, How mantle slabs drive plate
tectonics: Science, v. 298, p. 207209.
Cookro, T.M., Silberman, M.L., and Berger, B.R., 1988, Gold-tungsten bearing hydrothermal deposits in the Yellow Pine mining district, Idaho, in
Schafer, R.W., Cooper, J.J., and Vikre, P.G., eds., Bulk mineable precious
metal deposits of the western United States. Symposium Proceedings:
Reno, Geological Society of Nevada, p. 577624.
Corbett, G.J., and Leach, T.M., 1998, Southwest Pacific Rim gold-copper
systems: Structure, alteration, and mineralization: Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 6, 240 p.
Cox, A., and Hart, R.B., 1986, Plate tectonics: How it works: Palo Alto, California, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 392 p.
Craw, D., 2002, Geochemistry of late metamorphic hydrothermal alteration
and graphitisation of host rock, Macraes gold mine, Otago Schist, New
Zealand: Chemical Geology, v. 191, p. 257275.
Dalrymple, G.B., 1991, The age of the Earth: Stanford, Stanford University
Press, 474 p.
Davidson, G.J., and Large, R.D., 1998, Proterozoic Cu-Au deposits: Australian Geological Survey Organisation, Journal of Australian Geology and
Geophysics, v. 17, p. 105113.
Davies, G.F., 1999, Dynamic earth plates, plumes and mantle convection:
Cambridge, U.K., Cambridge University Press, 458 p.
Dawson, B., 1999, Introduction, in Nixon, P.H., ed., Proceedings, Seventh
International Kimberlite Conference, v. 2: Cape Town, Republic of South
Africa, National Book Printers, 947 p.
1129
1130
KERRICH ET AL.
de Boorder, H., Panov, B.S., Westerhof, A.B., and Korcemagin, V.A., 1995,
Tectonic setting, deep faults and mercury mineralization at Almaden,
Spain, and Nikitovka, Ukraine: Affinities and contrasts: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, sec. B, v. 104, p. B66B79.
de Hoog, J.C.M., Mason, P.R.D., and van Bergen, M.J., 2001, Sulfur and
chalcophile elements in subduction zones: Constraints from a laser ablation
ICP-MS study of melt inclusions from Galunggung Volcano, Indonesia:
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 65, p. 31473164.
de Ronde, C.E.J, Channer, D.M., and Spooner, E.T.C., 1997, Archaean fluids: Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, v. 35, p. 309335.
de Wit, M.J., 1998, On Archean granites, greenstones, cratons and tectonics:
Does the evidence demand a verdict?: Precambrian Research, v. 91. p.
181226.
2004, Archean belts do contain fragments of ophiolites, in Kusky, T.M., ed.,
Precambrian ophiolites and related rocks: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 599614.
Defant, M.J., and Drummond, M.S., 1990, Derivation of some modern arc magmas by melting of young subducted lithosphere: Nature, v. 347, p. 662665.
Derry, D., 1980, World atlas of geology and mineral deposits: Duncan R.
Derry; assisted by Laurence Curtis et al.: London, Mining Journal Books,
1111 p.
Dewey, J.F., 1980, Special episodicity, sequence and style at convergent plate
boundaries: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 20, p.
553573.
Dickinson, W.R., 2004, Evolution of the North American Cordillera: Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v.32, p. 1345.
Dickinson, W.R., Klute., M.A., Hayes, M.J., Janecke, S.U., Lundin, E.R.,
McKittrick, M.A., and Oliviares, M.D., 1988, Paleogeographic and paleotectonic setting of Laramide sedimentary basinsin the Rocky Mountain region: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 10231039.
Dill, H.G., 1998, Evoution of Sb mineralization in modern fold beltsa comparison of the Sb mineralization in the central Andes (Bolivia) and the
Western Carpathians (Slovakia): Mineralium Deposita, v. 33, p. 359378.
Dimroth, E., and Kimberly, M.M., 1976, Precambrian atmospheric oxygen:
Evidence in the sedimentary distributions of carbon, sulphur, uranium and
iron: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 12, p. 11611185.
Dixon, C.J., 1979, Atlas of economic mineral deposits: London, ChapmanHall, 144 p.
Drummond, M.S., Defant, M.J., and Kepezhinskas, P.K. 1996. Petrogenesis
of slab-derived trondhjemite-tonalite-dacite/adakite magmas: Transactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Science, v. 87, p. 205215.
Duke, J.M., 1996a, Podiform (ophiolitic) chromite: Geological Survey of
Canada, Geology of Canada, no. 8, p. 621624.
1996b, Stratiform chromite: Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of
Canada, no. 8, p. 617620.
Duncan, C.C., and Turcotte, D.L., 1994, On the breakup and coalescence of
continents: Geology, v. 22, p. 103106.
Eckstrand, O.R., 1996, Magmatic nickel-copper-platinum group elements
Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, no. 8, p. 583604.
Edwards, S.J., Pearce, J.A., and Freeman, J., 2000, New insights concerning
the influence of water during the formation of podiform chromitite: Geological Society of America Special Paper 349, p. 139147.
Elder, J., 1981, Geothermal systems: London, Academic Press, 508 p.
Eldholm, O., and Coffin, M.F., 2000, Large igneous provinces and plate tectonics: Geophysical Monograph 121, p. 309326.
Ernst, R.E., and Buchan, K.L., 2001, The use of mafic dike swarms in identifying and locating mantle plumes: Geological Society of America Special
Paper 352, p. 247266.
2004, Igneous rock association in Canada, three large igneous provinces
(LIPs) in Canada and adjacent regions: 3 Ga to present: Geoscience
Canada, v. 31, p. 103126.
Ernst, W.G., editor, 1975, Subduction zone metamorphism. Benchmark papers in geology: Studsberg, Penn., Dowden, Hutchison & Ross, v. 19, 445
p.
Fahrig, W.F., 1987, The tectonic settings of continental mafic dyke swarms:
Failed arm and early passive margin: Geological Association of Canada
Special Paper, v. 34, p. 331348.
Farmer, G.L., and DePaolo, D.J., 1984, Origin of Mesozoic and Tertiary
granite in the western United States and implications for pre-Mesozoic
crustal structure, 2. Nd and Sr isotopic studies of unmineralized and Cuand Mo-mineralized granite in the Precambrian craton: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 89, p. 10,14110,160.
Farquhar, J., Bao, H., and Thiemens, M., 2000, Atmospheric influence of
Earths earliest sulphur cycle: Science, v. 289, p. 756758.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Faure, K., Matsuhisa, Y., Metsugi, H., Mizota, C., and Hayashi, S., 2002, The
Hishikari Au-Ag epithermal deposit, Japan: Oxygen and hydrogen isotope
evidence in determining the source of paleohydrothermal fluids: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 97, p. 481498.
Feng, R., Kerrich, R., and Maas R., 1993, Geochemical, O- and Nd-isotope
compositions of metasediments from the Abitibi greenstone belt and Pontiac subprovince, Canada: Evidence for ancient crust and Archean terrane
juxtaposition: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 57, p. 641658.
Fergusson, C.L., 2003, Ordovician-Silurian accretion tectonics of the Lachlan fold belt, southeastern Australia: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences,
v. 50, p. 475490.
Ferry, J.M., 1981, Petrology of graphitic sulfide-rich schists from south-central Maine: An example of desulfidation during prograde regional metamorphism: American Mineralogist, v. 66, p. 908930.
Foley, S., Tiepolo, M., and Vannucci, R., 2002, Growth of early continental
crust controlled by melting of amphibolite in subduction zones: Nature, v.
417, p. 837840.
Follmi, K.B., 1996, The phosphorus cycle, phosphogenesis and marine phosphate-rich deposits: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 40, p. 55124.
Forneris, J.F., and Holloway, J.R., 2003, Phase equilibria in subducting
basaltic crust: Implications for H2O release from the slab: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 214, p. 187201.
Foster, R.P., 1977, Solubility of scheelite in hydrothermal chloride solutions:
Chemical Geology, v. 20, p. 2743.
Franklin, J.M., Gibson, H.L., Jonasson, I.R., and Galley, A.G., 2005, Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 523560.
Fraser, R.J., 1993, The Lac Troilus gold-copper deposit, northwestern Quebec: A possible Archean porphyry system: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 88, p.
16851699.
Freeman, M.J., and Donaldson, M.J., 2004, Major mineral deposits of southwestern Western Australiaa field guide: Geological Survey of Western
Australia Record 2004/17, 38 p.
Fridovsky, V.Y., and Prokopiev, A.V., 2002, Tectonics, geodynamics and gold
mineralization of the eastern margin of the North Asia craton: Geological
Society Special Publications, v. 204, p. 299317.
Friend, C.R.L., Nutman, A.P., and McGregor, V.R., 1988, Late Archean terrane accretion in the Godhab region, southern west Greenland: Nature, v.
335, p. 535538.
Frimmel, H.E., Groves, D.I., Kirk, J., Ruiz, J., Chesley, J., and Minter,
W.E.L., 2005, The formation and preservation of the Witwatersrand goldfields, the worlds largest gold province: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 769797.
Frost, C.D., Frost, B.R., Bell, J.M., and Chamberlain, K.R., 2002, The relationship between A-type granites and residual magmas from anorthosite:
Evidence from the northern Sherman batholith, Laramie Mountains,
Wyoming, USA: Precambrian Research, v. 119, p. 4591.
Fryer, B.J., Fyfe, W.S., and Kerrich, R., 1979. Archean volcanogenic oceans:
Chemical Geology, v. 24, p. 2533.
Fyfe, W.S., 1978, The evolution of the Earths crust; modern plate tectonics
to ancient hot spot tectonics?: Chemical Geology, v. 23, p. 89114.
Fyfe, W.S., Price, N.J., and Thompson, A.B., 1978, Fluids in the Earths
crust: Amsterdam, Elsevier, 383 p.
Gal, G., and Isohanni, M., 1979, Characteristics of igneous intrusions
and various wall rocks in some Precambrian porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits in Pohjanmaa, Finland: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 74, p.
11981210.
Garlick, W.G., 1981, Sabkhas, slumping, and compaction at Mufulira, Zambia: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 76, p. 18171847.
Gao, S., Rudnick, R.L., and Yuan, H.L., Recycling lower continental crust in
the North China craton: Nature, v. 432, p. 892897.
Garnett, R.H.T., and Bassett, N.C., 2005, Placer deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 813843.
Garven, G., 1985, The role of regional fluid flow in the genesis of the Pine
Point deposit, Western Canada sedimentary basin: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v.
80, p. 307324.
Genna, A., Nehlig, P., Le Goff, E., Guerrot, C., and Shanti, M., 2002, Proterozoic tectonism of the Arabian Shield: Precambrian Research, v. 117, p.
2140.
Gleason, J.D., Marikos, M.A., Barton, M.D., and Johnson, A., 1999,
Neodymium isotopic study of rare earth element sources and mobility in
hydrothermal Fe oxide (Fe-P-REE) systems: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 64, p. 10591068.
1130
1131
Haynes, D.W., Cross, K.C., Bills, R.T., and Reed, M.H., 1995, Olympic Dam
ore genesis: A fluid mixing model: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 90, p. 281307.
Hedenquist, J.W., Izawa, E., Arribas, A., and White, N.C., 1996, Epithermal
gold deposits: Styles, characteristics, and exploration: Resource Geology
Special Publication 1, 16 p.
Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, A., Jr., and Reynolds, J.R., 1998, Evolution of an
intrusion-centered hydrothermal system: Far SoutheastLepanto porphyry
and epithermal Cu-Au deposits, Philippines: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 93, p.
373404.
Helmstaedt, H.H., 1993, Primary diamond deposits: Society of Economic
Geologists Special Publication 2, p. 1380.
Henley, R.W., and Adams, J., 1979, On the evolution of giant gold placers: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 88, p. B41B51.
Henley, R.W., Norris, R.J., and Patterson, C.J., 1976, Multistage ore genesis
in the New Zealand geosyncline: A history of post-metamorphic lode emplacement: Mineralium Deposita, v. 11, p. 180196.
Hernandez, A., Jebrak, M., Higueras, P., Oyarzun, R., Morata, D., and
Munha, J., 1999, The Almaden mercury mining district, Spain: Mineralium
Deposita, v. 34, p. 539548.
Herrington, R.J., Zykov, V.V., Maslennikov, V.V., Brown, D., and Puchkov,
V.N., 2005 Mineral deposits of the Urals and links to geodynamic evolution:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 10691095.
Herzberg, C., 1999, Phase equilibrium constraints on the formation of cratonic mantle: Geochemical Society Special Publication 6, p. 241257.
Herzberg, C.T., Fyfe, W.S., and Carr, M.J., 1983, Density constraints on the
formation of the continental Moho and crust: Contributions to Mineralogy
and Petrology, v. 84, p. 15.
Hess, H.H., 1968, Reply to Arthur Holmes: Originator of spreading ocean
floor hypothesis by A. A. Meyerhoff (1968): Journal of Geophysical Research. v. 73, p. 6569.
Hildreth, W., and Moorbath, S., 1988, Crustal contributions to arc magmtism
in the Andes of central Chile: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrolgy, v.
98, p. 455489.
Hirdes, W., Davis, D.W., Luedtke, G., and Konan, G., 1996, Two generations
of Birimian (Paleoproterozoic) volcanic belts in northeastern Cote dIvoire
(West Africa); consequences for the Birimian controversy: Precambrian
Research, v. 80, p. 173191.
Hitzman, M.W., Oreskes, N., and Einaudi, M.T., 1992, Geological characteristics and tectonic setting of Proterozoic iron oxides (Cu-Au-REE) deposits: Precambrian Research, v. 58, p. 241287.
Hitzman, R., Broughton, D., Thorson, J., and Selley, D., 2005, The sedimenthosted stratiform Cu ore system: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY
VOLUME, p. 609642.
Hoeve, J., and Quirt, D., 1987, A stationary redox front as a critical factor in the
formation of high-grade unconformity-type uranium ores in the Athabasca
basin, northern Saskatchewan: Bulletin Mineralogique, v. 110, p. 157171.
Hoffman, P.E., 1988, United plates of America, the birth of a craton: Annual
Review of Earth Planetary Science, v. 16, p. 543604. Planetary Science
Letters, v. 104, p. 513534.
Holland, H.D., 2002, Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the great oxidation
event: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 66, p. 38113826.
Hollings, P., 2002, Archean Nb-enriched basalts in the northern Superior
province: Lithos, v. 64, p. 114.
Hollister, V.F., 1975, An appraisal of the nature and source of porphyry copper deposits: Minerals Science and Engineering, v. 7, p. 225233.
Houseman, G.A., and Molnar, P., 1997, Gravitational (Rayleigh-Taylor) instability of a layer with non-linear viscosity and convective thinning of continental lithosphere: Geophysical Journal International, v. 128, p. 125150.
Hutchinson, R.W., 1981, Mineral deposits as guides to supracrustal evolution, in OConnell, R.J., and Fyfe, W.S., eds., Evolution of the Earth: American Geophysics Union Geodynamics Series 5, p. 120140.
Idnurm, M., Giddings, J.W., and Plumb, K.A., 1995, Apparent polar wander
and reversal stratigraphy of the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic southeastern
McArthur basin, Australia. Precambrian Research, v. 71, p. 141.
Ilyin, A.V., 1996, Phosphorites of the Russian craton: Earth-Science Reviews,
v. 45, p. 89101.
Isacks, B., Oliver, J., and Sykes, L.R., 1968, Seismology and the new global
tectonics: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 73, p. 58555899.
Ishibashi, J., and Urabe, T., 1995, Hydrothermal activity related to arcbackarc magmatism in the Western Pacific, in Taylor, B., ed., Backarc
basins, tectonics and magmatism: New York, Plenum Press, p. 451485.
Ishihara, I., 1981, The granitoid series and mineralization: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 75TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 458484.
1131
1132
KERRICH ET AL.
Isley, A.E., and Abbott, D.H., 1999, Plume-related mafic volcanism and the
deposition of banded iron formation: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v.104, sec. B, p. 15,46115,477.
Ito, G., Lin, J., and Graham, D., 2003, Observational and theoretical studies
of the dynamics of mantle plumemid-ocean ridge interaction: Reviews of
Geophysics, v. 41, p. 3-13-24.
Jackson, M.P.A., Warin, O.N., Woad, G.M., and Hudec, M.R., 2003, Neoproterozoic allochthonous salt tectonics during the Lufilian orogeny in the
Katangan Copperbelt, central Africa: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 115, p. 314330.
Jacobson, M.C., Charlson, R.J., Rodhe, H., and Orians, eds, 2000, Earth system science: From biogeochemical cycles to global change: International
Geophysics Series, v. 72, 279374.
Jamieson, R.A., Beaumont, C., Fullshock, P., and Lee, B., 1998, Barrovian regional metamorphism: Wheres the heat?: Geological Society of London
Special Publications, v. 138, p. 2351.
Jebrak, M., Higueras, P.L., and Marcoux, E., 2002, Geology and geochemistry of high-grade, volcanic rock-hosted, mercury mineralisation in the
Nuevo Entredicho deposit, Almaden district, Spain: Mineralium Deposita,
v. 37, p. 421432.
Jelsma, H.A., de Wit, M.J., Thiart, C., Dirks, P.H.G.M., Viola, G., Basson,
I.J., and Anckar, E. 2004, Preferential distribution along transcontinental
corridors of kimberlites and related rocks of southern Africa: South African
Journal of Geology, v. 107, p. 301324.
John, D.A., 2001, Miocene and early Pliocene epithermal gold-silver deposits
in the northern Great Basin, western USA: Characteristics, distribution,
and relationship to magmatism: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 96, p. 18271853.
Johnson, T.M., and DePaolo, D.J., 1994, Interpretation of isotopic data in
groundwater-rock systems: Model development and application to Sr isotope
data from Yucca Mountain: Water Resources Research, v. 30, p. 15711587.
Jordan, T.H., 1988, Structure and formation of the continental tectosphere:
Journal of Petrology, v. 29, p. 1137.
Jowett, E.C., 1992, Role of organics and methane in sulfide ore formation,
exemplified by Kupferschiefer Cu-Ag deposits, Poland: Chemical Geology,
v. 99, p. 5163.
Jugo, P.J., Luth, R.W., and Richards, J.P., 2005, An experimental study of the
sulfur content in basaltic melts saturated with immiscible sulfide or sulfate
liquids at 1300C and 1.0 GPa: Journal of Petrology, v. 46, p. 783798.
Krason, H., and van der Hilst, R.D., 2000, Constraints on mantle convection
from seismic tomography: Geophysical Monograph 121, p. 277288.
Karlstrom, K.E., Harlan, S.S., Ahall, K.I., Williams, M.L., McLelland, J., and
Geissman, J.W., 2001, Long-lived (1.81.0 Ga) convergent orogen in southern Laurentia, its extensions to Australia and Baltica, and implications for
refining Rodinia: Precambrian Research, v. 111, p. 530.
Kato, Y., Kano, T., and Kunugiza, K., 2002, Negative Ce anomaly in the Indian banded iron formations: Evidence for the emergence of oxygenated
deep-sea at 2.9 ~2.7 Ga: Resource Geology, v. 52, p. 101110.
Kay, M., 1951, North American geosynclines: Geological Society of America
Memoir 48, 143 p.
Kay, R.W., and Kay, S.M., 1993, Delamination and delamination magmatism:
Tectonophysics, v. 219, p. 177189.
Kay, S.M., Mpodozis, C., and Coira, B., 1999, Neogene magmatism, tectonism, and mineral deposits of the Central Andes (22 to 33S latitude: Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 7, p. 2759.
Keary, P., and Vine, F.J., 1996, Global tectonics, 2nd ed.: Oxford, Blackwell,
333 p.
Keleman, P.B., Hanghj, K., and Greene, A.R., 2004. One view of the geochemistry of subduction-related magmatic arcs, with an emphasis on primitive andesite and lower crust. in Holland, H.D., and Turekian, K.K., eds.,
Treatise on Geochemistry: Amsterdam, Elsevier, v. 3, p. 593649.
Kelly, W.C., and Nishioka, G.K., 1985, Precambrian oil inclusions in late
veins and the role of hydrocarbons in copper mineralization at White Pine,
Michigan: Geology, v. 13, p. 334337.
Kempe, U., and Oberthur, T., 1997, Physical and geochemical characteristics
of scheelite from gold depositsa reconnaissance study, in Papunen, H.,
ed, Mineral deposits: Research and explorationwhere do they meet?:
Rotterdam, Balkema, p. 209212.
Kerr, A.C., 1998, Oceanic plateau formation: A cause of mass extinction and
black shale deposition around the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary?: Journal of the Geological Society, London, v. 155, p. 619626.
Kerrich, R., 1987, Stable isotope studies of fluids in the crust, in Kyser, T.K.,
ed., Stable isotope geochemistry of low temperature processes: Mineralogical Association of Canada, Short Course Handbook, v. 13; p. 258286.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Kerrich, R., and Cassidy, K.F., 1994, Temporal relationships of lode gold
mineralization to accretion, magmatism, metamorphism and deformation:
Archean to present: A review: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 9, p. 263310.
Kerrich, R., and Feng, R., 1992, Archean geodynamics and the Abitibi-Pontiac collision: Implications for advection of fluids at transpressive collisional
boundaries and the origin of giant quartz vein systems: Earth Science Reviews, v. 32, p. 3360.
Kerrich, R., and Wyman, D., 1990, Geodynamic setting of mesothermal gold
deposits: An association with accretionary tectonic regimes: Geology, v. 18,
p. 882885.
1994, The mesothermal gold-lamprophyre association: Significance for
an accretionary geodynamic setting, supercontinent cycles, and metallogenic processes: Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 51, p. 147172.
Kerrich, R., Goldfarb R.J., Groves D.I., and Garwin, S., 2000, The geodynamics of world class gold deposits: Characteristics, space-time distribution, and origins: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 13, p. 501551.
Kerrich, R., Wyman, D., Fan, J., and Bleeker, W., 1998, Boninite series: Low
Ti-tholeiite associations from the 2.7 Ga Abitibi greenstone belt: Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, v. 164 p. 303316.
Kesler, S.E., Jones, L.M., and Walker, R.L., 1975, Intrusive rocks associated
with porphyry copper mineralization in island arc areas: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 70, p. 515526.
Kirkham, R.V., 1989, Distribution, settings, and genesis of sediment-hosted
stratiform copper deposits: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper
36, p. 338.
Kirkley, M.B., Gurney, J.J., and Levinson, A.A., 1991, Age, orogen and emplacement: Scientific advances in the last decade: Gems and Gemology, v.
27, p. 225.
Klemm, D.D., Klemm, R., and Murr, A., 2001, Gold of the Pharaohs; 6000
years of gold mining in Egypt and Nubia: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 33, p. 643659.
Kontak, D.J., and Clark, A.H., 2002, Genesis of the giant, bonanza San Rafeal
lode tin deposit, Peru: Origin and significance of pervasive alteration: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 97, p. 17411777.
Kornhauser, K.O., Hamade, T., Morris, R.C., Ferris, F.G., Southam, G.,
Raiswel, R., and Canfield, D., 2002, Could bacteria have formed the Precambrian banded iron formations?: Geology, v. 30, p. 10791082.
Kotzer, T.G., and Kyser, T.K., 1993, O, U, and Pb isotopic and chemical variations in uraninite: Implications for determining the temporal and fluid history of ancirny terrains: American Mineralogist, v. 78, p. 12621274.
1995, Petrogenesis of the Proteozoic Athabasca basin, northern
Saskatchewan, Canada, and its relation to diagenesis, hydrothermal uranium mineralization, and paleohydrology: Chemical Geology, v. 120, p.
4589.
Kotzer, T.G., Kyser, T.K., and Irving, E. 1992. Paleomagnetism and evolution
of fluids in the Proterozoic Athabasca basin, northern Saskatchewan,
Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 29, p. 14741491.
Kucha, H., 1982, Platinum-group metals in the Zechstein copper deposits,
Poland: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 77, p. 15781591.
Kusky, T.M., 1989, Accretion of the Archaean Slave province: Geology, v. 17,
p. 6367.
1991, Structural development of an Archean orogen, western Point
Lake, Northwest Territories: Tectonics, v. 10, p. 820841.
1998, Tectonic setting and terrane accretion of the Archean Zimbabwe
Craton: Geology, v. 26, p. 163166.
2004, Precambrian ophiolites and related rocks, Introduction, in Kusky,
T.M., ed., Precambrian ophiolites and related rocks: Elsevier, Developments in Precambrian Geology, v. 13, p. 135.
Kusky, T.M., and Kidd, W.S.F., 1992, Remnants of an Archean oceanic
plateau, Belingwe greenstone belt, Zimbabwe: Geology, v. 20, p. 4346.
Kusky, T.M., and Polat, A., 1999, Growth of granite-greenstone terranes at
convergent margins, and stabilization of Archean cratons: Tectonophysics,
v. 305, p. 4373.
Kyser, K., Hiatt, E., Renac, C., Durocher, K., Holk, G., and Deckart, K.,
2000, Diagenetic fluids in Paleo- and Meso-Proterozoic sedimentary basins
and their implications for long protracted fluid histories: Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Series, v. 28, p. 225262.
Large, R.R., McPhie, J., and Gemmell, J.B., 2001, The spectrum of ore deposit types, volcanic environments, alteration halos, and related exploration
vectors in submarine volcanic successions: Some examples from Australia:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 96, p. 913938.
Larson, R.L ., 1991, Latest pulse of Earth: Evidence for a Mid-Cretaceous
super plume: Geology, v. 19; p. 547550.
1132
1133
Mitchell, A.H.G., and Garson, M.S., 1981, Mineral deposits and global tectonic settings: New York, Academic Press, 405 p.
Mitchell, R.H., 1995, Kimberlites, orangeite, and related rocks: New York,
Plenum Press, 410 p.
Monger, J.W.H., Price, R.A., and Tempelmankluit, D.J., 1982, Tectonic accretion and the origin of the 2 major metamorphic and plutonic welts in the
Canadian Cordillera: Geology, v. 10, p. 7075.
Moores, E.M., 2002, Pre-1 Ga (pre-Rodinian) ophiolites: Their tectonic and
environmental implications: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 114,
p. 8095.
Moores, E.M., Dilek, Y., and Wakabayashi, J., 1999, California terranes: Geological Society of America Special Paper, v. 338, p. 227234.
Moores, E.M., Kellogg, L.H., and Dilek, Y., 2000, Tethyan ophiolites, mantle convection, and tectonic historical contingency: A resolution of the
ophiolite conundrum: Geological Society of America Special Paper, v. 349,
p. 312.
Mortimer, N., 1993, Jurassic tectonic history of the Otago Schist, New
Zealand: Tectonics, v. 12, p. 237244.
Mossman, D.J., Leblanc, M.L., and Burzynski, J.F., 1991, Antimony-gold deposits of North Atlantic Acadian-Hercynian domain: Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 100, p. B227B233.
Mullis, J., 1979, The system methane-water as a geologic thermometer and
barometer from the external part of the Central Alps: Bulletin de Mineralogie, v. 102, p. 526536.
Mungall, J.E., 2002, Roasting the mantle: Slab melting and the genesis of
major Au and Au-rich Cu deposits: Geology, v. 30, p. 915918.
Murphy, J.B., and Nance, R.D., 1992, Supercontinents and the origin of
mountain belts: Scientific American, v. 266, no. 4, p. 8491.
2003, Do supercontinents introvert or extrovert? Sm-Nd isotope evidence: Geology, v. 31, p. 873876.
Musacchio, G., and Mooney, W.D., 2002.Seismic evidence for a mantle source
for mid-Proterozoic anorthosites and implications for models of crustal
growth: Geological Society of London Special Publication 199, p. 125134.
Myers, J. S., 1993, Precambrian history of the West Australian craton and adjacent orogens: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 21, p.
453485.
1995, The generation and assembly of an Archaean supercontinent: Evidence from the Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia: Geological Society Special Publications, v. 95, p. 143154.
Naldrett, A.J., 1989, Magmatic sulfide deposits: Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 186 p.
Naldrett, A.J., and Ripley, E.M. 2001, Critical factors for the formation of a
nickel-copper deposit in an evolved magma system: Lessons from a comparison of the Pants Lake and Voiseys Bay sulfide occurrences in Labrador,
Canada: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 36, p. 8592.
Nash, J.T., Granger, H.C., and Adams, S.S., 1981, Geology and concepts of
genesis of important types of uranium deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 75TH
ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 63116.
Nesbitt, B.E., and Muehlenbachs, K., 1989, Geology, geochemistry and genesis of mesothermal lode gold deposits of the Canadian Cordilleraevidence for ore formation from evolved meteoric water: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
MONOGRAPH 6, p. 553563.
Nisbitt, E.G., 2002, Fermor lecture: The influence of life on the face of the
Earth: Garnets and moving continents: Geological Society of London Special Publication 199, p. 275307.
Nixon, P.H., and Davies, G.R., 1987, Mantle exenolith perspectives, in Nixon,
P.H., ed., Mantle xenoliths: New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. 741756.
Norton, I.O., 2000, Global hot spot reference frames and plate motion: Geophysical Monograph 121, p. 339357.
Obolenskiy, A.A., and Naumov, E.A., 2003, Global mercury belts and geodynamic position of ore-forming systems of mercury deposits, in Eliopoulos
et al., eds., Mineral exploration and sustainable development: Rotterdam,
Millpress, p. 511514.
Ohmoto, H., 1997, When did the Earths atmosphere become oxic?: Geochemical Newsletter, v. 93, p. 1227.
2004a, The Archean atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, in Eriksson, P.G., Altermann, W., Nelson, D.R., Mueller, W.U., and Catuneanu, O.,
eds., The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and events: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p.
361388.
2004b, Evidence in pre-2.2 Ga paleosols for the early evolution of atmospheric oxygen and terrestrial biota: Geology, v. 24, p. 11351138.
Oszczepalski, S., 1999, Origin of the Kupferschiefer polymetallic mineralization in Poland: Mineralium Deposita, v. 34, p. 599613.
1133
1134
KERRICH ET AL.
Oyarzun, R., Mrquez, A., Lillo, J., Lpez, I., and Rivera, S., 2001, Giant versus small porphyry copper deposits of Cenozoic age in northern Chile:
Adakitic versus normal calc-alkaline magmatism: Mineralium Deposita, v.
36, p. 794798.
Oyarzun, R., Oyarzun, J., Menard, J.J., and Lillo, J., 2003, The Cretaceous
iron belt of northern Chile: Role of oceanic plates, a superplume event, and
a major shear zone: Mineralium Deposita, v. 38, p. 640646.
Padilla Garza, R.A., Titley, S.R., and Pimentel, F., 2001, Geology of the Escondida porphyry copper deposit, Antofagasta region, Chile: ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, v. 96, p. 307324.
Parsons, B.A., and Sclater, J.G., 1977, The analysis of the variation of ocean
floor bathymetry and heat flow with age: Journal of Geophysical Reseach,
v. 82, p. 803827.
Patchett, P.J., and Chase, C.G., 2002, Role of transform continental margins
in major crustal growth episodes: Geology, v. 30, p. 3942.
Peacock, S.M., 1987, Creation and preservation of subduction-related inverted metamorphic gradients: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 92, sec.
B, p. 12,76312,781.
Peacock, S.M., Rushmer, T., and Thompson, A.B., 1994, Partial melting of
subducting oceanic crust: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 121, p.
227244.
Pearce, J.A., 1982, Trace element characteristics of lavas from destructive
plate boundaries, in Thorpe, R.S., ed., Andesites: Chichester, Wiley, p.
525548.
Pearce, J.A., and Peate, D.W., 1995, Tectonic implications of the composition
of volcanic arc magmas: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v.
23, p. 25185.
Percival, J.A., Stern, R.A., Skulski, T., Card, K.D., Mortensen, J.K., and
Begin, N.J., 1994, Minto block, Superior province: Missing link in deciphering assembly of the craton at 2.7 Ga: Geology, v. 22, p. 839842.
Pereira, J., and Dixon, C.J., 1965, Evolutionary trends in ore deposition: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 74, p. B506B527.
Peter, J., 2003, Ancient iron formations: Their genesis and use in the exploration for stratiform base metal sulphide deposits, with examples from the
Bathurst Mining Camp: Geological Association of Canada GEOtext, v. 4, p.
145177.
Pickard, A.L., Adams, C.J., and Barley, M.E., 2000, Australian provenance
for Upper Permian to Cretaceous rocks forming accretionary complexes on
the New Zealand sector of the Gondwanaland margin: Australian Journal
of Earth Sciences, v. 47, p. 9871007.
Pirajno, F. 2000, Ore deposits and mantle plumes: Dordrect, Kluwer, 556 p.
2005, Hotspots and mantle plumes: Global intraplate tectonics, magmatism, and ore deposits: Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 82, p. 183216.
Pirajno, F., Jones, J.A., and Hocking, R.M., 2004, Geology and tectonic evolution of Palaeoproterozoic basins of the eastern Capricorn orogen, Western Australia: Precambrian Research, v. 128, p. 315342.
Plomerova, J., Kouba, D., and Babuska, V., 2002, Mapping the lithosphereasthenosphere boundary through changes in surface-wave anisotropy:
Tectonophysics, v. 358, p. 175185.
Polat, A., and Kerrich, R., 1999, Formation of an Archean tectonic melange
in the Schreiber-Hemlo greenstone belt, Superior province, Canada: Implications for Archean subduction-accretion process: Tectonics: v. 18, p.
733755.
2001, Geodynamic processes, continental growth, and mantle evolution
recorded in late Archean greenstone belts of the southern Superior
province, Canada: Precambrian Research, v. 112, p. 525.
2004, Precambrian arc associations: Boninites, adakites, magnesian andesites, and Nb-enriched basalts, in Kusky, T.M., ed., Precambrian ophiolites and related rocks: Developments in Precambrian Geology: Amsterdam, Elsevier, v. 13, p. 567569.
Polat, A., Kerrich, R., and Wyman, D., 1999, Geochemical diversity in
oceanic komatiites and basalts from the late Archean Wawa greenstone
belts, Superior province, Canada: Trace element and Nd isotope evidence
for a heterogeneous mantle: Precambrian Research, v. 94, p. 139173.
Polat, A., Hofmann, A.W., Muenker, C., Regelous, M., and Appel, P.W.U.,
2003, Contrasting geochemical patterns in the 3.73.8 Ga pillow basalt
cores and rims, Isua greenstone belt, Southwest Greenland: Implications
for postmagmatic alteration processes: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,
v. 67, p. 441457.
Polat, A., Kusky,T., Li, J., Fryer, B.J., and Patrick, K., 2005, Geochemical
characteristics of the late Archean (ca. 2.552.50 Ga) Zunhua ophiolitic
rocks, Central orogenic belt, North China craton: Implications for geodynamic setting: Geological Society of America Bulletin, in press.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Polito, P.A., Kyser, T.K., Marlatt, J., Alexandre, P., Bajwah, Z., and Drever, G.,
2004, Significance of alteration assemblages for the origin and evolution of
the Proterozoic Nabarlek unconformity-related uranium deposit, Northern
Territory, Australia: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 99, p. 113139.
Pollack, H.N., 1997, Thermal characteristics of the Archean, in de Wit, M.D.,
and Ashwall, L.D., eds., Greenstone belts: Oxford, Clarendon Press, p.
223293.
Pollard, P.J., Nakapadungrat, S., and Taylor, R.G., 1995, The Phuke Supersuite, Southwest Thailand: Fractionated I-type granites associated with tintantalum mineralization: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 90, p. 586602.
Porada, H., and Berhorst, V., 2000, Towards a new understanding of the Neoproterozoic-Early Palaeozoic Lufilian and northern Zambezi belts in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Journal of African Earth
Sciences, v. 30, p. 727771.
Porter, T.M., 2002, Hydrothermal iron oxide and copper-gold and related deposits: A global perspective, v. 2: Adelaide, Porter Consultancy Publishing,
377 p.
Powell, R., Will, T.M., and Phillips, G.N., 1991, Metamorphism in Archean
greenstone belts: Calculated fluid compositions and implications for gold
mineralization: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 9, p. 141150.
Pysklywec, R.N., and Mitrovica, J.X., 2000, Mantle flow mechanisms of
epeirogeny and their possible role in the evolution of the western Canada
sedimentary basin: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 37, p.
15351548.
Rainbird, R.H., Davis, W.J., and Stern, R.A. 2002, Integrated geochronology
of the late Paleoproterozoic Baker Lake Group (Dubawnt Supergroup),
Baker Lake basin [abs.]: Geological Association of Canada-Mineralogical
Association of Canada Abstracts, v. 27, p. 95.
Ramaekers, P., and Catuneanu, O., 2004, Development and sequences of the
Athabasca basin, Early Proterozoic, Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada:
Developments in Precambrian Geology 12, p. 705723.
Ramaekers, P., Yeo, G., Catuneanu, O., Jefferson, C.W., and Rainbird, R.,
2005, Proterozoic to Mesozoic basin development, uranium deposits and
heavy oil accumulations, Athabasca region, western Canada, EXTECH IV:
Geology and Uranium EXploration TECHnology of the Proterozoic
Athabasca Basin, Saskatchewan and Alberta, in Jefferson, C.W., and Delaney G., Geological Survey of Canada, Bulletin 588 (also Saskatchewan
Geological Society, Special Publication 17; Geological Association of
Canada, Mineral Deposits Division, Special Publication 4), in press.
Raybould, J.G., 1978, Tectonic controls on Proterozoic stratiform copper
mineralization: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 87,
sec. B, p. B79B86.
Renfro, A.R., 1974, Genesis of evaporite associated stratiform metalliferous
depositsa sabkha process: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 69, p. 3345.
Richards, J.P., 1995, Alkalic-type epithermal gold depositsa review: Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course Series, v. 23, p. 367400.
2003, Tectono-magmatic precursors for porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) deposit
formation: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 96, p. 15151533.
2005, Cumulative factors in the generation of giant calc-alkaline porphyry Cu deposits, in Porter, T.M., ed., Super porphyry copper and gold
deposits: A global perspective: Linden Park, South Australia, PGC Publishing, in press.
Richards, J.P., Cumming, G.L., Krstic, D., Wagner, P.A., and Spooner, E.T.C.,
1988a, Pb isotopic constraints on the age of sulfide ore deposition and U-Pb
age of late uraninite veining at the Musoshi stratiform copper deposit, Central African Copperbelt, Zaire: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 83, p. 724741.
Richards, J.P., Krogh, T.E., and Spooner, E.T.C., 1988b, Fluid inclusion characteristics and U-Pb rutile age of late hydrothermal alteration and veining
at the Musoshi stratiform copper deposit, Central African Copperbelt,
Zaire: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 83, p. 118139.
Richards, J.P., Boyce, A.J., and Pringle, M.S., 2001, Geological evolution of
the Escondida area, northern Chile: A model for spatial and temporal localization of porphyry Cu mineralization: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 96, p.
271305.
Rogers, J.J.W., and Santosh, M., 2004, Continents and supercontinents: Oxford, Oxford University Press, 289 p.
Rogers, J.W., 1996, A history of continents in the past three billion years:
Journal of Geology, v. 104, p. 91107.
Rona, P., 1980, Global plate motion and mineral resources: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper Number 20, p. 607622.
Rose, A.W., 1976, The effect of cuprous chloride complexes in the origin of
red-bed copper and related deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 71, p.
10361048.
1134
1135
Sengor, A.M.C., and Natalin, B.A., 1996a, Turkic-type orogeny and its role
in the making of the continental crust: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 24, p. 263337.
1996b, Paleotectonics of Asiafragments of a synthesis, in Yin, A., and
Harrison, T.M., eds., The tectonic evolution of Asia: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 486640.
2004, Phanerozoic analogues of Archaean oceanic basement fragmentsAltaid ophiolites and ophirags, in Kusky, T.M., ed., Precambrian
ophiolites and related rocks: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 671721.
Shirey, B., Richardson, H., and Harris, J.W., 2004, Age, paragenesis and
composition of diamonds and evolution of the Precambrian mantle lithosphere of southern Africa: South African Journal of Geology, v.107, p.
91106.
Sibson, R.H., Robert, F., and Poulsen, K.H., 1988, High-angle reverse faults,
fluid-pressure cycling, and mesothermal gold-quaartz deposits: Geology, v.
16, p. 551555.
Sikka, D., and Nehru, C.E., 1997, Review of Precambrian porphyry Cu+ or
Mo+ or Au deposits with special reference to Malanjkhand porphyry
copper deposit, Madhya Pradesh, India: Journal of the Geological Society
of India, v. 49, p. 239288.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1972, A plate tectonic model for the origin of porphyry copper
deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 67, p. 184197.
1973, The tops and bottoms of porphyry copper deposits: ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, v. 68, p. 799815.
Simmons, S.F., White, N.C., and John, D.A., 2005, Geological characteristics
of epithermal precious and base metal deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH
ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 485522.
Simonson, B.M., 2003, Origin and evolution of large Precambrian iron formations: Geological Society of America Special Paper 370, p. 231244.
Simonson, B.M., and Hassler, S.W., 1996, Was the deposition of large Precambrian iron formations linked to major marine transgressions?: Journal
of Geology, v.104, p. 665676.
Sinclair, W.D., 1996, Vein-stockwork tin-tungsten: Geological Survey of
Canada, Geology of Canada, no. 8, p. 409420.
Sleep, N.H., 1992, Archean plate tectonics: what can be learned from continental geology?: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 29, p. 20662071.
Sleep, N., and Windley, B.F., 1982, Archean plate tectonics: Constraints and
inferences: Journal of Geology, v. 90, p. 363379.
Sleep, N.H., Ebinger, C.J., and Kendall, J.M., 2002, Deflection of mantle
plume material by cratonic keels: Geological Society of London Special
Publication 199, p. 135150.
Smirnov, V.I., 1976, Geology of mineral deposits: Moscow, MIR, 520 p.
Solomon, M., 1990, Subduction, arc reversal, and the origin of porphyry copper-gold deposits in island arcs: Geology, v. 18, p. 630633.
Squire, R.J., and Miller, J.McL., 2003, Synchronous compression and extension in East Gondwanatectonic controls on world-class gold deposits at
440 Ma: Geology, v. 31, p. 10731076.
Stanton, R.L., 1972, Preliminary account of chemical relationships between
sulfide lode and banded iron-formation at Broken Hill, New South Wales:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 67, p. 11281145.
Stein, H.J., Hannah, J.L., Zimmerman, A., Markey, R.J., Sarkar, S.C., and
Pal, A.B., 2004, A 2.5 Ga porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit at Malanjkhand,
central India: Implications for Late Archean continental assembly: Precambrian Research, v. 134, p. 189226.
Stein, M, and Hofmann, A.W., 1994, Mantle plumes and episodic crustal
growth, Nature, v. 372, p. 6368.
Stern, R.J., 1994, Arc assembly and continental collision in the Neoproterozoic East African orogen: Implications for the consolidation of Gondwanaland: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 22, p. 319351.
2002, Subduction zones: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 40, p. 3-13-38.
Stern, R.J.J., Morris, S.H., Bloomer, J.W., and Hawkins, J.W. 1991, The
source of the subduction component in convergent margin magmas: Trace
element and radiogenic isotope evidence from Eocene boninites, Mariana
fore arc: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 55, p. 14671481.
Studemeister, P.A., 1984, Mercury deposits of western California: An
overview: Mineralium Deposita, v. 19, p. 202207.
Sverjensky, D.A., 1987, The role of migrating oil field brines in the formation of
sediment-hosted Cu-rich deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 82, p. 11301141.
1989, Chemical evolution of basinal brines that formed sediment-hosted
Cu-Pb-Zn deposits: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 36, p.
127134.
Sweeney, M.A., Binda, P.L., and Vaughan, D.J., 1991, Genesis of the ores of
the Zambian Copperbelt: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 6, p. 5176.
1135
1136
KERRICH ET AL.
Sylvester, A.G., 1988, Strike-slip faults: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 16661703.
Tatsumi, Y., 1986, Formation of the volcanic front in subduction zones: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 17, p. 717720.
Taylor, R.N., Nesbitt, R.W., Vidal, P., Harmon, R., Auvray, B., and Croudace,
I.W., 1994, Mineralogy, chemistry, and genesis of the boninite series volcanics,
Chichijima, Bonin Islands, Japan: Journal of Petrology, v. 35, p. 577617.
Taylor, S.R., and McLennan, S.M., 1995, The geochemical evolution of the
continental crust: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 33, p. 241265.
Thayer, T.P., 1976, Metallogenic contrasts in the plutonic and volcanic rocks
of the ophiolite assemblage: Geological Association of Canada Special
Paper 14, p. 211219.
Thurston, P.C., Osmani, I.A., and Stone, D., 1991. Northwestern Superior
province: Review and terrane analysis: Ontario Geological Society Special
Volume 4, Pt. 1, p. 81141.
Titley, S.R., 1993, Relationship of stratabound ores with tectonic cycles of the
Phanerozoic and Proterozoic: Precambrian Research, v. 61, p. 295322.
Trendall, A.F., and Blockley, J.G., 2004, Precambrian iron-formation, in
Erikkson, P.G., Altermann, W., Nelson, D.R., Mueller, W.U., and
Catuneau, O., eds., The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and events: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 403420.
Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2001, Magmatic and structural controls on
the development of porphyry Cu Mo Au deposits: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 14, p. 157181.
Trompette, R., de Alvarenga, C.J.S., and Walde, D., 1998, Geological evolution of the Neoproterozoic Corumba graben system (Brazil). Depositional
context of the stratified Fe and Mn ores of the Jacadigo Group: Journal of
South America Earth Science, v. 11, p. 587597.
Turcotte, D.L., 1992. Fractals and chaos in geology and geophysic: London,
Cambridge University Press, 221 p.
Turneaure, F.S., 1955, Metallogenic provinces and epochs: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, Pt. 1, p. 3898.
Unrug, R., 1997, Rodinia to Gondwana: The geodynamic map of Gondwana
supercontinent assembly: GSA Today, v. 7, p. 16.
Uyeda, S., 1978, The new view of the Earth: Moving continents and moving
oceans: San Francisco, W.H. Freeman, 217 p.
Van der Hilst, R.D., Widiyantoro, S., Creager, K.C., and Sweeney, T.J., 1998,
Structure of the lowermost mantle and D, deep subduction and aspherical variations in P-wavespeed at the base of Earths mantle: The core mantle boundary region: Geodynamics Series, v. 28, p. 520.
Veevers, J.J., 2003, Pan-African is Pan-Gondwanaland: Oblique convergence
drives rotation during 650500 Ma assembly: Geology, v. 31, p. 501504.
Vine, F.J., and Matthews, D.H., 1963, Magnetic anomalies over oceanic
ridges: Nature, v. 199, p. 947949.
Von Huene, R., Ranero, C.R., and Vannucchi, P., 2004, Generic model of
subduction erosion: Geology, v. 32, p. 913916.
Walther, J.V., and Orville, P.M., 1982, Volatile production and transport in regional metamorphism: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v.79, p.
252257.
Wang, K., Li, J., Hao, J., Li, J., and Zhou, S., 1996, The Wutaishan orogenic
belt within the Shanxi province, northern China: A record of late Archean
collision tectonics: Precambrian Research, v. 78, p. 95103.
Weaver, S.-D., Bradshaw, J.D., and Muir, R-J., 1994, Cretaceous magmatism
in Marie Byrd Land and New Zealand: Change from subduction to continental rifting: Geological Society of New Zealand Miscellaneous Publication 80A, 185 p.
Weinberg, R.F., Hodkiewicz, P.F., and Groves, D.I., 2004, What controls gold
distribution in Archean terranes?: Geology, v. 32, p. 545548.
White, D.E., 1967, Mercury and base-metal deposits with associated thermal
and mineral waters, in Barnes, H.L., ed., Geochemistry of hydrothermal
ore deposits, 1st ed.: New York, Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston, p. 575631.
1981, Active geothermal systems and hydrothermal ore deposits: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 75TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 392423.
White, N., and McKenzie, D., 1988, Formation of the steers head geometry of sedimentary basins by differential stretching of the crust and mantle:
Geology, v. 16, p. 250253.
White, R.S., 1988, The Earths crust and lithosphere, in Menzies, M.A., and
Cox, K.G., eds., Oceanic and continental lithosphere; similarities and
differences: R. Holloway and Belford New College, Department of Geology, London, United-Kingdom, Journal of Petrology, p. 110.
1992, Magmatism during and after continental break-up, in Storey,
B.C., Alabaster, T., and Pankhurst, R.J., eds, Magmatism and the causes of
continental break-up: London, Geological Society, p. 115.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Williams, P.J., Barton, M.D., Johnson, D.A., Fontbot, L., De Haller, A.,
Mark, G., Oliver, N.H.S., and Marschik, R., 2005, Iron oxide copper-gold
deposits: Geology, space-time distribution, and posible modes of origin:
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 371405.
Wilson, J.T., 1965, New class of faults and their bearing on continental drift:
Nature, v. 207, p. 343347.
Wilson, M., 1989, Igneous petrogenesis: A global tectonic approach: London,
Harper Collins Academic, 466 p.
Windley, B.F., 1995, The evolving continents, 3rd ed.: New York, Wiley, 526
p.
Winter, J.D., 2001, An introduction to igneous and metamorphic petrology:
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 697 p.
Woodcock, N.H., 2004, Life span and fate of basins: Geology, v. 32, p.
685688.
Wronkiewicz, D.J., and Condie, K.C., 1990, Geochemstry and mineralogy of
sediments from the Ventersdorp and Transvaal Supegroups, South Africa:
Craton evolution during the early Proterozoic: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 54, p. 343354.
Wyborn, D., and Sun, S.-s., 1994, Sulphur-undersaturated magmatisma
key factor for generating magma-related copper-gold deposits: Australian
Geological Survey Organisation Research Newsletter, v. 21, p. 78.
Wyman, D.A., 1999, A 2.7 Ga depleted tholeiite suiteevidence for plumearc interaction in the Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada: Precambrian Research, v. 97, p. 2742.
2003, Upper mantle processes beneath the 2.7 Ga Abitibi belt, Canada:
A trace element perspective: Precambrian Research, v. 127, p. 143165.
Wyman, D.A., and Kerrich, R., 2002, Formation of Archean continental
lithospheric roots: The role of mantle plumes: Geology, v. 30, p. 543546.
Wyman, D.A., Bleeker, W., and Kerrich, R., 1999, A 2.7 Ga komatiite low Ti
tholeiite arc tholeiite transition and inferred proto-arc geodynamic setting
of the Kidd Creek deposit: Evidence from precise ICP MS trace element
data: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY MONOGRAPH 10, p. 511528.
Wyman, D.A., Kerrich, R., and Polat, A., 2002, Assembly of Archean cratonic
mantle lithosphere and crust: plume-arc interaction in the Abitibi-Wawa
subduction-accretion complex: Precambrian Research, v. 115, p. 3762.
Xie, Q., Kerrich, R., and Fan, J. 1993, HFSE/REE fractionations recorded in
three komatiite-basalt sequences, Archean Abitibi belt: Implications for
multiple plume sources and depths: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v.
57, p. 41114118.
Yakubchuk, A., Cole, A., Seltmann, R., and Shatov, V., 2002, Tectonic setting,
characteristics, and regional exploration criteria for gold mineralization in
the Altaid orogenic collage: The Tien Shan province as a key example: Society of Economic Geology Special Publication 9, p. 177201.
Yakubchuk, A.S., Shatov, V.V., Kirwin, D., Edwards, A., Tomurtogoo, O.,
Badarch, G., and Buryak, V.A., 2005, Gold and base metal metallogeny of
the central Asian orogenic supercollage: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 10351068.
Yardley, B.W.D., 1997, The evolution of fluids through the metamorphic
cycle, in Jamtveit, B., and Yardley, B., eds., Fluid flow and transport in
rocksmechanisms and effects: , London, Chapman and Hall, p. 99121.
Yarmolyuk, V.V., Kovalenko, V.I., Kotov, A.B., and Salnikova, E.B., 1998, The
Angara-Vitim batholithon the problem of batholith geodynamics in the
Central Asia foldbelt: Geotectonics, v. 31, p. 359373.
Yeo, G.M., 1986, Iron-formation in the late Proterozoic Rapitan Group, Yukon
and Northwest Territories, in Morin, J.A., ed., Mineral deposits of the Northern Cordillera: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, p. 137158.
Young, G.M., 1988, Proterozoic plate tectonics, glaciation, and iron-formations: Sedimentary Geology, v. 58, p. 127144.
Zhao, G., Sun, M., Wilde, S.A., and Li, S., 2004, A paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 67, p.
91123. the upper mantle: International Geology Reviews, v. 36, p. 678686.
Zhou, M.F., Robinson, P.T., Malpas, J., Aitchison, J., Sun-M., Bai, W.J., Hu,
X.F., and Yang, J.S., 2001, Melt/mantle interaction and melt evolution in
the Sartohay high-Al chromite deposits of the Dalabute Ophiolite (NW
China): Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 19, p. 517534.
Zhou, T., Goldfarb, R.J., and Phillips, G.N., 2002, Tectonics and distribution
of gold deposits in China: An overview: Mineralium Deposits, v. 37, p.
249282.
Ziegler, P.A., 1993, Plate moving mechanisms: Their relative importance:
Journal of the Geological Society, London, v. 150, p. 927940.
Zielinski, R.A., Bloch, S., and Walker, T.R., 1983, The mobility and distribution of heavy metals during the formation of first cycle red beds: ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY, v. 78, p. 15741589
1136