Research: An Introduction

Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD

• Predict - Through prediction, one can estimate
Sources of knowledge the probability of a specific outcome in a given situation.
However, predicting an outcome does not necessarily
• Tradition: accepted as given on the basis of enable one to modify or control the outcome.
inherited customs
• Control - If one can predict the outcome of a
• Authority: comes from people with expertise situation, the next step is to control or manipulate the
situation to produce the desired outcome.
• Experience
Trial and error Nurses do research because…
Intuition
Sources of knowledge • Nursing is a profession
• Logical reasoning: combines, intellectual • Nursing should contribute to the generation of
faculties and formal system of thought new knowledge
• Through research, nurses could evaluate and
• Disciplined research: the most sophisticated document their contributions to their
method of acquiring clients’ health and wellbeing and
knowledge. to the health care delivery system
Definitions
Cruz-Earnshaw, 2007
• Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical
Nurses do research because…
and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural • RA 9173 Section 28 (e )states that:
phenomena. It shall be the duty of the nurse to:
Kerlinger, 1973 (e) Undertake nursing and health human resource
development training and research
Definitions which shall include, but not limited to the
Systematic – follows certain steps development of advance nursing
Controlled – every step of the investigation is planned practice;
Empirical – evidence is on hand, there is confidence in Classifications of Research
the results
• According to level of investigation
Definitions 1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
• Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to 3. Experimental
gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the
collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for Classifications of Research
the purpose of prediction or explanation.
• According to approach
Treece and Treece, 1974 1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
Definitions
Classifications of Research
• Nursing research is research for nursing. It
• According to measurement & data analysis
includes the breadth and depth of the discipline of
nursing: the rehabilitative, therapeutic, and preventive 1. Quantitative
aspects of nursing, as well as the preparation of 2. Qualitative
practitioners and personnel
Classifications of Research
• involved in the total nursing
• According to time frame
• sphere. 1. Longitudinal
2. Cross sectional
Definitions Classifications of Research
• Nursing research is defined as a scientific • According to motive or objective
process that validates and refines existing knowledge 1. Basic research
and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly 2. Applied research
influences nursing practice.
Classifications of Research
Burns and Grove, 2005
• According to time line
Purposes of Research 1. Retrospective
1. Describe 2. Prospective
2. Explain Classifications of Research
3. Predict • According to research environment
4. Control 1. Field
2. Laboratory
• Describe - involves identifying and
understanding the nature of phenomena and sometimes Quantitative Research
the relationship among them. • Quantitative research is the investigation of
• Explain - It clarifies the relationships among phenomena that lend themselves to precise
phenomena and identifies the reasons why certain measurement and quantification, often involving a
events occur. It could be the basis for conducting rigorous and controlled design.
research for prediction and control
Quantitative Research Methods
• Descriptive – provides an accurate portrayal or
account of characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or group.
Quantitative Research Methods
• Correlational – involves the systematic
investigation of relationships/association between two or
more variables
Quantitative Research Methods
• Comparative – used to describe the differences
in variables in two or more groups in a natural setting
Quantitative Research Methods
• Quasi-experimental – causal relationships
between two selected variables are examined through
manipulation of the independent variable but without
control or randomization.
Quantitative Research Methods
• Experimental – it is an objective, systematic,
controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and
controlling phenomena. Characteristics include
manipulation, control, and randomization.
Quantitative Research Methods
• Ex post facto – the independent variable is not
manipulated, either because it is inherently
unmanipulable or because it occurred in the past
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is the investigation of
phenomena typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion,
through the collection of rich narrative materials using a
flexible research design.
Qualitative Research Methods
• Phenomenological – describes an experience
as they are lived by people
Qualitative Research Methods
• Grounded theory – discovers what problems
exist in a social scene and the process persons use to
handle them
Qualitative Research Methods
• Ethnographic – it is associated with
anthropology and focuses on the culture of a group of
people, with an effort to understand the world view of
those under study.
Qualitative Research Methods
• Historical – a narrative description or analysis
of events that occurred in the remote or recent past.
Qualitative Research Methods
• Philosophical inquiry – involves using
intellectual analysis to clarify meanings, makes values
manifest, identify ethics, and study the nature of
knowledge
Qualitative Research Methods
• Case study – involves a thorough, in-depth
analysis of an individual, a group, or an institution or
other social units.
Qualitative Research Methods
• Critical theory – an approach to viewing the
world that involves a critique of society, with the goal of
envisioning new possibilities and effecting social change
Qualitative Research Methods
• Feminist research – seeks to understand,
typically through qualitative approaches, how gender
and a gendered social order shape women’s lives and
their consciousness.
Mixed Methods Research
• TRIANGULATION – the use of multiple
methods to collect and interpret data about a
phenomenon, so as to converge on an accurate
representation of reality
Steps in the Research Process
• Identification of problem
• Review of related literature
• Construction of a framework
• Formulate the hypothesis
• Select the research design
• Select the sample
• Collect the data
• Analyze and interpret the data
• Write the research report
• Communicate the research report
Major Steps: Quantitative Study
• Phase I: The Conceptual Phase
Step 1: Formulating and delimiting the problem
Step 2: Reviewing the related research literature
Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Step 4: Defining the framework and conceptual
definitions
Step 5: Formulating the hypothesis
• Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase
Step 6: Selecting a research design
Step 7: Developing protocols for intervention
Step 8: Identifying the population to be studied
Step 9: Designing the sampling plan
Step 10: Specifying methods to measure variables
Step 11: Developing methods to protect human/animal
rights
Step 12: Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
Step 13: Collecting the data
Step 14: Preparing data for analysis
Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
Step 15: Analyzing the data
Step 16: Interpreting the results
• Phase V: The Dissemination Phase
Step 17: Communicating the findings
Step 18: Utilizing research evidence in practice
Activities: Qualitative Study
Conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study
• Identifying a research problem
• Doing a literature review
• Selecting and gaining entrée into research
sites
Designing qualitative studies
 Addressing ethical issues 4. It helps the other researchers
refer to the work.
Activities: Qualitative Study The title
Conducting a qualitative study
• Titles should be clear and specific.
• Obtaining and analyzing qualitative data
• It should include variables, relationships,
Disseminating qualitative findings target population, and setting.
Ideally, it should have a maximum of
• Writing qualitative research 20 substantive words, with
function words not included in
Thank you for your attention in the counting.
The title
The Problem
Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
• Example
What is a research problem? The Effects of Home Visits of Public Health
Nurses on the Dietary Compliance of Adult
• A problem is a condition requiring a solution. Diabetic Patients in Two Barangays in
Quezon City
• In research, a problem statement is an
The Variable
expression of a dilemma or a
disturbing situation that needs • Variable – an attribute of a person or object that
investigation. varies, that is, takes on different values. It is anything
Sources of research problems that is liable to change or likely
to vary.
• Personal experiences and observations
Independent variable – cause
• Readings Dependent variable – effect
Extraneous variables – not
• Conversations with peers, experts, clients studied but affects results
Attendance in conferences, lectures
Everyday occurrences The Variable
Social and political
issues affecting health • Intervening – comes between the dependent
Characteristics of a researchable problem and independent variables. Ex. - stress, anxiety,
motivation
• Interest
• Organismic – those that can not be changed
• Usefulness through manipulation. Ex. – age, sex, race
• Novelty Confounding or interfering – interfere
Feasibility of time and resources with the study design and the data
Ethical gathering process by influencing
Availability of data the subjects or the dependent
Ability of the researcher variable. Ex. – social support
Situations manifesting a problem
The Variable
• Absence of information
• Antecedent – occurs earlier than the
• Incomplete information independent variable and bears a relationship both to it
and to the dependent variable. Ex.- poor health,
• Conflicting information
superstitious beliefs
A fact exists and you intend your study
to explain it. RANDOMIZATION is the best control
There is a gap in knowledge over unknown variables.
The research question Significance of the study
• The problem is specifically stated in the form of • Issues relevant in considering the significance of
a research question. the study:
• The research question should be clear, 1. Implications for nursing practice – Is it able
concise, and stated in measurable terms to produce evidence for nursing practice?
specifically in quantitative 2. Extension of knowledge base –
research. Is it able to produce new
The research question knowledge which is useful?
Significance of the study
• Example 3. Promotion of theory development – Is it able to test or
What is the level of creativity among senior develop a new theory?
student nurses of a center of excellence 4. Correspondence to research priorities – Is
college in Manila in terms of it in line with research priorities of the
originality and flexibility? country, profession, or funding
institutions?
The title Scope and Limitations
• Functions of a title • Scope defines where and when the study was
1. It draws in summary form, the content of conducted and who the participants (subjects) were. The
the entire investigation. scope sets the
2. It serves as a frame of reference for delimitations and establishes the
the whole thesis. boundaries of the study.
3. It enables the researcher to Limitations – are the
claim the title as his own. weaknesses and shortcomings
 of the study as acknowledged
by the researcher.
Definition of terms
• Operational definition – description of how
variables or concepts will be measured or manipulated in
the study
Conceptual definition – provides a
variable with connotative
meaning. It tells what the
concept means.
Assumptions
• An assumption is any fact presumed to be true
but not actually verified. It pertains to
events or situations that seem so true that
they are taken for granted. Unlike the
hypothesis it does not need testing
or confirmation.
Ethics in Research
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Basic Rights
• The right to protection from harm and
discomfort.
PRINCIPLE: Beneficence – imposes a duty on
researchers to minimize harm and to maximize benefits.
A related principle is nonmaleficence (avoid, prevent or
minimize harm)
• Right to full disclosure – means that the
researcher has fully described the nature of the study,
the subject’s right to refuse participation, the
researcher’s responsibilities, and the likely risks and
benefits that would be incurred.
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Debriefing is communication with subjects, generally
after their participation has been completed regarding
various aspects of the study.
Basic Rights
Covert data collection or concealment is the collection
of data without the subject’s knowledge.
Deception can involve either withholding information
about the study or providing subjects with false
information.
Basic Rights
Placebo is a medically harmless, ineffective substance
that is usually used in testing a new drug when it is given
to a control group. It is done to rule out any possible
biases of subjects and investigators.
Basic Rights
There are two variations in the use of placebo
• Single blind test design: it is one in which the
evaluations of the results of a treatment are kept from
the subjects who have received it.
Basic Rights
2. Double blind test design: it is one in which the
investigators and the subjects involved in the study are
kept ignorant about the process – that is, they are not
suppose to know who are receiving the treatment and
who are not
Basic Rights
Right to self determination means that the prospective
subjects have the right to voluntarily decide whether or
not to participate in a study, without the risk of imposing
any penalties or prejudicial treatment.
Basic Rights
It includes the right to decide at any point to terminate
their participation, to refuse to give information, or to ask
for clarification about the purpose of the study or specific
study procedures
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Vulnerable subjects or persons with diminished
autonomy are those who are less advantaged because
of legal or mental incompetence, terminal illness, or
confinement to an institution.
Basic Rights
The right to full disclosure and the right to self
determination are the two major elements on which
informed consent is based
Basic Rights
Informed consent means that the subjects have
adequate information regarding the research; are
capable of comprehending the information; and have the
power of free choice, enabling them to voluntarily
consent to participate or decline participation in the
research study.
Basic Rights
Informed consent involves the disclosure of the following
information: subject status, study purpose, type of
information to be obtained, nature of the commitment,
sponsorship, subject selection, procedures, potential
risks, costs, and benefits, confidentiality pledge,
voluntary consent, right to withdraw, alternatives, and
contact information.
Basic Rights
• Informed consent for children is called assent.
The study must be explained within the child’s level of
comprehension. Most assent are accompanied by
parental consent.
Basic Rights
• Right to fair treatment means that the subjects
receive equitable treatment before, during, and after
their participation in the study.
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
• Right to privacy means that researchers need to
ensure that their research is not more intrusive than it
needs to be and that the subject’s privacy is maintained
throughout the study
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
Anonymity occurs when even the researcher can not
link a subject with the information for that subject. The
subjects remain unknown.
Basic Rights
A promise of confidentiality to the subjects is a
guarantee that any information that the subjects provide
will not be publicly reported or made accessible to
parties other than those involved in the research.
The IRB
IRB stands for Institutional Review Board. This is a
formal committee in most universities and hospitals
where researches are conducted. They review
proposals for its adherence to ethical standards.
Basis for Ethical Standards
• Nuremberg Code
• Déclaration of Helsinki Literature
Review
• CIOMS (Council for International Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
Organizations of Medical Research) What is a literature review?
• Belmont Report • It is a collection of materials on a topic.
• Professional Code of Ethics for Nurses
Nuremberg Code • It discusses published information in a particular
• This ethical code of conduct contains rules that subject area
sometimes within a
were developed to guide investigators in conducting
research ethically w/c are: certain time period.
1. voluntary consent
2. withdrawal of subjects from studies
3. protection of subjects from physical and mental What is a literature review?
suffering, injury, disability, death • It can be a simple summary of sources but has
4. balance of benefits and risk an organizational pattern and combines both summary
Declaration of Helsinki and synthesis.
• Differentiated therapeutic from nontherapeutic
Summary
research
• Therapeutic research gives the patient the • A summary is a recap of the important
information found in the literature.
opportunity to receive an experimental treatment that
Synthesis
might have beneficial results
• Nontherapeutic research is conducted to
• A synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling
of information to:
generate knowledge for a discipline. Results of the study
1. Give a new interpretation of old
might benefit future patients but will probably not benefit
materials
those acting as research subjects.
2. Combine new with old
CIOMS
interpretations
• The CIOMS Guidelines, formally known as 3. Trace the intellectual
International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research progression of the
Involving Human Subjects, is a set of ethical principles field including major
regarding human experimentation. debates.
• Created in 1993 by the Council for International Purpose
Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) and • It is conducted to generate a picture of what is
updated in 2002, these 21 guidelines (15 in the original known about a particular situation and the knowledge
report) address issues including informed consent, gaps that exist in it.
standards for external review, recruitment of participants,
and more. The Guidelines are general instructions and Functions
principles of ethical biomedical research
Belmont Report • Source for research ideas
• On July 12, 1974, the National Research Act • Orientation to what is already known
(Pub. L. 93-348) was signed into law, there-by creating
the National Commission for the Protection of Human
• Provides the conceptual or theoretical
framework of the planned research
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. One of
the charges to the Commission was to identify the basic • Provides information on
ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of research approaches
biomedical and behavioral research involving human and techniques.
subjects and to develop guidelines which should be Kinds of literature
followed to assure that such research is conducted in
accordance with those principles. • Research literature: refers to published reports
Belmont Report considerations of actual research studies done previously

• (i) the boundaries between biomedical and • Conceptual literature consists of articles or
behavioral research and the accepted and routine books written by authorities
practice of medicine, (ii) the role of assessment of risk- giving their opinions,
benefit criteria in the determination of the experiences, theories,
appropriateness of research involving human subjects, or ideas.
(iii) appropriate guidelines for the selection of human
subjects for participation in such research and (iv) the Sources for literature review
nature and definition of informed consent in various • A primary source: is the description of an
research settings. investigation written by the person who conducted it
Code of Ethics for Nurses
• The Code of Ethics for Nurses, revised in 2000,
• A secondary source: is a description of a study
or studies prepared by
is a guide for action based on social values and needs. someone other than the
The Code has served as the standard for nurses original researcher
worldwide since it was first adopted in 1953. The new
version, revised for the first time in 27 years, responds to Where can literature be found?
the realities of nursing and health care in a changing
society. • Journal articles

• Books
• Conference proceedings
• Government and corporate reports
• Newspapers
Where can literature be found?
• Theses and dissertations
• Internet – electronic journals
• CD – ROM
• Magazines
Reading the literatures
• Read the easier articles first
• Scan the article – Read the abstract first.
The use of a framework
• Worldviews are mental lenses or cognitive and
perceptual maps that we continually use to find our way
through the social landscape surrounding us.
• They are extremely encompassing in content
and pervasive in adherence.
• They are composed of beliefs, belief systems
and social values associated with them.
Terminologies
• A concept is a term that abstractly describes
and names an object, a phenomenon, or an idea, thus
providing it with a separate identity or meaning.
• Constructs are concepts at very high level of
abstraction and have general meaning
• Variables are more concrete and are narrow in
their definition.

• Read for depth Terminologies

• Allow enough time • Construct Emotional Abstract
• Do not put writing off until
Responses
you have finished reading Concept Anxiety
• Keep bibliographic
information.
Writing the literature review Variable Palmar Concrete
Sweating
• The review is not just a list describing one
published study after another but rather requires that the Terminologies
author critically analyze the available literature on the
topic. • A conceptual map is a strategy for expressing
a framework. It diagrams the interrelationships of the
• The review should be organized into sections concepts and statements.
that present themes
or identified trends. A conceptual map
• Revise…revise…revise

Hypothesis
Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
Framework
Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
Definitions
• The hypothesis is a tentative, declarative
Definitions statement about the relationship between two or more
• A framework is the abstract, logical structure of variables.
meaning that guides the development of the study and • It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors,
enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing's phenomena or events
body of knowledge. which have occurred or will occur.
• It is the conceptual underpinnings of a study. • It is an educated guess which needs
to be tested.
Definitions Characteristics
• Theoretical framework is based on theories. • It should be reasonable.
• Conceptual framework is rooted on specific
concepts or conceptual model • It should state in definite terms, the relationship
• Both provides the structure for examining a between variables.
problem and serves as a guide to examine relationships
between variables. • It should be testable.
The use of a framework Sources
• In quantitative research, the framework is a • Observations of phenomena
testable theory that may emerge from a conceptual
model or may be developed inductively from published • Real life experiences
research or clinical observations • May be generated from relationships expressed
• In qualitative research, the initial framework is a in theories.
philosophy or a worldview. A theory consistent with the
philosophy is developed as the outcome of the study.
• Literature review
• Results of previous researches
Types
• Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement of a no
relationship, no difference, no effect or no interaction. It
is tested with statistics.
• Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission
test results and board examination ratings among the
graduates of nursing schools in Manila.
Types
• Alternative or research hypothesis (H1) is the
expectation based on theory. This could either be:
• Directional – specifies the direction of the
relationship.
• Non-directional – only specifies that there is a
relationship.
Types
• Examples
• Directional
The higher the nursing admission test results, the
higher is the board examination ratings.
• Non-directional
There is a relationship between nursing admission test
results and board examination ratings among the
graduates of nursing schools in Manila.
Types
• Simple hypothesis has one independent and
one dependent variable.
• Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission
test results and board examination ratings among the
graduates of nursing schools
in Manila.
Types
• Complex hypothesis has two or more
independent and dependent variables
• Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission
test results and grade point average to board
examination ratings and CGFNS results among the
graduates of nursing schools in Manila.
Wording the hypothesis
• Hypothesis should specify the independent and
dependent variables and the relationship between them.
• Hypothesis should be worded in the
present tense
• Hypothesis should be stated
declaratively.
Remember
• Hypotheses are never proved through
hypothesis testing rather they are accepted or supported
or rejected. Findings are always tentative. If results are
replicated in numerous investigations, greater
confidence
can be placed in the conclusions.
Hypotheses come to be supported with mounting
evidences.
Research Designs
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Definitions
• Research design is the plan, structure, and
strategy of an investigation.
• Research method is the totality of how the
study is carried out. It includes the design, sample,
setting, instruments,
interventions, procedures, and
data analysis.
Interrelationship: Design, Problem, Literature Review,
Framework, and Hypothesis
Quantitative Designs
• A descriptive design is used to identify a
phenomenon of interest, identify variables within the
phenomenon, event or group in real life situations for the
purpose of discovering new meaning, describing what
exists, determining the frequency with
which something occurs, and
categorizing information.
Quantitative Descriptive
• Survey designs are employed to measure the
existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists.
The main intention is to use the data for problem solving
rather than for hypothesis testing.
Quantitative Descriptive
• Correlational designs help one determine the
extent to which different variables are related to each
other in the population of interest. The critical
distinguishing characteristic is the effort to estimate a
relationship as distinguished from
simple description.
Quantitative Descriptive
• Comparative designs examine and describe
differences in variables in two or more groups that occur
naturally in the setting. Descriptive and inferential
statistical analyses are used to examine
differences between or among groups.
Quantitative Descriptive
• Time dimensional designs were developed
within the discipline of epidemiology where the
occurrence and distribution of disease among
populations are studied. These designs examine
sequences and patterns of change,
growth or change over time. The
dimension of time becomes an
important factor.
Quantitative Descriptive
• Longitudinal designs examine changes in the
same subjects over an extended period.
• Cross sectional designs are used to examine
groups of subjects in various stages of development
simultaneously with
the intent to describe changes in the
phenomenon across stages.
Quantitative Descriptive Experimental group X O1
Control group O2
• 3 Primary longitudinal designs
1. Trend studies: the general population is studied Designs: Pre-experimental
at different points over a long period of time.
Participants are not the same at each period but they • One-Group Pretest Posttest Design
are
representative of the population at
• Notation:
that time. O1 X O2
Quantitative Descriptive
2. Cohort studies: focus on the same specific • Where:
population each time data are collected, samples O1 – Pretest
may be composed of different subjects but with X - Treatment/Intervention
similar characteristics. O2 - Posttest
3. Panel studies: use the same
respondents for each progressive Designs: Pre-experimental
time period that the data are
collected. • Static Group Comparison
Characteristics of a True Experiment • Notation:
• Manipulation: the researcher manipulates i.e. X O1
provides intervention or treatment in the experimental ------------------
group. The independent variable is manipulated to O2
assess its effect on the dependent variable. Where:
X – Treatment/Intervention
Characteristics of a True Experiment O1 – Experimental posttest
O2 – Control posttest
• Control: imposing of rules by the researcher to ---- - Non-random selection
decrease the possibility of error and increase the Quantitative Experimental
probability that the study’s findings are an accurate
reflection of reality. • True experimental designs possess the
characteristics of a true experiment.
Characteristics of a True Experiment True Experimental Designs
• Ways of control: • Pretest Posttest Control Group Design or
1. Homogenecity: the researcher limits the subjects Classical Experimental Design
to only one level of extraneous variable to reduce the • Notation:
impact on study findings RS O1 X O2
____________________
RC O3 O4
Characteristics of a True Experiment True Experimental Designs
2. Blocking: including the extraneous variable as part of
the design • Where:
3. Matching: it is used when a subject in the R – Random assignment
experimental group is randomly selected and then a O1 – Experimental pretest
subject similar in relation to O2 - Experimental posttest
important extraneous variables is O3 – Control pretest
randomly selected for the control group. O4 – Control posttest
X - Treatment/Intervention
Characteristics of a True Experiment S – Study group
• Randomization: each individual in the
C – Control group
population should have a greater than zero opportunity
to be selected for the sample. Random assignment is True Experimental Designs
the assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a
manner determined by chance. • Solomon Four Group Design

Quantitative Experimental
• Notation:
RS O1 X O2
• Pre-experimental design is a research design RC O3 O4
that does not include mechanisms to compensate for the RS X O5
absence of either randomization or a control group. RC O6
Done as a preliminary study.
Designs: Pre-experimental Quantitative Experimental
• One shot case study • Quasi-experimental designs are studies
• Notation
involving an intervention in which subjects are not
randomly assigned to treatment conditions but the
X O researcher exercises controls to enhance the study’s
• Where: internal
X – Treatment/intervention validity.
O - Posttest Quasi-experimental Designs
• Time series experiment
Designs: Pre-experimental O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
• Posttest only design with comparison group
• Notation • Non-equivalent control group design
 O1 X O2
---------------------
O3 O4
Threats to Experimental Validity
• Internal validity: refers to the condition that the
observed differences on the dependent variable are a
direct result of the manipulation of the independent
variable, not some other variable
Threats to Experimental Validity
• Threats to internal validity
History effect: an event that is not related to the
planned study but occurs during the time of the study
and could influence the responses of subjects to the
treatment
Threats to Experimental Validity
Selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in
which randomization is not possible
Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger,
hungrier, more tired, or
more experienced during the study.
Unplanned and unrecognized
changes can influence the findings
of the study.
Threats to Experimental Validity
Mortality is due to subjects who drop out of a study
before completion
• External validity refers to the condition wherein
the results are generalizable or applicable to groups and
environments outside of the experimental setting
Epidemiological Designs
• Two broad classifications
1. Observational studies – examine associations
between risk factors and outcomes
2. Intervention studies – explore the
association between interventions and
outcomes
Epidemiological Designs
• Observational studies
1. Analytical – determinants and risk of disease
2. Descriptive – patterns and frequency of disease
Epidemiological Designs
• Intervention or experimental studies - provides
the strongest clinical evidence.
1.) Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (RCT) - A
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary
data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals
similar at the beginning are randomly allocated to two or
more treatment groups and the outcomes the groups are
compared after sufficient follow-up time. Properly
executed, the RCT is the strongest evidence of the
clinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic procedures
in the clinical setting.
Epidemiological Designs
2. Randomized Cross-Over Clinical Trial - A
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary
data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals
with a chronic condition are randomly allocated to one of
two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatment
period and often a washout period, are switched to the
other treatment for the same period.
Epidemiological Designs
3. Randomized Controlled Laboratory Study - A
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary
data generated in the laboratory environment.
Laboratory studies are very powerful tools for doing
basic research because all extraneous factors other than
those of interest can be controlled or accounted for (e.g.,
age, gender, genetics, nutrition, environment, co-
morbidity, strain of infectious agent)
Epidemiological Designs
Observational studies
1. Cohort (Incidence, Longitudinal Study) - A
prospective, analytical, observational study, based on
data, usually primary, from a follow-up period of a group
in which some have had, have or will have the exposure
of interest, to determine the association between that
exposure and an outcome.
Epidemiological Designs
2. Case-Control Study - A retrospective, analytical,
observational study often based on secondary data in
which the proportion of cases with a potential risk factor
are compared to the proportion of controls (individuals
without the disease) with the same risk factor. The
common association measure for a case-control study is
the odds ratio.
Epidemiological Designs
3. Ecologic (Aggregate) Study - An observational
analytical study based on aggregated secondary data.
Aggregate data on risk factors and disease prevalence
from different population groups is compared to identify
associations.
Epidemiological Designs
4. Cross-Sectional (Prevalence Study) Study - A
descriptive study of the relationship between diseases
and other factors at one point in time (usually) in a
defined population
Epidemiological Designs
5. Case Series - A descriptive, observational study of
a series of cases, typically describing the manifestations,
clinical course, and prognosis of a condition.
Epidemiological Designs
6. Case Report - Anecdotal evidence. A description of
a single case, typically describing the manifestations,
clinical course, and prognosis of that case.
Qualitative Designs
• Qualitative designs uses systematic,
interactive approach which is used to describe life
experiences and give them meaning.
Qualitative Phenomenology
• Phenomenological design is used to describe
experiences as they are lived
• Bracketing is the suspension of the
researcher’s preconceptions, prejudices and beliefs so
that they do not interfere
with or influences their description of
the respondent’s experience.
Qualitative Grounded Theory
• Grounded theory provides a way to transcend
experience – to move it from a description of what is
happening to understanding the process by which it
happens.
Qualitative Ethnographic
• Ethnographic design provides a mechanism
for studying our own culture and that of others.
Qualitative Historical
• Historical design is the systematic collection
and critical evaluation of data relating to past
occurrences.
External criticism: authenticity and genuiness of data
Internal criticism: worthiness or
truthfulness of data
Qualitative Philosophical Inquiry
• Sampling frame is a list of all cases, objects, or
• Philosophical inquiry considers an idea or an groups of cases in the populations.
issue from all perspectives by extensively exploring the
literature, examining conceptual meaning, raising
• Generalizing means that the findings can be
questions, providing answers, and suggesting the applied to the population.
implications of those answers. • Representativeness means that the sample
Qualitative Critical Social Theory must be like the population in as many ways as possible.
• Critical social theory dares to question the
unquestioned and uncovers injustice and inequity in the
society. Categories of Sampling Plans
• Probability sampling: a process in which each
Qualitative Feminist Research element of the population has an equal chance of being
• Feminist research is based on the premise chosen for the sample. There is randomization.
that gender is a central construct in a society that
privileges men and marginalizes women. It seeks to • Non-probability sampling: elements are
equalize power relations by using a broad range of selected by non-random methods
methodologies. Sample Size
Case Study RULE: The larger the sample, the more representative
• Involves an extensive exploration of a single unit of the population.
of study, such as a person, family, group, community, or • Minimum acceptable sample size
institution, or a very small number of subjects who are 1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population
examined intensively. 2. Correlational: 30 subjects
It may have both quantitative and 3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects
qualitative elements. 4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per group
Used for rare, interesting, or Gay and Diehl,1992
representative cases
Sample Size
Triangulation
• Slovin’s Formula
• It is the combined use of two or more theories, n = N
methods, data sources, investigators, or analysis 1 + Ne2
methods in the study of the same phenomenon. Where: n = sample size
N = population
e = desired margin of error
Remember ( 0.05 or 0.01 )
The KEY in choosing the research design

The best research design is the one that is most
appropriate for the problem and the purpose of the
study.
Sample
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Definitions
• Sampling involves selecting a group of people,
events, behaviors, or other elements with which to
conduct a study.
• Sampling plan defines the process of making
the selection.
• Sample defines the selected group of people or
elements.
• Population or target population is the entire
set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling
criteria.
Definitions
• Sampling criteria list the characteristics
essential for membership in the target population.
• Accessible population is the portion of the
target population to which the researcher has
reasonable access.
• Elements are the entities that make up the
sample or the population
Probability Techniques
• Simple random: sampling by chance either by
lottery or by the use of table of random numbers
Probability Techniques
• Stratified random: involves taking certain areas
of the population, dividing the areas into sections, and
then taking a random sample from each section.
Probability Techniques
• Systematic sampling: every nth name from a
roster of names can be taken as
sample.
K = N/n
Where: K = sampling interval
N = population
n = sample size
Probability Techniques
• Cluster sampling: sampling in groups
Probability Techniques
• Multi-stage sampling: used for extremely large
populations. It proceeds through a set of stages from
larger to smaller sampling units.
Non-probability Techniques
• Purposive or judgmental: subjects are hand
picked to be included in the sample, based upon the
researcher’s knowledge of the population.

Definitions Non-probability Techniques

• Quota sampling: researchers identify strata of
the population and then determine how many
participants are needed from each stratum to meet a
quota.
Non-probability Techniques
• Accidental, convenience, incidental: utilizes
readily available subjects
Non-probability Techniques
• Snowball or network: subjects act as
informants who identify others for inclusion in the sample
who in turn leads to more samples
Steps in Sampling
• General outline of procedures
1. Identify the target population
2. Identify the accessible population
3. Decide the sample size and how the sample will be
taken.
4. Recruit subjects according to the designated plan.
5. Obtain the subject’s cooperation.
N.B. The steps may vary from one sampling design to
another
Qualitative sampling
• Sample size is not predetermined in qualitative
research
• Saturation: is the point in data gathering where
no new data emerge therefore sampling is stopped.
There is data repetition.
Data Collection
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Goal and Purpose
• Goal – to collect data that are meaningful for the
purpose of the study
• Meaningful data depend on the quality of the
instrument employed in the process
• No amount of sophisticated statistics can
salvage a poor set of data gathered through
defective instruments.
Questionnaire
• Questionnaire: a paper and pencil instrument
completed by the study subjects
• Formats
1. Checklist
2. Multiple Choice
3. Rating Scales: list an ordered series
of categories of a variable assumed
to be based on an underlying continuum.
A numerical value is assigned to each
category.
Questionnaire Formats
• Checklist
• Multiple Choice
• Rating Scale and Ranking Type
Interview
• Interview involves verbal communication
between the researcher and the subject
• Interview structure is the amount of direction
and restriction imposed by the interview situation
Interview Types
• Structured: the interviewer has a list of
prepared questions in the form of an interview
schedule
• Unstructured interview: more like a
conversation. The interviewer uses an interview
guide
Interview Tools
Observation
• Observation: involves looking at the
phenomenon
• Used to study human behavior
• Hawthorne effect: is the effect on the
dependent variable caused by the subject’s
awareness that they are participants in a study
Types of Observation
• Structured observation is one in which aspects
of the phenomenon to be observed are decided
in advance
• Unstructured observation is a nonselective
description of the phenomenon to be observed
Types of Observation
• Participant observation is done when the
researcher is involved in the setting with the
subject
• Non-participant observation is when the
researcher is merely viewing the situation
Records
• Records are prepared and preexisting data
• Selective deposit and selective survival are the
two major sources of bias.
• Records available for use may not constitute
the entire set of all possible data.
Physiologic Measurement
• Physiologic measurements are techniques
used to measure physiologic variables either
directly or indirectly. This is also called
biophysiologic measures
• Used in clinical nursing studies
• The choice of the physiologic measure is
dependent upon its ability to yield good
information.
Physiologic Measurement
Criteria for effective question
• Clarity of language
• Specificity of content and time period
• Singleness of purpose
• Freedom from assumption
• Freedom from suggestion
• Linguistic completeness
• Grammatical consistency
Types of questions
• Closed ended: respondents answer a number
of alternative responses
1. Dichotomous: two response alternative
2. Multichotomous: multiple responses
• Open ended: respondents are given enough
flexibility to answer questions or specify answers
other than those found in the questionnaire
Characteristics of tools
• Validity refers to the ability of a data gathering
instrument to measure what it is supposed to
measure and to obtain data relevant to what is
being measured.
 • Reliability refers to the ability to obtain 2 = Dissatisfied 5 = Very Satisfied
consistent results when reused. 3 = A little satisfied

QUAN - Shape of distribution

• Frequency distribution
Frequency Table
Data Analysis and Interpretation _________________________________
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD Score Frequency (f) Percentage
Data Analysis 1 2 12.50%
2 4 25.00%
• Data analysis is the systematic organization
3 6 37.50%
and synthesis of research data and, in most quantitative 4 3 18.75%
studies, the testing of the hypotheses using those data. 5 1 6.25%
Quantitative Analysis n = 16 100%
• The manipulation of numerical data through
statistical procedures for the purpose of describing
phenomenon or assessing the magnitude and reliability
of relationships among them. QUAN - Shape of distribution
• Frequency polygon

Quantitative Analysis QUAN - Shape of distribution

• Purposes of statistics • A distribution is said to be symmetrical in shape
Summarize if when folded over, the two halves of a frequency
Organize polygon would be superimposed.
Evaluate Numeric
Interpret Information
Communicate Shape: Symmetrical Distributions
Shape: Symmetrical Distributions
Shape: Asymmetrical Distributions
Quantitative Analysis Positively Skewed: Tail points to the right
• Factors to consider in choosing the appropriate Shape: Asymmetrical Distributions
statistical test • Example – Positively skewed distribution
1. Purpose of the study Personal income – most people have low to moderate
2. Research questions income with very few at the tail end. The mean is larger
3. Number and measure of variables than the median because there are so many low scores.
4. Sampling technique and sample size Shape: Asymmetrical Distributions
5.Availability of statistical Negatively skewed: Tail points to the left
software Shape: Asymmetrical Distributions
6. Ability of the researcher
Quantitative Analysis • Example – Negatively skewed distribution
Age at death – most people die when they are old, few
• Branches of statistics die when they are young. The bulk of the people are at
1. Descriptive statistics used to describe and the upper end of the distribution. The median is larger
synthesize data obtained from empirical observations than the mean because there are so many high scores.
and measurements.
2. Inferential statistics: it is concerned with making Shape: Kurtosis
decisions about a large body of data in the population of
interest by using a sample of that universe. • Kurtosis explains the degree of peakedness of
the curve, which is related to the spread of variance of
Quantitative Analysis scores.
• A set of data can be summarized in terms of 3 • Extreme kurtosis can affect the validity of
characteristics statistical analysis because the scores have little
variation
1. Shape of distribution Shape: Kurtosis
2. Central tendency QUAN – Central Tendency
3. Variability • Mode – that numerical value in a distribution
QUAN - Shape of distribution that occurs most frequently
• Frequency distribution is a systematic • Median – that point in a distribution above which
arrangement of numerical values from the lowest to the and below which 50% of the subjects fall
highest, together with a count of the number of times
each value was obtained. • Mean – the point on the score scale that is equal
to the sum of scores divided by the number of scores. It
• A frequency distribution can be obtained
is also known as average.
graphically by means of a frequency polygon
QUAN – Variability
QUAN - Shape of distribution
• Scores in a pilot survey on patient satisfaction
• Standard deviation (SD) captures the degree
to which the scores deviate from one another. The SD
1 4 3 4 tells us how much on the average the scores deviate
3 3 2 2 from the mean. It also tells us the homogenecity or
5 1 3 2 heterogenecity of the group.
2 3 4 3
1 = Very dissatisfied 4 = Satisfied
• Range is the highest score minus the lowest • State the rationale.
score.
• Include key previous researches to strengthen
QUAN – Measurement levels the reason for the investigation.

• Nominal – lowest level; name categories; • Include the significance,

assignment of numbers to simply classify characteristics scope and limitations, &
into categories definition of terms.
Writing the literature review
• Ordinal – attributes are ordered or ranked
• Include conflicting viewpoints of various authors.
according to some criterion
• Interval The distance between • State how each literature relates to the topic
0≠0 any 2 numbers on the under investigation.

• Ratio – Highest scale are • Put together references saying the

0=0 of known and same thing.
equal size • Learn to choose ONLY
Qualitative Analysis relevant literature.
• Qualitative analysis is the organization and Writing the methodology
interpretation of non-numerical data for the purpose of • Include the research design and the justification
discovering important underlying dimensions and of why it was chosen.
patterns of relationships
Qualitative Analysis • Present the population and the sampling design,
Data analysis components setting, and sample size.
Qualitative Analysis • Describe the tool used together with the validity
• Categories are underlying regularities, and reliability testing.
concepts, and clusters of concepts. • Discuss how the data
• Themes develop within categories of data. They was analyzed.
emerge from the data. A theme is an abstract entity that Writing the results & discussion
brings meaning and identity to experiences and its • Present results in a logical order with the
variant manifestations. It captures and unifies the nature research question as guide.
or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.
• Use tables, figures, and other devises to
Qualitative Analysis Process maximize the lucidity of the presentation.
• Comprehending – making sense of the data • Text should be followed by tables.
and learning “what is going on” and preparing a thorough
description of the phenomenon.
• Consistency in style should be followed in
writing the discussion.
Qualitative Analysis Process • RESULTS are data
• Synthesizing – involves sifting of the data and bound: DISCUSSION
is data based
putting pieces together. Researchers get a sense of
what is typical with regard to the phenomenon and what
Writing the summary
variation is like.
Qualitative Analysis Process • The summary puts together the highlights of the
• Theorizing – involves a systematic sorting of important findings of the investigation.
the data. Researchers develop alternative explanations • Look back at the questions and tie them up with
of the phenomenon and then hold these explanations up the main findings.
to determine their fit with the data.
Qualitative Analysis Process • Do not write everything in the
findings in the
• Recontextualizing – involves the further summary.
development of the theory such that its applicability to Writing the conclusions
other settings or groups is explored.
• REMEMBER: the conclusion is an abstraction
drawn from the summary of findings and is tied from the
question investigated.
Writing recommendations
Writing the Research Report • Recommendations should have a logical link
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD with the data and the conclusions.
Purpose in writing the report
• To communicate in writing: the problem
• Recommendations are geared towards:
education, practice, future research,
investigated, the methods used, the findings generated, population or institution
the interpretation of results, the integration with the if applicable.
theory, what conclusions have been drawn at the end, Characteristics of scientific writing
and
how the findings relate • Simplicity
to past research.
Writing the introduction and problem
• Conciseness

• Go directly into what the problem is

• Straight forwardness
investigating. • Consistency in the use of terms
• Continuity through transitional sentences
• Accuracy
• Parsimony

Communicating Research
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Communicating research
• Communicating research findings, the final
step in the research process, involves developing a
research report and disseminating it through
presentations and publications to audiences of nurses,
health care professionals, policy makers, and health
consumers.
Advantages
• Researchers are able to advance the knowledge
of a discipline.
• Researchers receive personal recognition and
professional advancement
• It promotes critique and replication
• It helps identify additional problems
• Promotes the use of research findings in
practice
Avenues for communicating research
• Publication in journals including on-line journals
• Oral presentation in conferences
• Poster presentation in conferences
• Publication in conference proceedings
• Publication in other sources e.g.
books, newspapers, magazines

REMEMBER
Genius is the ability to reduce the complicated to
the simple.

C. W. Cheran