Bolivia

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This article is about the South American country. For other uses, see Bolivia
(disambiguation).

Coordinates: 164243S 643958W

Plurinational State of Bolivia

Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Spanish)

Buliwya Mamallaqta (Quechua)
Wuliwya Suyu (Aymara)

Tet Volvia (Guaran)

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto: "La unin es la fuerza!" (Spanish)

"Unity is Strength!"[1]

Anthem: Himno Nacional de Bolivia (Spanish)

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Wiphala of Qullasuyu[nb 1]

Capital

Sucre[a]

Largest city

Santa Cruz de la Sierra

1748S 6310W

Official languages[2]

Spanish
Quechua
Aymara
Guaran
and 33 other native languages

Ethnic groups (2010[3])

55% Amerindianb
30% Mestizo
15% White

Demonym

Bolivian

Government

Unitary presidential constitutional republic

President

Evo Morales

Vice President

lvaro Garca Linera

Legislature

Plurinational Legislative Assembly

Upper house

Senate

Lower house

Chamber of Deputies

Independence from Spain

Declared

6 August 1825

Recognized

21 July 1847

Current constitution

7 February 2009

Area

Total

1,098,581 km2 (28th)

424,163 sq mi

Water (%)

1.29

Population

2014-03-25 estimate

10,556,102[4] (83rd)

Density

9/km2 (221st)
23/sq mi

GDP (PPP)

2014 estimate

Total

$69.979 billion[5] (91st)

Per capita

$6,222[5]

GDP (nominal)

2014 estimate

Total

$34.083 billion[5] (96th)

Per capita

$3,030[5]

Gini (2010)

53[3]
high 14th

HDI (2013)

0.667[6]
medium 113th

Currency

Boliviano (BOB)

Time zone

BOT (UTC4)

Drives on the

right

Calling code

+591

ISO 3166 code

BO

Internet TLD

.bo

a.

^ While Sucre is the constitutional capital, La Paz is the seat of the

government. See below.

b.

Quechua, Aymara and 34 other ethnic groups.

Bolivia (i/blvi/; Spanish: [bolija]; Quechua: Buliwya [blwja]; Aymara:

Wuliwya [wlwja]; Guarani: Volvia [olija]), officially known as the
Plurinational State of Bolivia (Spanish: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia),[7][8] is
a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to
the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by
Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. Although
only one-third of the country is located in the Andean mountain range, its
largest city and principal economic centers are in the Altiplano.

Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was a part of the Inca
Empire, while the northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by
independent tribes. The Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and
Asuncin took control of the region in the 16th century. During most of the
Spanish colonial period, Bolivia was known as Upper Peru and administered by
the Royal Court of Charcas. Spain built its empire in great part upon the silver
that was extracted from Bolivia's mines. After the first call for independence in
1809, 16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic,
named for Simn Bolvar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has
endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of
various peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre and parts of the
Gran Chaco. It has been landlocked since it lost its Pacific coast territory to
Chile in the War of the Pacific (187984), but agreements with neighbouring
countries have granted it indirect access to the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

The country's population, estimated at 10 million, is multiethnic, including

Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians and Africans. The racial and social
segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern
era. Before the revolution of 1952, native Bolivians were not permitted even to
enter the principal plaza of La Paz, which contains the presidential palace and
the congress. Many indigenous Bolivians today still seek to pass as mixedrace mestizos, whose social status is regarded as somewhat higher. The main
language spoken is Spanish, although the Guarani, Aymara and Quechua
languages are also common, and all four, as well as 34 other indigenous
languages, are official.

Modern Bolivia is constitutionally a democratic republic, divided into nine

departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to
the Eastern Lowlands, situated within the Amazon Basin. It is a developing
country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a
poverty level of 53 percent.[9] Its main economic activities include agriculture,
forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing goods such as textiles, clothing,
refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals,
especially tin.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 History 2.1 Pre-colonial
2.2 Colonial period
2.3 Independence and subsequent wars
2.4 Early 20th century
2.5 Late 20th century
2.6 Democratic transition

3 Geography 3.1 Sustaining water supplies

3.2 Geology
3.3 Climate
3.4 Biodiversity

4 Politics and government 4.1 Capital

4.2 Law and crime
4.3 Foreign relations
4.4 Military

5 Administrative divisions
6 Economy 6.1 Transport

6.2 Foreign-exchange reserves

7 Demographics 7.1 Ethnicity 7.1.1 Indigenous peoples

7.2 Language
7.3 Religion
7.4 Largest cities

8 Culture 8.1 Cuisine

8.2 Artistic and popular references

9 Education
10 Health
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 External links

Etymology[edit]

Bolivia is named after Simn Bolvar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of
independence.[10] The leader of Venezuela, Antonio Jos de Sucre, had been
given the option by Bolvar to either keep Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia)
under the newly formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United Provinces of
Rio de la Plata, or to formally declare its independence from the Viceroyalty of
Peru that had dominated most of the region. Sucre opted to create a new
nation and, with local support, named it in honor of Simn Bolvar.[11]

The original name was Republic of Bolvar. Some days later,[when?]

congressman Manuel Martn Cruz proposed: "If from Romulus comes Rome,
then from Bolvar comes Bolivia" (Spanish: Si de Rmulo Roma, de Bolvar

Bolivia). The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825.[12] In

2009, a new constitution changed the country's official name to "Plurinational
State of Bolivia" in recognition of the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the
enhanced position of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.
[13]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia

Pre-colonial[edit]

Tiwanaku at its largest territorial extent, AD 950.

The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,000 years when
the Aymara arrived. Present-day Aymara associate themselves with an
advanced civilization situated at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city
of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally
based village.[14]

The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800,

becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to
early estimates,[when?] the city covered approximately 6.5 square kilometres
(2.5 sq mi) at its maximum extent and had between 15,000 to 30,000
inhabitants.[15] In 1996 satellite imaging was used to map the extent of
fossilized suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the three primary valleys of
Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere
between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.[16]

Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally dominant force to a

predatory state. Tiwanaku expanded its reaches into the Yungas and brought its
culture and way of life to many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile.
Tiwanaku was not a violent culture in many respects. In order to expand its
reach, Tiwanaku exercised great political astuteness, creating colonies,

fostering trade agreements (which made the other cultures rather dependent),
and instituting state cults.[17]

The empire continued to grow with no end in sight. William H. Isbell states
"Tiahuanaco underwent a dramatic transformation between AD 600 and 700
that established new monumental standards for civic architecture and greatly
increased the resident population."[18] Tiwanaku continued to absorb cultures
rather than eradicate them. Archaeologists note a dramatic adoption of
Tiwanaku ceramics into the cultures which became part of the Tiwanaku
empire. Tiwanaku's power was further solidified through the trade it
implemented among the cities within its empire.[17]

Tiwanaku's elites gained their status through the surplus food they controlled,
collected from outlying regions and then redistributed to the general populace.
Further, this elite's control of llama herds became a powerful control
mechanism as llamas were essential for carrying goods between the civic
centre and the periphery. These herds also came to symbolize class distinctions
between the commoners and the elites. Through this control and manipulation
of surplus resources, the elite's power continued to grow until about AD 950. At
this time a dramatic shift in climate occurred,[19][page needed] causing a
significant drop in precipitation in the Titicaca Basin, believed by archaeologists
to have been on the scale of a major drought.

As the rainfall decreased, many of the cities further away from Lake Titicaca
began to tender less foodstuffs to the elites. As the surplus of food decreased,
and thus the amount available to underpin their power, the control of the elites
began to falter. The capital city became the last place viable for food
production due to the resiliency of the raised field method of agriculture.
Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000 because food production, the main
source of the power elite's control, dried up. The area remained uninhabited for
centuries thereafter.[19]

Inca Expansion (14381527).

Between 1438 and 1527, the Inca empire, during its last great expansion,
gained control over much of what is now western Bolivia. The Incas would not

maintain control of the region for long, as the rapidly expanding Inca Empire
was internally weak.[citation needed]

Colonial period[edit]

The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524, and was mostly
completed by 1533. The territory now called Bolivia was known as "Upper
Peru", and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government
came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Platamodern
Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining town, Potos soon produced fabulous
wealth, becoming the largest city in the New World with a population exceeding
150,000 people.[20]

By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important source of revenue for
the Spanish Empire.[21] A steady stream of natives served as labor force under
the brutal, slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-Columbian draft
system called the mita.[22] Upper Peru was bounded to Viceroyalty of the Ro
de la Plata in 1776. Tpac Katari led the indigenous rebellion that laid siege to
La Paz in March 1781,[23] during which 20,000 people died.[24] As Spanish
royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against
colonial rule grew

Independence and subsequent wars[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (18091920)

One of the first coins produced in Bolivia after the Declaration of Independence
in 1825.
The struggle for independence started in the city of Sucre on 25 May 1809,
with the first cry of Freedom in Latin America, the Chuquisaca Revolution
(Chuquisaca was then the name of the city). That revolution, which created a
local government junta, was followed by the La Paz revolution, during which
Bolivia actually declared independence. Both revolutions were short-lived, and

defeated by the Spanish authorities, but the following year the Spanish
American wars of independence raged across the continent. Bolivia was
captured and recaptured many times during the war by the royalists and
patriots. Buenos Aires sent three military campaigns, all of which were
defeated, and eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders at
Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by Antonio Jos de Sucre,
with a military campaign coming from the North in support of the campaign of
Simn Bolvar. After 16 years of war the Republic was proclaimed on 6 August
1825.

The first coat of arms of Bolivia, formerly named as the Republic of Bolvar in
honor of Simn Bolvar.
In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrs de Santa Cruz, invaded Peru
to reinstall the deposed president, General Luis Jos de Orbegoso. Peru and
Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the
Supreme Protector. Following tension between the Confederation and Chile,
Chile declared war on 28 December 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war
on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved
several major victories during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the
Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields
of Paucarpata near the city of Arequipa.

On the same field, the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army surrendered
unconditionally and signed the Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that
Chile would withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured
Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the
Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. In Chile, public outrage over
the treaty forced the government to reject it. Chile organized a second attack
on the Confederation and defeated it in the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat,
Santa Cruz resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris, and the
Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

Following the independence of Peru, Peruvian president General Agustn

Gamarra invaded Bolivia. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the
Battle of Ingavi on 20 November 1841 where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian
army under General Jos Ballivin then mounted a counter-offensive, capturing

the Peruvian port of Arica. Later, both sides signed a peace treaty in 1842,
putting a final end to the war.

A period of political and economic instability in the early-to-mid-19th century

weakened Bolivia. In addition, during the War of the Pacific (187983), Chile
occupied vast territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia,
including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of today's Chuquicamata area,
the adjoining rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port of Antofagasta among
other Bolivian territories.

Thus, since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to
neighboring countries.[25] It also lost the state of Acre, in the Acre War,
important because this region was known for its production of rubber. Peasants
and the Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and facing the
prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was forced to sign the Treaty of
Petrpolis in 1903, in which Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it
that Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (186471) traded the land for what
he called "a magnificent white horse" and Acre was subsequently flooded by
Brazilians, which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with Brazil.
[citation needed] In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of
silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability.

Early 20th century[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (192064)

Bolivia's territorial losses (18671938)

During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most
important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the
economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the
first thirty years of the 20th century.[26]

Living conditions of the native people, who constitute most of the population,
remained deplorable. With work opportunities limited to primitive conditions in
the mines and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they had no access
to education, economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia's defeat
by Paraguay in the Chaco War (193235), where Bolivia lost a great part of the
Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a turning-point.[27][28][29]

The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the most historic political

party, emerged as a broad-based party. Denied its victory in the 1951
presidential elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952. Under
President Vctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR, having strong popular pressure,
introduced universal suffrage into his political platform and carried out a
sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the
country's largest tin mines.

Late 20th century[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (196482)

12 years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta
overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death
of President Ren Barrientos Ortuo, a former member of the junta who was
elected president in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed
by the rising Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of President
Juan Jos Torres, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later
General) Hugo Banzer Surez as president in 1971. He returned to the
presidency in 19851989, 19931997, and 20022003.[citation needed]

The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been active in
providing finances and training to the Bolivian military dictatorship in the
1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was killed by a team of CIA
officers and members of the Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Flix
Rodrguez was a CIA officer on the team with the Bolivian Army that captured
and shot Guevara.[30] Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian
presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who pulled the trigger to aim
carefully, to remain consistent with the Bolivian government's story that Che
had been killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army." Rodriguez said
the US government had wanted Che in Panama, and "I could have tried to
falsify the command to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US
government said they had wanted", but that he had chosen to "let history run
its course" as desired by Bolivia.[31]

Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were
coups d'tat, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General Luis
Garca Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'tat that did not
have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power
only for one year. At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim
popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay [in
office]."[32] After a military rebellion forced out Meza in 1981, three other
military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems.
Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress, elected in 1980, and allow
it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, Hernn Siles Zuazo again
became president, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (195660).

Democratic transition[edit]

Main article: History of Bolivia (1982present)

Former President, Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada

Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform
agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization" program, under
which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management
control of public enterprises in return for agreed upon capital investments.
[citation needed]

In 1993, Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada ran for president in alliance with the Tupac
Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired indigenous-sensitive
and multicultural-aware policies.[33] In 1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced
the Plan de Todos, which led to the decentralization of government,
introduction of intercultural bilingual education, implementation of agrarian
legislation, and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan explicitly
stated that Bolivian citizens would own a minimum of 51% of enterprises;
under the plan, most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines, were
sold.[3][34] This privatization of SOEs led to innovative neoliberal structuring
that acknowledged a diverse population within Bolivia.[35]

The Law of Popular Participation gave municipalities the responsibility of

maintaining various infrastructures (and offering services): health, education,
systems of irrigation, which stripped the responsibility away from the state.
[when?][citation needed]

The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain

segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests,
particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through
1996. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central
Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge
government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB
could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction
and factory workers.

In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of the Nationalist

Democratic Action party (ADN) and former dictator (197178), won 22% of the
vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his government,
President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to physically
eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora
remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting
this policy (called the Dignity Plan).[36] The Banzer government basically
continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The
relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the
third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors
contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and
Brazil, lower world prices for export commodities, and reduced employment in
the coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a
significant amount of public sector corruption. These factors contributed to
increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-scale protests erupted in

Cochabamba, Bolivia's third largest city, in response to the privatization of
water resources by foreign companies and a subsequent doubling of water
prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed
with cancer. He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge Fernando
Quiroga Ramrez completed the final year of his term.

Current President, Evo Morales Ayma

In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Snchez de
Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate
and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with
20.9%. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had
again been led in the election by former President Jaime Paz Zamora, virtually
ensured the election of Snchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on
6 August he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three
overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anticorruption, and social inclusion.

In 2003 the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12 October 2003 the
government imposed martial law in El Alto after 16 people were shot by the
police and several dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option of
resigning or more bloodshed, Sanchez de Lozada offered his resignation in a
letter to an emergency session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted
and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on a commercially
scheduled flight for the United States.

Evo Morales' inauguration as President.

The country's internal situation became unfavorable for such political action on
the international stage. After a resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa
attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was refused by Congress. On
22 March 2005, after weeks of new street protests from organizations accusing
Mesa of bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered his resignation
to Congress, which was accepted on 10 June. The chief justice of the Supreme
Court, Eduardo Rodrguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed the
outgoing Carlos Mesa.

The indigenous population of the Andean region was not able to benefit from
government reforms.[37]

Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with 53.7% of the votes, an
absolute majority, unusual in Bolivian elections On 1 May 2006, Morales caused
controversy when he announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian
hydrocarbon assets. Fulfilling a campaign promise, on 6 August 2006, Morales
opened the Bolivian Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution
aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.[38]

In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the
discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive
and legislative branches could return to the city, but the assembly and the
government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically
undesirable. In May 2008, Evo Morales was a signatory to the UNASUR
Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations. In the 2009
national general elections, Evo Morales was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote.
His party, Movement for Socialism, also won a two-thirds majority in both
houses of the National Congress.

Geography[edit]

Main article: Geography of Bolivia

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2015)

Satellite image of Bolivia

Salar de Uyuni
Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 5726'
6938'W and 938'2253'S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres
(424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country, and the fifth largest
country in South America,[39] extending from the Central Andes through part
of the Gran Chaco as far as the Amazon. The geographic center of the country
is the so-called Puerto Estrella ("Star Port") on the Ro Grande, in uflo de
Chvez Province, Santa Cruz Department.

The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of terrains and climates.
Bolivia has a high level of biodiversity, considered one of the greatest in the
world, as well as several ecoregions with ecological sub-units such as the
Altiplano, tropical rainforests (including Amazon rainforest), dry valleys, and the
Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas feature enormous
variations in altitude, from an elevation of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft) above sea
level in Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 metres (230 ft) along the Paraguay River.
Although a country of great geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a
landlocked country since the War of the Pacific.

Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:

The Andean region in the southwest spans 28% of the national territory,
extending over 307,603 square kilometres (118,766 sq mi). This area is located
above 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) altitude and is located between two big Andean
chains, the Cordillera Occidental ("Western Range") and the Cordillera Central
("Central Range"), with some of the highest spots in the Americas such as the
Nevado Sajama, with an altitude of 6,542 metres (21,463 ft), and the Illimani,
at 6,462 metres (21,201 ft). Also located in the Cordillera Central is Lake
Titicaca, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world and the largest
lake in South America;[40] the lake is shared with Peru. Also in this region are
the Altiplano and the Salar de Uyuni, which is the largest salt flat in the world
and an important source of lithium.
The Sub-Andean region in the center and south of the country is an
intermediate region between the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plain); this
region comprises 13% of the territory of Bolivia, extending over 142,815 km2

(55,141 sq mi), and encompassing the Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region.
It is distinguished by its farming activities and its temperate climate.
The Llanos region in the northeast comprises 59% of the territory, with
648,163 km2 (250,257 sq mi). It is located to the north of the Cordillera Central
and extends from the Andean foothills to the Paraguay River. It is a region of
flat land and small plateaus, all covered by extensive rain forests containing
enormous biodiversity. The region is below 400 metres (1,300 ft) above sea
level.

Bolivia has three drainage basins:

The first is the Amazon Basin, also called the North Basin (724,000 km2
(280,000 sq mi)/66% of the territory). The rivers of this basin generally have
big meanders which form lakes such as Murillo Lake in Pando Department. The
main Bolivian tributary to the Amazon basin is the Mamor River, with a length
of 2,000 km (1,200 mi) running north to the confluence with the Beni River,
1,113 km (692 mi) in length and the second most important river of the
country. The Beni River, along with the Madeira River, forms the main tributary
of the Amazon River. From east to west, the basin is formed by other important
rivers, such as the Madre de Dios River, the Orthon River, the Abuna River, the
Yata River, and the Guapor River. The most important lakes are Rogaguado
Lake, Rogagua Lake, and Jara Lake.
The second is the Rio de la Plata Basin, also called the South Basin (229,500
km2 (88,600 sq mi)/21% of the territory). The tributaries in this basin are in
general less abundant than the ones forming the Amazon Basin. The Rio de la
Plata Basin is mainly formed by the Paraguay River, Pilcomayo River, and
Bermejo River. The most important lakes are Uberaba Lake and Mandior Lake,
both located in the Bolivian marshland.
The third basin is the Central Basin, which is an endorheic basin (145,081
square kilometres (56,016 sq mi)/13% of the territory). The Altiplano has large
numbers of lakes and rivers that do not run into any ocean because they are
enclosed by the Andean mountains. The most important river is the
Desaguadero River, with a length of 436 km (271 mi), the longest river of the
Altiplano; it begins in Lake Titicaca and then runs in a southeast direction to
Poop Lake. The basin is then formed by Lake Titicaca, Lake Poop, the
Desaguadero River, and great salt flats, including the Salar de Uyuni and
Coipasa Lake.

Sustaining water supplies[edit]

Deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems,

including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project to try

and remedy this situation involves landholders in upstream areas being paid by
downstream water users to conserve forests. The landholders receive $20 to
conserve the trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and enhance the
biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They receive $30, which purchases
a beehive, to compensate for conservation for two hectares of water-sustaining
forest for five years. Honey revenue per hectare of forest is $5 per year, so
within five years, the landholder has sold $50 of honey.[41] The project is being
conducted by Fundacin Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support
from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.

Geology[edit]

The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of different lithologies as well as

tectonic and sedimentary environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units
coincide with topographical units. Most elementally, the country is divided into
a mountainous western area affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific
and an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.

Climate[edit]

Los Yungas, La Paz.

The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-region to the other, from
the tropics in the eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. The
summers are warm, humid in the east and dry in the west, with rains that often
modify temperatures, humidity, winds, atmospheric pressure and evaporation,
yielding very different climates in different areas. When the climatological
phenomenon known as El Nio[42][43] takes place, it causes great alterations
in the weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain
ranges, while in the western regions, windy days are more common. The
autumn is dry in the non-tropical regions.
Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 30 C (86 F).
The wind coming from the Amazon rainforest causes significant rainfall. In May,
there is low precipitation because of dry winds, and most days have clear skies.
Even so, winds from the south, called surazos, can bring cooler temperatures
lasting several days.

Altiplano. Desert-Polar climates, with strong and cold winds. The average
temperature ranges from 15 to 20 C. At night, temperatures descend
drastically to slightly above 0 C, while during the day, the weather is dry and
solar radiation is high. Ground frosts occur every month, and snow is frequent.
Valleys and Yungas. Temperate climate. The humid northeastern winds are
pushed to the mountains, making this region very humid and rainy.
Temperatures are cooler at higher elevations. Snow occurs at altitudes of 2,000
metres (6,600 ft).
Chaco. Subtropical semi-arid climate. Rainy and humid in January and the rest
of the year, with warm days and cool nights.

Biodiversity[edit]

Bolivia, with an enormous variety of organisms and ecosystems, is part of the

"Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries".[44]

Bolivia's variable altitudes, ranging from 906,542 metres (29521,463 ft)

above sea level, allow for a vast biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia
comprises four types of biomes, 32 ecological regions, and 199 ecosystems.
Within this geographic area there are several natural parks and reserves such
as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park, the Tunari
National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the
Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural
Area, among others.

Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants, including over 1,200 species
of fern, 1,500 species of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species
of fungus. In addition, there are more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants.
Bolivia is considered the place of origin for such species as peppers and chili
peppers, peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species of palm.
Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds of potatoes.

Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including 398 mammals, over
1,400 birds (about 14% of birds known in the world, being the sixth most
diverse country in terms of bird species)[45][unreliable source?], 204
amphibians, 277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia is a
landlocked country. In addition, there are more than 3,000 types of butterfly,
and more than 60 domestic animals.

Bolivia has gained global attention for its 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth',
which accords nature the same rights as humans.[46]

Politics and government[edit]

Main articles: Politics of Bolivia and Foreign relations of Bolivia

The government building of the National Congress of Bolivia at the Plaza Murillo
in central La Paz.
Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982,
when a long string of military coups came to an end. Presidents Hernn Siles
Zuazo (198285) and Vctor Paz Estenssoro (198589) began a tradition of
ceding power peacefully which has continued, although two presidents have
stepped down in the face of popular protests: Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada in
2003 and Carlos Mesa in 2005. Bolivia's multiparty democracy has seen a wide
variety of parties in the presidency and parliament, although the Revolutionary
Nationalist Movement, Nationalist Democratic Action, and the Revolutionary
Left Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. The current president is Evo
Morales, the first indigenous Bolivian to serve as head of state. Morales'
Movement for Socialism Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the
Peoples party was the first to win an outright presidential majority in four
decades, doing so both in 2005 and 2009.

The constitution, drafted in 200607 and approved in 2009, provides for

balanced executive, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, as well as
several levels of autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch tends to
overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and
approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the
Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with
corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and
subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms
in the judicial system as well as increasing decentralizing powers to
departments, municipalities, and indigenous territories.

The executive branch is headed by a President and Vice President, and consists
of a variable number (currently, 20) of government ministries. The president is
elected to a five-year term by popular vote, and governs from the Presidential
Palace (popularly called the Burnt Palace, Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the
case that no candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular vote or
more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of more than 10% over the
second-place finisher, a run-off is to be held among the two candidates most
voted.[47]

The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational Legislative Assembly or

National Congress) has two chambers. The Cmara de Diputados (Chamber of
Deputies) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, seventy from singlemember districts (circunscripciones), sixty by proportional representation, and
seven by the minority indigenous peoples of seven departments. The Cmara
de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members (four per department).
Members of the Assembly are elected to five-year terms. The body has its
headquarters on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary sessions
elsewhere in Bolivia. The Vice President serves as titular head of the combined
Assembly.

The Supreme Court Building in the capital of Bolivia, Sucre.

The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, the
Judiciary Council, Agrarian and Environmental Tribunal, and District
(departmental) and lower courts. In October 2011, Bolivia held its first judicial
elections to choose members of the national courts by popular vote, a reform
brought about by Evo Morales.

The Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent branch of government

which replaced the National Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the
Supreme Electoral Tribunal, the nine Departmental Electoral Tribunals, Electoral
Judges, the anonymously selected Juries at Election Tables, and Electoral
Notaries.[48] Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven-member Supreme
Electoral Tribunal. Its operations are mandated by the Constitution and
regulated by the Electoral Regime Law (Law 026, passed 2010). The Organ's
first elections were the country's first judicial election in October 2011, and five
municipal special elections held in 2011.

Capital[edit]

Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital in Sucre, while La Paz is the
seat of government. La Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed provisional capital of
the newly independent Alto Per (later, Bolivia) on 1 July 1826.[49] On 12 July
1839, President Jos Miguel de Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the
capital of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the revolutionary leader Antonio
Jos de Sucre.[49] The Bolivian seat of government moved to La Paz at the turn
of the twentieth century, as a consequence of Sucre's relative remoteness from
economic activity after the decline of Potos and its silver industry and of the
Liberal Party in the War of 1899.

The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital to Sucre, not referring
to La Paz in the text.[47] In addition to being the constitutional capital, the
Supreme Court of Bolivia is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital.
Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential Palace and seat of Bolivian
executive power) is located in La Paz, as are the National Congress and
Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to be the seat of
government.

Law and crime[edit]

There are 53 prisons in Bolivia which incarcerate around 8,700 people as of

2010. The prisons are managed by the Penitentiary Regime Directorate
(Spanish: Direccin de Rgimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons in
departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.[citation needed]

Foreign relations[edit]

Despite losing its maritime coast, the so-called Littoral Department, after the
War of the Pacific, Bolivia has historically maintained, as a state policy, a
maritime claim to Chile; the claim asks for sovereign access to the Pacific
Ocean and its maritime space. The issue has also been presented before the
Organization of American States; in 1979, the OAS passed the 426 Resolution,
[50] which declared that the Bolivian problem is a hemispheric problem. On 4
April 1884, a truce was signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of
access to Bolivian products through Antofagasta, and freed the payment of
export rights in the port of Arica. In October 1904, the Treaty of Peace and
Friendship was signed, and Chile agreed to build a railway between Arica and

La Paz, to improve access of Bolivian products to the ports. The Special

Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) is a special economic area of 5 km of
maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 hectares, called Mar Bolivia ("Sea
Bolivia"), where Bolivia may maintain a free port near Ilo, Peru under its
administration and operation[51][unreliable source?] for a period of 99 years
starting in 1992; once that time has passed, all the construction and territory
revert to the Peruvian government. Since 1964, Bolivia has had its own port
facilities in the Bolivian Free Port in Rosario, Argentina. This port is located on
the Paran River, which is directly connected to the Atlantic Ocean.

Military[edit]

Two Lockheed T-33s in formation Bolivian Air Force.

The Bolivian military comprises three branches: Ejrcito (Army), Naval (Navy)
and Fuerza Area (Air Force). The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18;
however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as
young as 14.[3] The tour of duty is generally 12 months. The Bolivian
government annually spends $130 million on defense.[52]

The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six military regions
(regiones militaresRMs) in the army. The army is organized into ten divisions.

Though it is landlocked Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval Force (Fuerza
Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval force about 5,000 strong in 2008.[53]

The Bolivian Air Force ('Fuerza Area Boliviana' or 'FAB') has nine air bases,
located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Puerto Surez, Tarija, Villamontes,
Cobija, Riberalta, and Robor.

Administrative divisions[edit]

Main articles: Departments of Bolivia, Provinces of Bolivia, Municipalities of

Bolivia, Cantons of Bolivia and Native Community Lands

Bolivia has nine departmentsPando, La Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa

Cruz, Potosi, Chuquisaca, Tarija.

According to what is established by the Bolivian Political Constitution, the Law

of Autonomies and Decentralization regulates de procedure for the elaboration
of Statutes of Autonomy, the transfer and distribution of direct competences
between the central government and the autonomous entities.[54]

There are four levels of decentralization: Departmental government,

constituted by the Departmental Assembly, with rights over the legislation of
the department. The governor is chosen by universal suffrage. Municipal
government, constituted by a Municipal Council, with rights over the legislation
of the municipality. The mayor is chosen by universal suffrage. Regional
government, formed by several provinces or municipalities of geographical
continuity within a department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly.
Original indigenous government, self-governance of original indigenous people
on the ancient territories where they live.

No.

Department

Capital

Territorial division of Bolivia

Pando

Cobija

La Paz

La Paz

Beni

Trinidad

Oruro

Oruro

Cochabamba

Cochabamba

Santa Cruz

Santa Cruz de la Sierra

Potosi

Potos

Chuquisaca

Sucre

Tarija

Tarija

Economy[edit]

Main article: Economy of Bolivia

Graphical depiction of Bolivia's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.

Bolivias estimated 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled $27.43 billion at
official exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Economic
growth was estimated to be at about 5.2%, and inflation was estimated at
about 6.9%.[citation needed] Bolivia was rated "Repressed" by the 2010 Index
of Economic Freedom.[55] Despite a series of mostly political setbacks,
between 2006 and 2009 the Morales administration has spurred growth higher

than at any point in the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied by a
moderate decrease in inequality.[56] A surplus budget of 1.7% (GDP) was
obtained by 2012, the government runs surpluses since Morales administration
reflecting a prudent economic management.

A major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a drastic fall in the price of tin
during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia's main sources of income
and one of its major mining industries.[57] Since 1985, the government of
Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic
stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating
conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the
customs service has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel
legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies, especially in
the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private
investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment.[58]

Young miners at work in Potos

In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, the former President of Bolivia, signed a contract
with Aguas del Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water
supply in Bolivia's third-largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly thereafter, the
company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in
protests and rioting among those who could no longer afford clean water.[59]
[60] Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest
over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw
the water contract.

Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America.[61] The
government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil
through 2019. The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on the
Hydrocarbon Law.

The US Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic tonnes of
lithium, which represent 50%70% of world reserves. However, to mine for it
would involve disturbing the country's salt flats (called Salar de Uyuni), an
important natural feature which boosts tourism in the region. The government
does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape to meet the rising world

demand for lithium.[62] On the other hand, sustainable extraction of Li is

attempted by the government. This project is carried out by the public
company "Recursos Evaporticos" subsidiary of COMIBOL.

Once Bolivia's government depended heavily on foreign assistance to finance

development projects and to pay the public stuff. At the end of 2002, the
government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign creditors, with $1.6 billion of this
amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to
multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have
been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the Paris Club
mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the
Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets
set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises have undercut
Bolivia's normally good record. However, by 2013 the foreign assistance is just
a fraction of the government budget thanks to tax collection mainly from the
profitable exports to Brazil and Argentina of natural gas.

The income from tourism has become increasingly important. Bolivia's tourist
industry has grown gradually since about 1990.

Transport[edit]

See also: List of airlines of Bolivia and List of airports in Bolivia

The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Direccin General de Aeronutica

CivilDGAC) formerly part of the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school
called the National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional de
Aeronutica CivilINAC), and two commercial air transport services TAM and
TAB.

TAM Transporte Areo Militar (the Bolivian Military Airline) is an airline based
in La Paz, Bolivia. It is the civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Area Boliviana' (the
Bolivian Air Force), operating passenger services to remote towns and
communities in the North and Northeast of Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71)
has been a part of the FAB since 1945.

A similar airline serving the Beni Department with small planes is Lnea Area
Amaszonas,[63] using smaller planes than TAM.

Although a civil transport airline, TAB Transportes Areos Bolivianos, was

created as a subsidiary company of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air
Transport Management (Gerencia de Transportes Areos) and is headed by an
FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo airline, links Bolivia with most
countries of the Western Hemisphere; its inventory includes a fleet of Hercules
C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto International Airport.
TAB flies to Miami and Houston, with a stop in Panama.

The three largest, and main international airports in Bolivia are El Alto
International Airport in La Paz, Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz, and
Jorge Wilstermann International Airport in Cochabamba.

Foreign-exchange reserves[edit]

The amount in reserve currencies and gold hold by Bolivian's Central Bank
advanced from 1.085 billion of US dollars in 2000, under Hugo Banzer Suarez's
government to 15.282 billion of US dollars in 2014 under Evo Morales's
government.

Foreign-exchange reserves 20002014 (MM US$) [64]

Fuente: Banco Central de Bolivia, Grfica elaborada por: Wikipedia.

Demographics[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Bolivia

People in La Paz city centre.

Festival in Sucre.
According to the last two censuses carried out by the Bolivian National
Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadstica, INE), the population
increased from 8,274,325 (from which 4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475
were women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.[65]

In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled; reaching a population
growth rate of 2.25%. The growth of the population in the inter-census periods
(19501976 and 19761992) was approximately 2.05%, while between the last
period, 19922001, it reached 2.74% annually.

Some 62.43% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57% in
rural areas. The most part of the population (70%) is concentrated in the
departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In the Andean Altiplano
region the departments of La Paz and Oruro hold the largest percentage of
population, in the valley region the largest percentage is held by the
departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in the Llanos region by
Santa Cruz and Beni. At national level, the population density is 8,49, with
variations marked between 0,8 (Pando Department) and 26,2 (Cochabamba
Department).

The largest population center is located in the so-called "central axis" and in
the Llanos region. Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011
census, 59% of the population is between 15 and 59 years old, 39% is less than
15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is younger than 25 years of age.

Ethnicity[edit]

Macheteros.
The ethnic composition of Bolivia is diverse. There are approximately three
dozen native groups totaling 60% of the Bolivian population the largest
proportion of indigenous people in Latin America. The largest of these are the
Quechuas (2.5 million), Aymaras (2 million), then Chiquitano (180,000), and
Guaran (125,000). So the full Amerindian population is at 60%; the remaining
30% are mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white), and around 10% are white.[3]

Indigenous peoples, also called "originarios" ("native" or "original") and less

frequently, Amerindians, could be Andean, as the Aymaras and Quechuas
(which formed the ancient Inca Empire), which concentrate in the western
departments of La Paz, Potos, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There also
is an important oriental ethnic population, composed by the Guaran and
Moxos, among others, and that inhabit the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni,
Tarija and Pando.

Mestizos are distributed throughout the entire country and compose the 26% of
the Bolivian population. Most people assume their mestizo identity while at the
same time identifying themselves with one or more indigenous cultures.

Whites comprise 15% of the popular and are usually concentrated in the
largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in
some minor cities like Tarija. In the Santa Cruz Department there are several
dozen colonies of German-speaking Mennonites totaling around 40,000
inhabitants (as of 2012).[66]

Afro Bolivians, descendents of African slaves which arrived in the times of the
Spanish Empire, inhabit the department of La Paz, and located mainly in the
provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in
1831.[67]

Bolivians of Asian origin are a small but economically vibrant minority made up
mainly of Japanese (14,000), Chinese (4,600), Koreans and Lebanese.

There are small numbers of European citizens of Germany, France, Italy and
Portugal, as well as coming from other American countries, as Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and
Venezuela, among others. There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El
Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

Indigenous peoples[edit]

The Indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic
groups: the Andeans, which are located in the Andean Altiplano and the valley
region; and the lowland groups, who inhabit the warm regions of central and
eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of Cochabamba Department, the Amazon
Basin areas of northern La Paz Department, and the lowland departments of
Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz, and Tarija (including the Gran Chaco region in the
southeast of the country). Large numbers of Andean peoples have also
migrated to form Quechua, Aymara, and intercultural communities in the
lowlands.
Andean ethnicities Aymara people. They live on the high plateau of the
departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potos, as well as some small regions near
the tropical flatlands.
Quechua people. They inhabit mostly the valleys on Cochabamba and
Chuquisaca. They also inhabit some mountain regions in Potos and Oruro. They
divide themselves into different Quechua nations, as the Tarabucos, Ucumaris,
Chalchas, Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, among others.
Uru people

Ethnicities of the Eastern Lowlands Guaranes. Formed by: Guarayos,

Pausernas, Sirionos, Chiriguanos, Wich, Chulipis, Taipetes, Tobas and Yuquis.
Tacanas: Formed by: Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas and Maropas.
Panos: Formed by: Chacobos, Caripunas, Sinabos, Capuibos and Guacanaguas.

Aruacos: Formed by: Apolistas, Baures, Moxos, Chan, Movimas, Cayabayas,

Carabecas, Paiconecas or Paucanacas.
Chapacuras: Formed by: Itenez or More, Chapacuras, Sansinonianos,
Canichanas, Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses and Chiquitos.
Botocudos: Formed by: Bororos y Otuquis.
Zamucos: Formed by: Ayoreos.

Language[edit]

Main article: Languages of Bolivia

Geographic distribution of the indigenous languages of Bolivia.

Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of its multiculturalism. The
Constitution of Bolivia recognizes 36 official languages besides Spanish:
Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bsiro, Canichana, Cavineo, Cayubaba, Chacobo,
Chiman, Ese Ejja, Guaran, Guarasuawe, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco, MachajuyaiKallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeo-Trinitario, Mojeo-Ignaciano, Mor,
Mosetn, Movima, Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirion, Tacana, Tapiete,
Toromona, Uruchipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracar and Zamuco.[68]

Spanish is the most spoken official language in the country, according to the
2001 census;[69] as it is spoken by 88.4% of the population, as a first language
or second language in some indigenous populations. All legal and official
documents issued by the State, including the Constitution, the main private
and public institutions, the media, and commercial activities, are in Spanish.

The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (28% of the population in the
2001 census), Aymara (18%), Guarani (1%), other (4%) including the Moxos in
the department of Beni.

Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about 70,000 Mennonites in Santa

Cruz. Portuguese is spoken mainly in the areas close to Brazil.

Religion[edit]

Main article: Religion in Bolivia

Religious inculturation between the cult to Pachamama (represented by the

Cerro Rico) and the adoration to Virgin Mary, reflected on the painting "La
Virgen del Cerro" of 1720.
Bolivia is a secular state and guarantees freedom of religion. The Constitution
establishes that "the state respects and guarantees the freedom of religion and
of spiritual beliefs, in concordance with their world view. The state is
independent of the religion."[2]

According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics

of Bolivia, 78 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19
percent Protestant and 3 percent non-religious.[70][71]

Much of the indigenous population adheres to different traditional beliefs

marked by inculturation or syncretisim with Christianity. The cult of
Pachamama,[72] or "Mother Earth", as well as the adoration to the Virgin of
Copacabana, Virgin of Urkupia and Virgin of Socavn, are notable. There also
are important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca that have a strong
devotion to James the Apostle.[73] Other deities worshiped in Bolivia include
the Ekeko, the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose day is
celebrated every 24 January; and Tup, a god of the Guaran people.

Largest cities[edit]

Approximately 67 percent of Bolivians live in urban areas,[74] among the

lowest proportion in South America. Nevertheless, the rate of urbanization is

growing steadily, at around 2.5 percent annually. According to the 2012 census,
there are total of 3,158,691 households in Bolivia an increase of 887,960
from 2001.[75] In 2009, 75.4 percent of homes were classified as a house, hut,
or Pahuichi; 3.3 percent were apartments; 21.1 percent were rental residences;
and 0.1 percent were mobile homes.[76] Most of the country's largest cities are
located in the highlands of the west and central regions.

v
t
e

Largest cities or towns in Bolivia

Census 2012, INE

Rank

Name

Department

Pop.

Rank

Name

Department

Pop.

Santa Cruz de la Sierra

El Alto

Santa Cruz de la Sierra

Santa Cruz

1,453,549

11

Montero

Santa Cruz

109,518

La Paz

El Alto

La Paz

848,840

12

Trinidad

Beni

106,422

La Paz

La Paz

764,617

13

Warnes

Santa Cruz

96,406

Cochabamba

Cochabamba

630,587

14

Yacuba

Tarija

91,998

Oruro

Oruro

264,683

15

La Guardia

Santa Cruz

89,080

Sucre

Chuquisaca

259,388

16

Riberalta

Beni

89,003

Tarija

Tarija

205,346

17

Viacha

La Paz

80,388

Potos

Potos

189,652

18

Villa Tunari

Cochabamba

72,623

Sacaba

Cochabamba

169,494

19

Tiquipaya

Cochabamba

53,062

10

Quillacollo

Cochabamba

137,029

20

San Ignacio de Velasco

Santa Cruz

52,276

[77]

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Bolivia

See also: Music of Bolivia and Public holidays in Bolivia

Bolivian children playing tarka.

Bolivian awayus for sale in La Paz.

Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as
well as the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole.

The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian,

colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver
ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several
important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de
Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country abounds in other sites that
are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.[78]

The Diablada, dance primeval, typical and main of Carnival of Oruro a

Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001 in
Bolivia (File: Fraternidad Artstica y Cultural "La Diablada").
The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of
local native and mestizo builders and artisans, developed into a rich and
distinctive style of architecture, painting, and sculpture known as "Mestizo
Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Prez de
Holgun, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown
stonecutters, woodcarvers, goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of
Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered and has
been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.[78]

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include Mara Luisa Pacheco,
Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva, and Marina
Nez del Prado.

Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinctive and varied. The
"devil dances" at the annual carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric
events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at Tarabuco.[78] The

best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "Carnaval de
Oruro", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity", as proclaimed by UNESCO in May 2001.

Entertainment includes football.

Cuisine[edit]

Main article: Bolivian cuisine

Cuisine in Bolivia stems mainly from the combination of Spanish cuisine with
traditional indigenous Aymara/Inca ingredients, with the addition of later
influences from German, Italian, Basque, Russian, Polish, and Arab immigrants.

Artistic and popular references[edit]

The 2011 Caroline Alethia novel Plant Teacher takes place in Bolivia from 2007
to 2008. The novel explores such themes as politics, indigenous religions, and
narcotourism.[79]

Education[edit]

Main article: Education in Bolivia

Literacy class in the El Alto section of La Paz.

In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was declared free of illiteracy,
making it the fourth country in South America to attain this status.[80]

Bolivia has public and private universities. Among them: Universidad Mayor,
Real y Pontificia de San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX Sucre, founded
in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andres UMSA La Paz, founded in 1830;
Universidad Mayor de San Simon UMSS Cochabamba, founded in 1832;
Universidad Autnoma Gabriel Ren Moreno UAGRM Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
founded in 1880; Universidad Tecnica de Oruro UTO Oruro, founded in 1892;
and Universidad Autnoma Toms Fras UATF Potosi, founded in 1892.

Health[edit]

Main article: Health in Bolivia

Based on 2013 The World Factbook estimates, Bolivia is ranked 161st in life
expectancy with a number of 68.2 years.[74] Life expectancy for men is 65.4
and for women is 71.1.[74] A study by the United Nations Development
Programme and United Nations International Emergency Children's Fund
reported over 230 babies died per day in Bolivia through lack of proper care.
[81] The majority of the population has no health insurance or access to
healthcare.[82] Demographic and Health Surveys has completed five surveys
in Bolivia since 1989 on a wide range of topics.[83]

See also[edit]
Outline of Bolivia
Index of Bolivia-related articles
Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia
Women in Bolivia

Portals
Access related topics

Bolivia portal

Latin America portal

Geography portal

Notes[edit]

1.^ Article 6, section II of the new Bolivian constitution establishes the Wiphala
as a national symbol of Bolivia (along with the flag, national anthem and coat
of arms). See "Bandera indgena boliviana es incluida como smbolo patrio en
nueva Constitucin", 21 October 2008, United Press International.

References[edit]

1.^ "Moneda de 10 Centavos" [10 Cent Coins] (in Spanish). Central Bank of
Bolivia. Archived from the original on 28 April 2007. Retrieved 28 January 2014.

2.^ a b Constitute Assembly of Bolivia 2007, p. 2

3.^ a b c d e "South America :: Bolivia". The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
4.^ Bolivia Population
5.^ a b c d "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". International
Monetary Fund. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
6.^ "2014 Human Development Report Summary" (PDF). United Nations
Development Programme. 2014. pp. 2125. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
7.^ "Bolivia (Plurinational State of)". Who.int. 11 May 2010. Retrieved 30
August 2010.
8.^ "Bolivia (Plurinational State of)". UNdata. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
9.^ "Bolivia baja sus ndices de pobreza en 8 aos" [Bolivia lowers its poverty
levels]. El Deber. 30 November 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
10.^ "Simn Bolvar". Salem Press. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
11.^ "6 de Agosto: Independencia de Bolivia". Historia-bolivia.com. Retrieved
14 July 2013.
12.^ philg (11 January 2009). "What countries are named after individuals or
families?". Blogs.law.harvard.edu. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
13.^ Caistor, Nick (10 June 2010). "Can Bolivias indigenous groups dance in
harmony?". BBC News. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
14.^ Fagan 2001, p. [page needed]
15.^ Kolata 1993, p. 145
16.^ Kolata 1996, p. [page needed]
17.^ a b McAndrews, Timothy L.; Albarracin-Jordan, Juan; Bermann, Marc
(1997). "Regional Settlement Patterns in the Tiwanaku Valley of Bolivia". Journal
of Field Archaeology 24 (1): 6783. doi:10.2307/530562.
18.^ Isbell, William H. (2008). "Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in
the Central Andean Middle Horizon". The Handbook of South American
Archaeology: 731751. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-74907-5_37.
19.^ a b Kolata, Alan L. (8 December 1993). The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an
Andean Civilization. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-55786-183-2.
20.^ John Demos. "The High Place: Potosi". Common-place.org. Retrieved 14
July 2013.
21.^ "Conquest in the Americas". MSN Encarta. 28 October 2009. Retrieved 14
July 2013.

22.^ "Bolivia Ethnic Groups". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 30 August 2010.

23.^ Nicholas A. Robins; Adam Jones (2009). Genocides by the Oppressed:
Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice. Indiana University Press. pp. 12.
ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6.
24.^ "Rebellions". History Department, Duke University. 22 February 1999.
Retrieved 14 July 2013.
25.^ McGurn Centellas, Katherine (June 2008). For Love of Land and
Laboratory: Nation-building and Bioscience in Bolivia. Chicago.
26.^ David Rabanus. "Background note: Bolivia.". Bolivien-liest.de. Retrieved
14 July 2013.
27.^ Harold Osborne (1954). Bolivia: A Land Divided. London: Royal Institute of
International Affairs.
28.^ History World (2004). "History of Bolivia". National Grid for Learning.
29.^ Juan Forero (7 May 2006). "History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness".
New York Times. Retrieved 26 April 2010. (PDF), University of Wisconsin
Madison, Department of Geography
30.^ Grant, Will (8 October 2007). "CIA man recounts Che Guevara's death".
BBC News. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
31.^ "Foreign Relations of the United States, Volume XXXI, South and Central
America; Mexico". United States Department of State. 13 October 1967. XXXI:
172. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. |chapter= ignored (help)
32.^ Brian Boyd (20 January 2006). "Astroturfing all the way to No 1". The Irish
Times. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
33.^ "1994 CIA World FactBook". Retrieved 4 March 2010.
34.^ "Historia de la Repblica de Bolivia". Retrieved 4 March 2010.
35.^ Kohl, Benjamin (2003). "Restructuring Citizenship in Bolivia: El Plan de
Todos" (PDF). International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27 (2): 337.
doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00451.
36.^ "Ethnicity and Politics in Bolivia" (PDF). Ethnopolitics 4(3):269297.
September 2005. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
37.^ Lucero, Jos Antonio (2009). "Decades Lost and Won: The Articulations of
Indigenous Movements and Multicultural Neoliberalism in the Andes". In John
Burdick; Philip Oxhorn; Kenneth M. Roberts. Beyond neoliberalism in Latin
America?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61179-5.
38.^ "Push for new Bolivia constitution". BBC News. 6 August 2006. Retrieved
30 August 2010.

39.^ "Country Comparison :: Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence

Agency. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
40.^ "Lake Titicaca". UNESCO. 17 June 2005. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
41.^ "Payments for Watershed Services A Drive of Climate Compatible
Development". Climate & Development Knowledge Network. 30 December
2013. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
42.^ "Fortalecimiento de las Capacidades locales para enfrentar El Fenmeno
del Nio en Per y Bolivia" (PDF). itdg.org.pe. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 8 March 2005. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
43.^ "Deja 56 muertos "El Nio" en Bolivia". elfinanciero.com.mx. Archived
from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
44.^ "LIKE MINDED MEGADIVERSE COUNTRIES" (PDF). Retrieved 6 January
2014.
45.^ "Bolivia es el Sexto Pas con la Mayor Cantidad de Especies de Aves en el
Mundo" [Bolivia is the Sixth Country with the Highest Number of Bird Species in
the World] (in Spanish). Bolivia.com. 10 June 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
46.^ Solon, Olivia (11 April 2011). "Bolivia Grants Nature Same Rights as
Humans". Wired. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
47.^ a b "Political Constitution of the State, First Part, Title I, Chapter One:
Model of State" (PDF). Nueva Constitucin Poltica del Estado. p. 4. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2013. "I. Sucre is the
Capital of Bolivia.""
48.^ "Posesionan a cuatro Vocales del Tribunal Supremo Electoral". La Jornada.
16 August 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
49.^ a b "Sucre.", Sociedad Geogrfica (1903). Diccionario geogrfico del
Departamento de Chuquisaca: contiene datos geogrficos, histricos y
estadisticos. Impr. "Bolvar" de M. Pizarro. pp. 29697.
50.^ "Bolivia". Oas.org. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
51.^ "Satellite view in Wikimapia of Bolivia Mar, near the Peruvian town of Ilo".
Retrieved 25 October 2014.
52.^ "Bolivia Military Profile 2006". Index Mundi. 2006.
53.^ Carroll, Rory (28 August 2008). "Bolivia's landlocked sailors pine for the
high seas". The Guardian (London). Retrieved 26 April 2010.
54.^ Political Constitution of Bolivia, Article 271
55.^ "Country Rankings". 2013 Index of Economic Freedom. Heritage.org.
Retrieved 30 August 2010.

56.^ Mark Weisbrot, Rebecca Ray and Jake Johnston (December 2009).
"Bolivia: The Economy During the Morales Administration". CEPR Center for
Economic and Policy Research.
57.^ Crabtree, J.; Buffy, G.; Pearce, J. (1988). "The Great Tin Crash: Bolivia and
the World Tin Market". Bulletin of Latin American Research (Bulletin of Latin
American Research, Vol. 7, No. 1) 7 (1): 174175. doi:10.2307/3338459. JSTOR
3338459.
58.^ "Economy of Bolivia". US State Government. 23 October 2012. Retrieved
14 July 2013.
59.^ Hattam, Jennifer (September 2001). "Who Owns Water?". Sierra 86 (5).
Retrieved 14 July 2013.
60.^ "Leasing the Rain". PBS Frontline/World. June 2002. Retrieved 14 July
2013.
61.^ "Anti-Morales protests hit Bolivia". BBC News. 10 September 2008.
Retrieved 30 August 2010.
62.^ "Bolivia's lithium mining dilemma". BBC News. 10 September 2008.
Retrieved 26 April 2010.
63.^ "Amaszonas". Amaszonas. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
64.^ BCB (19 January 2015). "Bolivia: Reservas Internacionales del BCB al 15
de Enero del 2015" (PDF).
65.^ "Principales resultados del censo nacional de poblacin y vivienda 2012
(CNPV 2012) Estado plurinacional de Bolivia" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de
Estadstica (INE). July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
66.^ "Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier". New York Times.
21 December 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
67.^ Fogel, Robert William; Engerman, Stanley L. (1995). Time on the Cross:
The Economics of American Negro Slavery. W W Norton & Company
Incorporated. pp. 3334. ISBN 978-0-393-31218-8.
68.^ Article 5, Paragraph I of the Bolivian Political Constitution.
69.^ [1][dead link]
70.^ "Bolivia religion". USA: Department of State. 14 September 2007.
Retrieved 30 August 2010.
71.^ "Ateos en nmeros". InterGlobal. Retrieved 2009.
72.^ "Pachamama y los Dioses Incaicos". Catamarcaguia.com.ar. Retrieved 14
July 2013.
73.^ "El Tata Santiago, un santo en Guaqui con vena de general". Bolivia.com.
Retrieved 2009.

74.^ a b c "Country Comparison :: Life Expectancy at Birth". The World

Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
75.^ National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia 2012, p. 16
76.^ "Bolivia: Hogares por Tipo y Tenencia de la Vivienda, Segn rea
Geogrfica, 2000 2009" [Bolivia: Households by Type and Tenure, According
to Geographic Area, 2000 2009]. National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia.
Retrieved 28 January 2014.
77.^ [2] United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs
78.^ a b c "Background Note: Bolivia". United States Department of State.
Retrieved 17 October 2006.
79.^ Alethia, Caroline. Plant Teacher. Viator. United States. (2011) ISBN
1468138391. ASIN B006QAECNO.
80.^ "Bolivia Declares Literacy Success". BBC News. 21 December 2008.
Retrieved 12 February 2014.
81.^ "Amnesty International Report 2007 Bolivia". Amnesty International. 23
May 2007. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
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Bibliography[edit]
Constitute Assembly of Bolivia (2007). "Nueva Constitucion Politica del
Estatdo" [New State Constitution] (PDF) (in Spanish). Government of Bolivia.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2014.
Fagan, Brian (2001). The Seventy Great Mysteries of the Ancient World:
Unlocking the Secrets of Past Civilizations. Thames & Hudson. ISBN
9780500510506.
Kolata, Alan (1993). The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Wiley.
ISBN 9781557861832.
Kolata, Alan (1996). Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the
Aymara. Wiley. ISBN 9780471575078.

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