1

JoelFagerberg
09December2014
AdvancedResearchSeminarinSocialScience
KarenGoverandMirkaPrazak

ApplyingFoucaulttoUnmannedAerialVehicles:AnAnalysisoftheUnitedStatesDrone
ProgramAbroad

I.

Introduction
ThousandsofmilesliebetweenDroneoperatorsintheUnitedStatesandthosetheyaim

tostrikeabroad.TheformerarecushionedbytheinfrastructureoftheUnitedStates
militaryindustrialcomplex.Theyarestationedatoperationsdesksinsleek,highsecurity
buildingsscatteredmostlythroughouttheSouthWestofAmerica,watchinglivefeedsfrom
UAVsflyingoverregionsofinteresthalfwayaroundtheworld.Noarmorisnecessaryforthese
soldiers,buttheywagewarnonetheless.Multiplescreensdisplayfullmotion,highdefinition
videoalongsidepertinentweatherreports,providingastaggeringarrayofvisualinformationto
coffeesippingobservers.WiththecapacityofUAVcamerasincreasingthankstotheARGUS
system(officiallyunveiledin2013),anyscreenintheoperatingroommayberesponsiblefor65
windowsoflivevideofromjustasingleDrone(PaulSzoldraDroneSpyingCapabilitiesare
AbouttoTakeaHugeLeap2013).Detailed,scalableimagesfrommultipleanglesarenow
availabletoeveryoperatorintheroomastheysurveilterritoriesandpopulationsbeyondU.S.
borders.AnarsenalofHellfiremissilesarealsoattheircommand,withmostDronesproviding
notjustsurveillance,butalsostriking,capabilities.

OntheothersideoftheARGUSsystems1.8gigapixelcameramaybeanyonewithinthe
scopeoftheUnitedStatesfleetofUnmannedAerialVehicles.TakingMamanaBibiofthe
GhundiKalaVillageinNorthWaziristan,Pakistanasamemorableexample,targetsmayeven
beinnocentcivilianspickingokrawiththeirgrandchildren(AmnestyInternationalWillIBe
Next?7).UsedtoseeingDronesoverhead,Mamanaandhergrandchildrenweregoingabout
theirdailyroutinewhenMamanawashitbytwoHellfiremissilesinthemiddleoftheafternoon
onOctober24,2012.(ibid18).Justminuteslater,asecondroundofmissileswerefired,landing
onlyninefeetawayfromthefirststrike.NinemembersoftheBibifamily,whohadjustarrived
onthesceneuponhearingtheinitialblast,wereinjuredaswell(ibid20).Thefamilyhomewas
alsodestroyed.Inlightofallofthisdestructionandsuffering,noofficialexplanationhasbeen
providedfortheinitialstrikeonMamanaBibi(ibid).Pakistaniofficialshavesuggestedthiswas
acaseofmistakenidentity,andtheU.S.hasnotacknowledgedtheincident.
ThestoryofMamanaBibi,matriarchtoafamilyoflocaleducators,isjustoneofmany
tragicexamplesofciviliansufferingunderthereignofDronewarfareabroad.InthecaseofBibi
andmanyothersoutlinedinreportssuchasAmnestyInternationals
WillIBeNext?US
DroneStrikesinPakistan
,thestrikesthatclaimedtheseinnocentliveswerebroughttofruition
throughtheeffortsofadispersednetworkofoperatorsandadvisors.TheHellfiremissilethat
endedBibislifewastriggeredthroughthecombineddecisionmakingcapacitiesofanumberof
UnitedStatesmilitaryandintelligencepersons.InthemainOperationsRoomofCreechAir
ForceBaseforexample,asingleoperatorisentangledwithhiscoworkersinrealtime
monitoringofanynumberoftheavailablevisualfeeds.Theoperator,inthecaseofpursuinga
strike,willalsobeindialoguewithmilitaryadvisorsandlawyersscatteredthroughoutthe

UnitedStates.AmidstallofthesehumanactorsistheDroneitself:thecentralpieceof
technologythroughwhichsurveillanceandstrikingarebothrealized.
InmanycontemporarycasesofbothsupportforandcritiqueoftheUnitedStatesDrone
programabroad,manyscholarsarerushingtoarticulateandcontroltheethicalimplicationsof
thistechnology.CallsforinternationalformsofregulationandspiriteddefensesoftheCIAs
targetedkillingprogramalikedisplayafascinationwiththeethicaldimensionofDrone
technology.Thisfascinationreliesonstabilizingconceptsthatwouldotherwisehavetobe
analyzedpriortoaskingethicalquestions.However,therearevariablesconcerningthe
theoreticalandpracticalaspectsofUAVswhichcannotbecontrolled,nolessmadeethically
reliable
.
Operatorsandtheircommunications,Dronesandtheirfunctioning,targetsandtheir
representations:theseaspectsoftheUAVnetworkarerepeatedlypresentedinthelightof
certaintyunderwhichtherandomnessoftheircharacteristicswhither
.
Whetheritbethrough
DanielL.BymansassumptionthatDronetechnologyislowrisk,orJaiC.Galliotsplanto
regulateUAVuseinamoralfashion,bothsidesoftheDronedebateshowatendencytoassume
thatthevariableswhichmakeupUAVnetworksmaybedefinitivelycharacterizedand
controlledintheserviceofethics(DanielL.BymanWhyDronesWorkandJaiC.GalliotA
ResponsetoStrawser)
.
Inresponsetothisaforementionedtendency,theperspectiveofMichelFoucaultmay
shedlightonsomewaysinwhichtoanalyzeDronetechnologyinamoredynamicfashion
.
Ina
1978interview,Foucaultidentifiedhisperspectiveincomparisontothosewhoseektostabilize
variablesintheiranalyses
.
Hestatedthathisroleasathinkerandwriterwasinstead...toraise
questionsinaneffective,genuineway,andtoraisethemwiththegreatestpossiblerigor,with

themaximumcomplexityanddifficultysothatasolutiondoesntspringfromtheheadofsome
reformistintellectualorsuddenlyappearintheheadofapartyspoliticalbureau(Michel
FoucaultandJamesD.FaubionPower288).FoucaultsviewpointdiffersfromByman,Galliot,
andmanyotherintellectualsinthatitdisplaysadesiretopointouttheinstabilityofasystem
whilerefrainingfromproposingsolutions
.
Oneindividualwhomaybesaidtochallengethe
stabilityofconceptsinaFoucauldianfashionisAnnStoler,whoseworkincolonialstudies
(thoughnotdirectlyrelatedtoDrones)outlinesadesiretoagitatetheassumptionswhichunderlie
seeminglygivenconceptsinherfield.InherlectureatBenningtonCollegethisfall,Stolerspoke
ofFoucaultsethicsofdiscomfort,articulatinghercommitmenttochallengingthevirtually
selfevidentconceptswetakeasreadymadewhenstudyingissuesofcolonialpower(Ann
StolerImperialDuress:ConceptWorkForOurTimes2014).Thiscommitment,asshemade
clearinherlectures,helpstorevealboththefamiliarandobscureconsiderationswhich
contributetothedefinitionandutilityofanygivenconcept.
ApplyingthistypeofconceptworktothedebatesurroundingU.S.Dronesabroad,
StolersFoucauldianperspectivemayallowtheUAVnetworkitselftobeaddressedasthe
unstableapparatusthatitis,highlightingthenumerousvariableswhichcometodefineand
mobilizeitselements.Onecouldseethattheinteractionoftheseelementsresultsina
multiplicityofoutcomes,thusdisplayingtheminthetensionoftheirmaximumcomplexity.
BorrowingfromStolersFoucauldianwork,onemaysaythatTheanalyticchallengeistowork
productively,ifuneasily,withandacrossthistension(AnnStolerImperialDebris195).This
approach,thoughnotconsideredbroadlyenough,isnotableintheworkofsomecontemporary
scholars.WriterssuchasIanShaw,DerekGregory,AllisonJ.Williams,TorinMonahan,and

TylerWallarebringingvariouslevelsofinstabilitybackintotheanalyticscenario,challenging
theassumptionswhichunderliemuchoftheDronedebate.Byturningawayfromanimmediate
desiretopinpointanethicalfunctioningforUAVtechnology,thesescholarsshowaFoucauldian
(especiallyinShawscase)awarenessofthetensionwhichunderliesconceptformation.Instead
ofsimplifyinginserviceofsolutions,theyarepointingouthowUAVnetworksthemselvesare
toocomplextodefinitivelycontrol,asaretheethicalimplicationsoftheiruse.
Therefore,thetaskathandforthoseapproachingtheU.S.Droneprogramabroadisto
remainonguardagainstconceptualassumptionsregardingallfacetsoftheUAVsystemandits
functioning.Toremainonguardagainsttheseassumptionsistoremainattentivetothepowerful,
politicalcapacitiesofDronetechnology.Thetypesofintelligenceandmilitarymissionswhich
aremadepossiblebyDronesultimatelyrestuponthefunctioningofadynamic,interwoven
networkofinformationanddecisionmaking.Fromthisnetworkarisesformsofknowledgeand
governingthatmustbeinterrogatedwiththetheaforementionedinstabilityinmind.Therefore,
insteadofseekingtodefendorimprovethefunctioningofDronetechnologyinstabilizedterms,
theoppositeisnecessary:oneshouldseetheelementsofaUAVnetworkasdestabilized,and
thuscontinuallyquestiontheformsofknowledgeandgovernancewhichtheyaremaking
possible.

II.

UnmannedAerialVehicles:AGenealogy
UAVshavesecuredanintegralroleintheUnitedStatesgovernmentalpractice.The

developmentofthisrole,andthevariouscharacterizationsofthatrolewhichpopulatepublic
discourse,areemergingassitesforpowerfulknowledgeclaimsastotherelationshipofUAVs

withourpast,present,andfuture.WhatthismeansisthatthestoryofUAVswheretheycome
fromandwheretheyareleadingusisbeingbuiltandbattledover.Onemustthusquestionthe
presentandpasttogetherinordertoadequatelyinterrogateDronesasanemergentcornerstoneof
theUnitedStatesforeignpolicy.AsPresidentObamamovestomakeDronesthefaceofour
bootlessresponsetoISISandothercontemporarythreats,thisthesismovestointerrogatethis
formofwarfare,beginningwithitshistoricaldevelopment(FirminDeBranderDronesandthe
DemocracyDisconnect2014).
AlthoughtheyhavenotalwaysbeensuchacontroversialcornerstoneofU.S.military
action,thestoryofDronesdoesnotstartwiththelastdecade,oreventwo,thoughitmayseem
thatwaygiventheirsuddenemergenceincontemporarymedia.Instead,itstretchesbacktoeven
the19thcentury,andarguablyevenfurther.Thereisnooriginfromwhichthecurrentuseof
UAVsbytheUnitedStateshassprung,butinstead,variouseventswhichhavecontributedto
theiremergentuses.ThisclaimpointstoamajorconceptinMichelFoucaultswork,onewhich
willhelpmakeclearerthehistoricalorientationuponwhichthisthesisisbased:genealogy.
FoucaultwritesinhisessayNietzsche,Genealogy,HistorythatAgenealogy...willnever
neglectasinaccessiblethevicissitudesofhistory.Onthecontrary,itwillcultivatethedetailsand
accidentsthataccompanyeverybeginning(MichelFoucaultNietzsche,Genealogy,History80).
Foucaultisnotfocusedondefiningabeginningcause.Heisinsteadlookingatwhichhistorical
concernssurroundvarious,potentialbeginnings.Therefore,genealogydoesnotconfuseitself
withasearchfororigins:itconcernsitselfwithdevelopmentswithinthehistoricalbodyasa
fluctuatingabundanceofevents(ibid).

ThoughathoroughgenealogyofDronesisbeyondthescopeofthisessay,thespiritof
genealogyrunsthroughit.ThespiritofgenealogyissummedupnicelybyRabinowandRose
whentheywrite:
IfNietzschesgenealogyofmoralswasanattackonChristendomandEuropean
complacency,Foucaultsgenealogieshaveadifferentpointofattackandusedifferent
techniques.Butwhattheyshareistheconcerntodisturbandtroubleourown
conventionswhetheroftruth,ofpolitics,orofethicsthroughagrayandmeticulous
laborofdetailonthepathsthatwetookandthepathsthatwerenottakeninputting
togethertheobjects,subjects,andvaluesthatseemsonaturalandprecioustous(Paul
RabinowandNikolasRoseFoucaultToday9).

ThisistheattitudewithwhichthisthesiswillapproachDronetechnologyinthepresent.
Throughalaborofdetailsregardingthepastwhichspeaktothenumberofintersectingpaths,
onemaycometoseethatemergentusesofDroneshavemanytangledprecedents.Thisaim
resonateswithFoucaultsgoalin
Discipline&Punish
:tobenotsimplyinterestedinthepast,but
tobeinterestedin...writingthehistoryofthepresent(MichelFoucault
Discipline&Punish
31).ThehistoryofDronetechnologythusmustbeahistoryofitspresentuse.Thiswillhelp
ensurethatoneseestheemergentusesofUAVsasbasedonanunstablecollectionofprecedents,
keepingwiththelargerFoucauldianperspectivethatdrivesthisthesis.
ThetendencytocharacterizemoderndayDronessuchastheReaperorthePredatoras
unprecedentedtechnologiesisunderstandable,thoughmistaken,giventheadvancementswith
whichtheyareverymuchintertwined.However,toviewcontemporaryUAVsasunprecedented
technologiesistoforgetthatonemustquestionthepresentandpasttogether.Shawechoesthis
sentimentwhenhewrites
TheadventofthePredatordronedoesnotsignalaclearlyidentifiable
breakwiththepast,despitethisbeingatemptingnarrative(IanShawTheDronificationof

StateViolence2014).TheDroneisanemergenttechnology,butitisnotindebtedsolelytoour
currenttechnologicalandsocialconditions
.
TheprecedentwassetfortheUAVmodelsoftodayasearlyas1896.AsKennethHough
notes:OnMay6th,1896,SamuelPierpontLangley,secretaryoftheSmithsonianandanearly
pursuerof
heavierthanairflight
,launchedasteampowereddronedubbedthe
AerodromeNo.5
(Latinforairrunner)overthePotomacnearWashington,D.C.(KennethHough2013).It
tookflighttwicebutfornolongerthan90secondsperflight(ibid).Nonetheless,someofthe
discoursearoundthiseventresonateswiththeexcitementandhorrorexpressedovertodays
UAVs.Houghrecountshow...the
DailyHerald
ofDelphos,Ohiospeculatedthedrone
combinedwithadynamitethrowerasconceivablythemostpowerfulengineofwarknownto
civilizedman.(ibid).The
BostonGlobe
followeduponthis:surmisinghostile
Aerodromes
mightevenmakewarsoterrible,thatthenationaltroublesofthefuturewillbesettledby
arbitration.LittlefollowedinthewayofsignificantdevelopmentsforUAVsinthenextdecade,
butthisimaginativecapacityforunmannedwarcraftwouldbesparkedonceagainasthe
twentiethcenturysoonbroughtforthnewinternationalmilitarychallenges.
WithWorldWarIunderway,UAVswouldenterbackontotheaviationscenewith
ElmerSperrysAerialTorpedo.Thismodelutilizedagyroscopestabilizingmechanisminvented
bySperrythatwassuccessfullytestedin1914(JohnD.BlomUnmannedAerialSystems45).
SperrywascontractedbytheNavysoonthereafterin1917throughSecretaryoftheNavy
JosephusDanielsNavalConsultingBoard,agroupofprivatescientistsandengineersheadedby
ThomasEdison(Hough2013).Sperryssixmodelswerenotsuccessfulenoughfordeployment
andtheNavyterminatedtheprogramin1922(Blom45).AlongsideSperrysmodelwasthe

KetteringBug,amodeldesignedbyCharlesKetteringin1918ofwhichthearmyordered100
models.However,difficultieswiththelandingmechanismpreventeditsdeploymentinbattle
(ibid).Despitetherelativelylowachievementsofthesetwomodels,theyareimportantmarkers
inthehistoryofDrones.TheSperrymodelwasthefirstsuccessfullyflownUAVbuiltwith
militaryapplicationspecificallyinmind,andtheKetteringBugwouldbethefirstmassproduced
Drone(Hough2013).
Predictably,theonsetofWorldWarIIwouldbringwithitthenextwaveofUAV
innovationafterthestagnant1930s.TheGermanV1andV2systems,thoughonlysuccessfula
quarterofthetime,werecostlyandconfusingfortheAlliestodefendagainst(Blom48).Their
usemadesuchanimpressionontheAlliedforcesthat,asBlomnotesIn1944,engineersinthe
USbuiltanAmericanrocketbasedonpiecesofV1s(ibid.)AlthoughtheJB2,asitwascalled,
didnotseeactioninWorldWarTwo,therewasnodenyingthatUAVshadofficiallystakedtheir
claiminthemilitaryworldfromthispointforward(ibid).Theviabilityofthetechnologyas
provenbytheGermansmadeUAVtechnologydifficultfortherestoftheworldtoignore.
TheColdWar,andparticularlythebloodshedinVietnam,wouldbarewitnesstothe
growingimportanceofDronesintheUnitedStatesmilitarymindsetaswellasamarked
increaseintheircapabilities.AsIanShawnotes:
Oneofthefirstjetpropelleddroneswasthe1955RyanFirebee,atargetdronethatwas
laterdevelopedintotheRyanFireflyandLightningBug,whichwasusedfor
intelligencegatheringmissionsoverVietnam,China,andNorthKoreainthe1960sandearly
1970s(IanShawTheHistoricalRiseofthePredatorDrone2012).

WithUAVsfindingtheirplaceintheColdWareraregimeofsurveillance,Israelwasbusy
settinginmotionthenextwaveofDronetechnologyinthecontextoftheirownoperations.A

10

PBSTimelineofUAVsmentionsthat,fromthelate1970sandthroughthe1980s,theIsraeliAir
Force...pioneeredseveralimportantnewUAVs,versionsofwhichwereintegratedintothe
UAVfleetsofmanyothercountries,includingtheU.S.(PBS2002).Twomodelsinparticular,
theScoutandthePioneer,leftasignificantmarkontheUnitedStatesapproachtoUAVs.The
Scout,withitssmallsize,fiberglassframe,andconsequentlylowradarsignature,wasextremely
difficulttoshootdownwhilealsoboastingcapabilitiesfortransmittingrealtime,360degree
surveillanceinformation(ibid).FollowingthedevelopmentoftheScoutin1978wasthePioneer,
aDronesosuccessfulthattheU.S.acquiredover20ofthem,makingthatbatchthefirstsmall,
inexpensiveUAVsinthemodernAmericanmilitaryforces(ibid).Theselightweight,
highlycapablesurveillanceUAVswouldbethenormintothe1990s,withothermodelslikethe
IsraeliFirebirdin1996andtheAmericanPathfinderin1997continuingtopushthetechnology
tonewheights(ibid).
ThetransitionfromsurveillancetooffensivetacticsregardingDronesbeganinearnest
withthePredatormodel
.
Followingalongstringofdevelopmentsbeginningwithaprototype
modeldesignedin1981byanIsraeliengineernamedAbrahamKarem,thePredatoristhefinal
manifestationofoveradecadesworthofremodeling.StartingwiththeAlbatrossin1981andits
uniqueabilitytohoverlongerthanotherDrones,andcontinuingonthroughtheincreasedvisual
resourcesoftheAmberandtheGNAT,thePredator
wasfirsttestedin1995when[they]were
deployedtotheBalkansunderOperationNomadVigilandOperationDeliberateForce(Ian
ShawTheDronificationofStateViolence2014).ThePredatorwouldremaintheUnitedStates
mainUAVforsurveillancethroughouttheClintonAdministration,withintelligenceoperators
benefitingfromitswidecommunicationrange(ibid)
.

11

TheaforementionedtrendtowardsoffensiveDronecapabilitiescontinuedduringthe
BushadministrationwiththearmingofPredatorDronesfollowingtheeventsof9/11
(ibid)
.
By
October7th,armedPredatorswereflyingoverAfghanistan,withthefirststriketakingplace
shortlythereafterinFebruaryof2002(ibid)
.
Fromthispointforward,armedDronesbecamean
essentialpartoftheUnitedStatesmilitaryapproach
.
BySeptember2008theUnitedStatesAir
Forcehadamassed110PredatorDrones,withsimilarmodelssuchastheReaperadding
additionalunmannedairpowertothefleet(Blom108).Today,theU.S.AirForceistraining
morepilotsforUAVsthantraditionallypilotedaircrafts(MarkBowdenHowthePredatorDrone
ChangedtheCharacterofWar2013)
.
SincetheBushpresidency,PresidentObamahasembraced
Dronesaspartofthebackboneofhisactionsabroad.AsPeterBergennotes:...underBushthere
were48CIAdronestrikesinPakistan.UnderObamatherehavebeen328...underBushthere
wasonlyoneCIAdronestrikeinYemen.UnderObamatherehavebeen99(BergenAmericas
WartimePresident2014).
ThepresentuseofUAVsbytheUnitedStatesshowsnosignofslowingdown.Evenas
rumorsarrivedjustoverayearagosuggestingthattheCIAscovertDroneprograminPakistan
waswindingdown,thesereportswereprovenwrongbythesummer(PeterBergenandJennifer
RowlandDidObamaKeepHisDronePromises?2013).DespiteevenPakistaniofficialsboasting
thattheyhadconvincedObamatoceasetheUAVstrikes,byJuneof2014,theDroneviolence
wouldrecommence(FarooqYousafDrones,PakistansWorstKeptSecret2014).Atotalof
sixteenstrikeshavebeencarriedoutbyUAVsinthewartornterritoryofNorthWaziristansince
then(ibid).

12

WithISISgarneringsignificantamountsofUnitedStatesmilitaryattention,itappears
thatDroneswillcontinuetostayattheforefrontofObamaspoliciesabroad.Justthispast
OctoberitwasannouncedthatTurkeywillbeallowingaU.S.frontedcoalitiontoflyDrones
fromfromtheirIncirlikairbase(WorldbulletinNewsTurkeyOkaysU.S.DroneStrikesAgainst
ISIL2014).DiscussionsbetweenTurkeyandtheUnitedStatesinlieuoftheISISthreathave
centeredheavilyaroundthequestionofwhichtypeofaircraftwillbeallowedtoflyoutof
Turkeyandforwhatpurposes.Withsurveillanceoperationsalreadyunderwaywithhelpfrom
theTurkishgovernment,thedialogueappearstobeturningitsfocustothetopicofarmed
aircraft.TurkeyisonlywillingtoletUAVscarryoutthesemissionsfornow,withmanned
aircraftremainingoutofthequestion(ibid).Onceagain,itsclearthatDronesandtheir
distinctionfrommannedaerialvehiclesaresettoplayanintegralroleinyetanotherUnited
Statesmilitaryoperation.

III.

DroneTechnologyToday:TheUnstableApparatus
ThetargetedkillingscarriedoutbyUnmannedAerialVehiclesagainstpopulations

abroadtodayonbehalfoftheUnitedStatesencompassadynamicfieldofactors.TheDrone
itself,theUAVnetworkoperators,andtheirtargets,areallapartofthesceneoftheexecution.
ConsideringthevastscopeoftheUAVNetwork,Foucaultsnotionoftheapparatusmaybe
useful.FoucaultspokeinanumberofhislecturesattheCollegedeFranceof...graspingthe
movementbywhichafieldoftruthwithobjectsofknowledgewasconstitutedthrough...mobile
technologies(MichelFoucaultSecurity,Territory,andPopulation163).Hisworkin
Discipline
&Punish
hadalreadyestablishedthisprecedence,ashefollowedthehistoryoflawnotjust

13

accordingtotextsonlegaltheory,butaccordingtoahistoryofthewaysinwhichsocieties
relatedtocrimethroughmaterialandlinguisticrituals.Inshort,heexpandedhisfieldofinquiry
toincludemorethanjusttheprescribed,narrative,andtheoreticalexplanationsthisiswherethe
notionoftheapparatustakesrootparticularlyinregardstothisthesis.
Thetermapparatusreferstoacollectionoftexts,practices,descriptions,categories
beliefs,materialresources:itslimitsareindefinite.AsJosephRousewrites:Foucaultwouldgo
ontoemphasizetheheterogeneityofthealignments(dispositifs)thatdisposepower.They
includenotjustagentsbutalsotheinstrumentsofpower(buildings,documents,tools,etc.)and
thepracticesandritualsthroughwhichitisdeployed(JosephRousePower/Knowledge106).
HerelatesthisbacktoFoucaultsquotefromhislectures,statingthatKnowledgeisestablished
notonlyinrelationtoafieldofstatementsbutalsoofobjects,instruments,practices,research
programs,skills,socialnetworks,andinstitutions(ibid110).ThusweseethatFoucaults
analysesconcernnotjustdiscourses,representations,ormaterialprocesses,butrather,collective
networksofpeople,ideas,andmaterials.
AsRousepointsout,analyzinganapparatususuallyentailsanalyzingtheinstrumentsof
powerthemselves,thetoolsifyouwill.TheDroneitselfisatoolwhichconnectstheoperators
totheirtargetsthroughaspecifictechnologicalmodality.PatrickLichtyexplainsthispointinhis
analysisofDronetechnology,writingthat:
...theoperatornodeviewsthesightedobjectthroughaframingofthedronecamera,part
ofwhichiscontrolledbypatternacquisitionalgorithms.Whatresultsisanaugmented
cyborgsightinwhichthemiseensceneisgiventheillusionofbeingsharpenedbythe
technologicalregimeofthedronestechnologicalsystems.Itisalineofflightthattravels
alongofthreenodesinanetworkofgazetheoperationssite,theprogrammaticframingnode
ofthedroneobjectwhichthenredirectsthegazetotheobjective,transformingitfroma
house,person,orlovedonetoatargetorobjective(PatrickLichtyDrone,Camera,Weapon,
Toy2013).

14

TheDroneisanintegralpoint,ornodetouseLichtyslanguage,withintheUAVnetwork.
However,itisthespecificitywithwhichLichtymakesthispointespeciallyilluminating.The
Dronespatternacquisitionalgorithmsactivelytakepartinthesceneofexecutionbyhelpingto
constructthatscene.Fromthelevelofmundaneyetadvancedtechnologicalfunctioningarisesa
simulatedsharedspacefortheoperatorsandthetarget.AstheDronefliesoveritstarget,it
activelyconstructsanewvisualrepresentationofthescenariobelowforitsdistantoperators.In
doingso,itrendersarepresentationofthetargetanditscontextwhichappearssharpenedinits
accuracybyvirtueofthetechnologicalachievementinvolved.Thishappensdespitetheoften
tragicmistakeswhichstilloccurwithinthistechnoaestheticillusionofcertainty.
TheDroneofchoiceforU.S.militaryoperationsinthe21stcenturyhasbeenthe
Predator,a1,130poundUnmannedAerialVehiclewithawingspanof55feetandalengthof27
feet(IanShawandMajedAkhterTheUnbearableHumannessofDroneWarinFATA,Pakistan
1492).Itisemployedmainlyforarmedreconnaissancemissions,...carryingtwo,laserguided
AGM114Hellremissiles(ibid).SimilartothePredatorisanotherGeneralAtomicsproduct,
theReaper.ThisUAVwasdesignedtoimprovethePredatorspayloadsize,altitudeceiling,and
topairspeed(TimothyCullenTheMQ9ReaperRemotelyPilotedAircraft41).Ithas...four
airtogroundmissiles,two500poundbombs,andRaytheonsimprovedMTSBsensorball
(ibid).Ingeneral,itisastepupfromthePredatorineverycategory,withalengthof36feet,a
wingspanof64feet,andaweightofroughly500pounds(ibid).Theirnamesmarkthemas
examplesofadistinctlydestructiveanddomineeringtechnology.AsoneU.S.AirForceGeneral
noted,theReapermoniker...capturesthelethalnatureofthisnewweaponsystem(TylerWall
andTorinMonahanSurveillanceandViolencefromAfar242).

15

AssignificantasDronesthemselvesareasthematerialanchorforfacilitatingashared
virtualspacebetweenoperatorsandtargets,onemustlookalsoatthewaysinwhichDronesare
butonenodeinthenetwork.TheUAVnetwork,asanapparatus,reliesonthedailypresenceofa
humanelementaswelltoguideoperations.AlisonJ.Williamsusesthetermassemblagewhen
discussingUAVnetworks,asimilartermtoapparatus,writingthatWecanonlyuncoverthe
complexitiesofthissituationbyconsideringthemilitaryaircraftasanassemblagethatblends
humanandmachineelementstoproduceonecombatentity(AlisonJ.WilliamsEnabling
PersistentPresence384).Williamsdevelopsthisconceptfurther,alludingtothegradationsof
humanmachinecharacteristicswhichmakeuptheseassemblages,orapparatuses.Shewrites
thatthesesystemsare...bothhumanandmachine,butalsoneitheronlyhumanormachine
(ibid).Whatshemeansisthatthecombinationofhumanandmachinecreatesanewcombat
entitywhichcannotbesaidtobewhollyhuman,norwhollymachine,yetdisplayselementsof
both.
Thecomplexityofthisapparatusisevidentwhenonelooksattheexpansivenetworkof
operatorswhichcontributestoUAVsystems.InthecaseoftheUnitedStatesAirForce,
operatorsare...embeddedinanextendednetworkthatincludesnotonlytroopsandJoint
TerminalAttackControllers...butalsoseniorcommanders,missioncommanders,andmilitary
lawyers...anddataanalystsandimagetechnicians(DerekGregoryFromaViewtoKill194).
Theexpansivenessofthisnetworkistrulystaggering,asGregorynotes:
"Currently185personnelarerequiredtosupportonePredatororReaperCombatAir
Patrol:59areforwarddeployedinAfghanistanforLaunchandRecover,43arebasedat
Creech[AirForceBaseinNevada]and83areinvolvedinprocessing,exploitationand
disseminationWhenthestaffaghthe[CombinedAirOperationsCenter]areaddedto
thelist,aremarkablenumberofpeopleareabletobeindirectorindirectcontactby
voice,video,orinternetrelaychat"(ibid195).

16

TheUAVnetworkiscomprisedofmanyindividualscontributingthroughtheirtechnological
connectionstothesceneofexecution.Therefore,thequestionof"who"isinvolvedinthestrike
takesonevenmorefragmentedconnotations:theDroneitselfisnotonlyentangledwithahuman
element,butahumanelementthatisdispersedandmultifarious.
Thefragmentarynatureofthesesystemsismademoreevidentwhenoneconsidersthe
implicationsthatarisefromthisaforementioneddispersion.Cullenswordsareinterestingto
considerinconjunctionwithGregorysanalysis:Thecredibilitythecrewhadwithground
commanders,withtheterminalcontrollersthatsupportedthem,andwiththerestoftheUSAF,
relateddirectlytothetimelinessofcrewssupport,thequalityoftheirvideo,andtheaccuracyof
theirweapons(Cullen118).UAVnetworksarecomprisedofmanyindividualsworking
togethertocompriseatotalimageoftheirtarget,itscontext,anditsdestruction.Thismeansthat
therearenotonlyspatialcomplications,butalsoplainlyinterpersonalandtechnicalonesaswell,
addingmorevariablestoDronewarfare.
Inordertoenterthisunique,virtualspaceoftheDronetechnology,aclearerimpression
ofatypicalUAVnetworkisnecessary.TimothyCullensreportontheMQ9Reaperprovides
somekeyinsightsintothewaysinwhichthesenetworksfunction(althoughhefocuseshis
studiesonatrainingcenteratHollomanAirForceBaseinNewMexico).Hedescribesa
discontinuoussystemofvideofeedsandmanualcontrols,whichrequiredoperatorsto
...coordinateanddistributedataamongahodgepodgeofdisplayandinputdevices(ibid).This
hodgepodgeprocessthroughwhichatotalimageoftheUAVnetworkstarget,itscontext,and
itsdestructionarerealizedrendersthetargetasanimageonascreen.Thedronesstare,
embodiedbythegriddisplaysitproducesforitsoperators,bringstolightarespatializedrealm

17

ofwarfareinwhichthetargetanditspositionarereconfiguredusingsensorsandvariablesignal
quality.Gregorydescribestheinvasiveanddisjointedcharacteristicsofthisscenariobylooking
atthetechnicalaspectsofthePredatordrone,theUnitedStatesmostpopularUAV.Henotes
thatThemultispectraltargetingsystemprovidesrealtimefullmotionvideo(FMV)at30
framesperseconditsfieldofviewisrestricted,however,andobserverscomplainthatzooming
inislikelookingthroughasodastraw(Gregory193).Itisfromthisvoyeuristicyetultimately
disjointedperspectivethattargetanditsenvironmentcomestobedisplayedonthescreen.
Withthetargetanditspositionnowassembled,thescreenbecomesthecinematicsetting
ofthebattlefield.ThestrikedoesnothappenintheUnitedStates,norisitonlyexperienced
withinthespacewherethetargetisactuallylocated.Itisexecutedbytheoperatorthrougha
visualdisplaythatstandsinforphysicalspace.Spatialconditionsare,therefore,defined
accordingtothedistancebetweentheoperatorandthescreenitself.Gregorynoteshowthoseat
theCreechAirForceBaseinNevadainsistthat...theyarenotfurtherawayatallbutonly
eighteeninchesfromthebattlefield:thedistancebetweentheeyeandthescreen(ibid197).
Thesenewspatialconditionsreplacethebasicgeographicdistancebetweenoperatorsandtheir
targets.
Withinthesenewspatialconditions,thequalityofthescreendisplaybecomesa
significantpointofconsideration.Gregoryturnshisattentioninthisdirection,lookingatfactors
whichshapethequalityofthescreendisplaysuchassignalnoiseandthelimitationsofcertain
sensors.Indescribinganattackinwhichkilled23civilians,Gregoryshowsjusthowunstable
thesenewspatialconditionsare.HebeginsbynotingthatThenoiseinthenetworkwas
compoundedbecausevideofeedswereofvariablequality,andthePredatorcrewhadtorelyon

18

infraredsensorsinthehalflightuntiltheycouldswitchtoDayTVeventhentheweather
intermittentlymuddiedtheimagestream(ibid201).Inthisunstablesituation,theoperators
were,infact,drawninbytheirclosenesstothescreenbasedbattlefielddespitetheevident
obstaclesencounteredinthesuccessfulconstructionofthatbattlefield.Gregorydetailstheevents
asfollows:
Still,thePredatorcrewdidnothesitatetoidentifytacticalmovementandindividuals
holdingcylindricalobjectsthattheybelieved(infacthoped)wererifles.Whenthesensor
operatorcommentedthatitwasweirdhowtheyallhavecoldspotsontheircheststhepilot
explainedthatitswhattheyvebeendoingherelately,wrappingtheir[expletive]upintheir
mandressessoyoucant[positivelyidentify]it.Intheabsenceofapositiveidentification,
theJTACwarnedthemoftheRulesofEngagement,butthesensoroperatedinsistedthatthe
truckwouldmakeabeautifultarget.(ibid).

Thedesiretoidentifyabeautifultargetiscomplicatedbythelacklusterqualityofthe
informationprovided.ThisrepresentshowDronetechnologyproblematizeswarfareaccordingto
newspatialandvisualconditions:itintroducesnewvariablesthatengagetheoperatorinan
ultimatelydistortedbattlefield.
Establishingasinglelocation,orjustafew,todescribethefunctioningofUAVnetworks
aimedattargetsabroadwouldbeseverelyinadequate.Thecollapseofthebasicgeographic
distance,andasubstitutionforitofabattlefieldeighteeninchesawayfromtheDroneoperators
face,revealsthefundamentallytransformativeaestheticthatUAVtechnologypresents.This
transformationisbroughttofruitionthroughasystemthatisnotcompletelystable.Ultimately,
thismeansthateventhereconstitutedspatialconditionsofthescreenasbattlefieldcannotbe
takensimplyasafixedlocationforinteractionsbetweenUAVnetworksandtheirtargetsabroad.
ThusestablishingadefinitivecriteriaforthebehaviorofDrones,operators,andtheirtargets
wouldalsobeseverelyinadequate.Exactlywherethesetwopointscometointersect,andthe

19

identityofthoseinvolvedinthatintersection,cannotbepinpointed:instead,conditions
reconfigurethemselvesaccordingtotheUAVnetworksfunctioningwithregardstobothits
technologicalandhumancomponents.
Itisfromthisdistortedbattlefieldthatthetargetismadevisibleatalltotheoperators.
Theoperators,andtheintelligencesupporttheyareoffered,thencometogethertodevelopthe
identityofthetargetanditscontextfurther.Thecombinationofareserveofsurveillance
knowledgeandascreengivebirthtothetarget.ThisrelatestotheFoucauldianideaof
subjectivication,atermwhichreferstothewaysinwhichoneisshapedinrealtimeasasubject.
RabinowandRosewritethat:Thehumanbeing,fromthisperspectiveisnotsomuchanentity
notevenanentitywithahistorythanthesiteofamultiplicityofpracticesorlabors(Rabinow
andRose15).Thehumanbeingdoesnotdisplayessentialcharacteristicswhichcanbeeasily
identified.Instead,thehumanbeingscharacteristicsaredeterminedbyeffortstoseekoutand
definethosecharacteristics,suchasthosemadewithinAmericanUAVnetworkstoidentifyand
targetindividualsabroad.
OnemayseetheclaritywithwhichFoucaultapproachedthisconceptinhiswritings
underthepseudonymMauriceFlorence.Atonemomentheinsiststhatoneshould...circumvent
anthropologicaluniversalstothegreatestextentpossible,soastointerrogatethemintheir
historicalconstitution(MauriceFlorenceFoucault,Michel,1926317).Thisiswhythenotion
ofsubjectivicationfoundstrongexpressionin
Discipline&Punish
aswell.Hiscritiqueofthe
modernprisonsystemfocusedsignificantlyonthemethodsofidentitycontrolandidentity
buildingwhichcomplimentedother,materialmeansofpunishment.Ashewrote:...itisthis
wholetechnologyofpoweroverthebodythatthetechnologyofthesoulthatofthe

20

educationalists,psychologistsandpsychiatristsfailseithertoconcealortocompensate,forthe
simplereasonthatitisoneofitstools(Foucault
Discipline&Punish
30).Thesubjectfor
Foucaultiscertainlynotagiven.Itis,instead,anotherunstablefactorintheapparatus.George
CanguilhemmakesthisclearwhenhestatesFoucaultusesthetermanthropologicalsleepfor
thetranquilassurancewithwhichthecontemporarypromotersofthehumansciencestakefor
granted,asapreordainedobjectfortheirprogressivestudies,whatwasinitiallyonlytheproject
ofconstitutingthatobject(GeorgeCanguilhemTheDeathofManorExhaustionoftheCogito?
90).Foucaultrefusestofallintothesameanthropologicalsleep,turninginsteadtoseehow
thesubjectisconstitutedasanobjectofknowledgebydiscursiveandnondiscursivepractices.
OnemustbewaryofslumberingthroughadescriptionoftheDronestargetaswellwhen
approachingUAVtechnology,lestoneendupoverlookingtheexperienceofindividualsand
populationsinareassuchasPakistanandYemen.Thesetargetsarecaughtupdirectlyinthe
mechanismsofUAVnetworks,yettheyareunabletowitnesstheseprocesses:thecharacteristics
ofpeopleastargetsaredeterminedbythelargelyinvisiblefunctioningofDronetechnology.
TheDronesmaybevisibleoverhead,buttheoperatorsandintelligenceofficialsare,ofcourse,
faceless.Asaresultofthisscenario,thoseinUAVpatrolledareashavelittlerecoursetowards
thesesystems.Gregorypoignantlymentionshowthesensoroperatorsandpilotsinthe
abovementionedtragedyimmediatelyrelinquishresponsibilityfortheirmistake,remarkingthat
therewasnowaytheycouldtellfromtheirpositionwhetherornottheirtargetswereciviliansor
not(Gregory202).However,theirheateddeliberationwiththeJTACclearlyrevealsadesireto
identifyabeautifultarget.ThespatialandvisualcharacteristicsofDronetechnology
subjectivizethetargetinavirtualspace.Thisdoesnothappenalwaysasareflectionoftheir

21

actualidentity,butaccordingtoamorecomplicatedprocess.ConsideringtheUAVnetworkas
anapparatusmadeupofbothmechanicalandhumanelements,andconsideringitstargetsas
subjectivizedbyoperatorsinvirtualspace,thecomplexityandinstabilitywhichunderliesthe
U.S.Droneprogramabroadcannotbeoverlooked.Thisisakeypointforunderstandingwhere
theinteractionsbetweenUAVnetworksandtheirtargetstakeplace,andwhomaybesaidto
takepartintheseinteractions.

IV.

CriticismsoftheContemporaryLiterature
InseekingtoidentifytheactorsandoutcomesofUAVnetworkswithcertainty,the

complexitywhichunderliesthefunctioningoftheUnitedStatesDroneprogramisglossedover.
Suchaprogramisnotaprecisemechanismtobeethicallycalibrated:itisamessysystemwitha
morallyambiguousrelationshipbetweenoperatorsandtargetsatitscore.WiththeFoucauldian
conceptsofapparatusandsubjectivicationinview,onemaynowapproachthecontemporary
literaturewithamorecriticaleye.Intheirzealforethicaljustificationsandregulations,
contemporaryscholarsdonotfullyacknowledgethecomplicationsofdispersionwhich
characterizesanygivenUAVnetwork,nordotheyfullyacknowledgehowdifficultitisto
identifythemoralstandingofthenetworksparticipantsonaconsistentbasisinsuchasetting.
OnemayseehowparticipantsinthecurrentdebatessurroundingtheU.S.Droneprogram
abroadfailtoseethedifficultiesinachievingdefinitiveethicalgoalsbylookingattheworkof
bothJaiC.GalliotandBradleyJayStrawser.StrawsersapproachistodefendtheuseofUAVs
asanobligationforthosewhoareengagedinjustwarasameansbywhichtominimizeharmto
theirowntroops.Hewrites:...weshoulddesirethatthejustwarriorbewellprotectedfromany

22

possiblethreatthatthisenemymightprofferprotectionthattheUAVaffords(BradleyJay
StrawserMoralPredators358).Asacounterresponse,Galliotidentifiesanasymmetryinthe
levelofriskthattheuseofUAVscreate,sincetheoperatorslivelihoodisprotectedbyvast
distance.Hethenexpressessupportforasolutiontothisproblemregardingthemoralequalityof
combatants,inordertomoreaccuratelyattendtotheconceptofajustifiedactofwar.Galliot
calls...forthemilitarydominantstatetoselfimposestrongerrequirementsonitsown
application/sorconsiderationofjustwarprinciples[for]thestrongerstatetomeethigher
standardsofepistemiccertainty(JaiC.GalliotAResponsetoStrawser64).Inbothcases,the
focusoftheseanalysesofDronetechnologyareonitsfunctioningwithregardstoanestablished
moralrelationshipbetweencombatants,arelationshipwhichtheybelievetobepossibleinthe
contextofunfoldingDronewarfare.
ThemeansbywhichStrawserandGalliotbothundertakemoralcomparisonof
combatantsandthejustnessofwarimplythatsuchconceptsareessentiallyconsistentandmay
beestablishedwithcertaintydespitetheinstabilitywhichcharacterizesanygivenUAVnetwork.
Strawsersviewsonwarandtherelationshipbetweencombatantsissimplytoobinary.Without
challengingtheconceptofjustwarasawhole,whichisbeyondthescopeofthisessay,an
importantpointstillremains.Strawserisessentiallyassertingthatoperatorsandtargetsare
automaticallysubsumedunderthecategoriesofmoralorimmoralbyvirtueoftheirposition
withinalarger,properlycalibratedschematicofadefinitiveethicalrelationshipbetweenboth
sides.GalliotdoesnotrespondtothisflawinStrawsersargument,butinstead,triestoreorient
thestandardsforwhatitmeanstowageajustwarwithDronesinonesstable.Hestillassumes
thatthemoralityofcombatantscanbemeasured,evencalibrated,whenitcomestoDrone

23

warfareaccordingtorulesthatfunctiononamacrolevel.ThisstabilizestheDroneOperatorand
thetargetsrelationshipinsuchawaywhichdoesnotaccountforthedynamismoftheir
characteristicsandinteractions,asmadeevidentbythenumerousvariablesthataffectthe
formationofthescreenasbattlefieldonamomenttomomentbasis.
SimilarlytoGalliotandStrawser,thedebatebetweenDanielL.Bymanontheonehand,
andMeganBraunandDanielBrunstetterontheother,reliesuponstabilizingtheUAVnetwork
inordertosolidifytheirmoralfunctioning.BymanssupportforUAVsoverlooksthemany
ways,faulty,malicious,unreported,andotherwise,inwhichDronesmaycarryoutmissions
accordingtotechnologicalandhumanimpetusthatisincongruentwiththedatauponwhichhe
focuses.Hestatesthat:...thedatashowthatdronesaremorediscriminantthanothertypesof
force(DanielL.BymanWhyDronesWork2013).ThisassumesthatDronesfunctionina
predictableandproportionalwayalongwiththeiroperators,aclaimwhichisimmediatelycalled
intoquestionbyreportssuchastheaforementionedAmnestyInternationalpublication.Braun
andBrunstetteronlypartiallychallengeBymansbeliefinadefinitivelymoralstateofDrone
warfare,arrivingattheircentralpointthatIfdronescapacityforproportionalityistobefully
actualized,thiswillrequiresynthesizingdisparateproportionalitystandardstoformacoherent
policy(MeganBraunandDanielR.BrunstetterRethinkingtheCriteriaforCIADroneStrikes
320).AlthoughtheypushbackuponBymansconfidenceintheproportionalityofDroneusein
thepresent,BraunandBrunstetterstillaimatstabilizingUAVnetworksthroughaprocessof
calibrationthatisultimatelynaive.Astheywrite:...achievingethicaldroneoperationsrequires
amorecalibratedmoralframework(ibid).Calibratingthismoralframeworkassumesthatone
cancontrolandpurposefullyaffectsuchacomplexandpotentapparatus,madeupofbothman

24

andmachine,astheUAVnetwork.ThusByman,aswellasBraunandBrunstetter,aresimply
notprovidingadynamicenoughaccountoftheinteractionsbetweenoperators,Drones,andtheir
targets.
Followingmoreofthecontemporaryliterature,oneseesthatastrongfocusonthe
potentialforjustwarandethicaluseremainsattheforefrontofmanyanalyses.Intheworkof
RonaldArkin,thereisanotablesenseofoptimismregardingpotentiallyethicaluseofDrone
technology.Hewritesthat...foravarietyofreasons,itmaybeanticipated,despitethecurrent
stateoftheart,thatinthefutureautonomousrobotsmaybeabletoperformbetterthanhumans
(RonaldArkinTheCaseforEthicalAutonomyinUnmannedSystems1).Arkingoesontolista
numberofcharacteristicsthatUAVsdisplaywhichmakethemcandidatesforbetterperformance
inthebattlefieldthanhumans.ThesecharacteristicslargelyconcernthereliabilityofDrone
technologyaswellasaseriesofclaimswhichseemtodetachtheDronefromthemessy,often
difficultworldofhumanmachineinteractions.
TheconfidencewhichliesbehindArkinsviewpointistroubling:itreduceshuman
beingsandDronestoisolatedmodelsofstablecognition.TheDronecanworkthiswayinbattle,
thehumanbeingoftenworksthiswayinbattle,thustheDroneisbetteranditsonlyamatterof
timebeforewefindawaytousethemsothattheycanwagewarforusinanethicalmanner.
OnemaynoteasimilarpointofviewinthewritingofJ

rgenAltmann,ashewrites:Given
politicalwill,thedangersfromarmedUAVscanbecontainedusingestablishedmethodsof
(preventive)armscontrol(J

rgenAltmannArmsControlforArmedUninhabitedVehicles:An
EthicalIssue15).SuchasimplifiedapproachtothefutureofUAVsdoesnotfullyconsiderthe
factthatUAVsandhumanbeingsdonotandcannotoperateasseparate,clearlydefined

25

cognitivesystemswhichcanthenbecalibratedethically.TheyworktogethertocarryoutDrone
strikesaspartofanunstableapparatus.Whetheritisthroughdecisionsoperatorsmustmakein
realtime,throughflawsinthetechnicalfunctioningofthis(ultimately)manmadetechnology,
orthroughtheabstractednotionofpreventivearmscontrol,theunreliablehumanelementwill
neverbetotallyisolatedfromDronewarfare.Thetechnologywillneverachieveastateof
autonomousethicalperfection:suchadreamisadangerousdistractionfromthepresentday
problemsthatDronescurrentlypresenttous.

V.

AFoucauldianResponsetotheContemporaryLiterature:Discipline,Biopower,and
Governmentality
AFoucauldianresponsetoByman,Galliot,Altmann,andotherswhoseektostabilize

and/orcalibratevariableswithintheUAVnetworkmayfinditsfootinginthreemajorconcepts
fromFoucaultsbodyofwork:discipline,biopower,andgovernmentality.Intheseconcepts,
Foucaultseekstopointoutthemethodsandproductsofunstablesystemswithoutproposing
solutionsforimprovingtheirfunctioning.Forexample,inFoucaultsgenealogicalaccountofthe
modernpenalsystem,hedoesnottakethecharacteristicsofcriminalstobefixedconceptsthat
themodernpenalsystemaccuratelydefines.Instead,hespeaksof...theemergenceofa
systematicknowledgeofindividuals,throughconnectedpracticesofsurveillance,confession,
anddocumentation(RousePower/Knowledge97).Thisiswhatdisciplineis:aformofpower
thatworksbydevelopingareserveofknowledgeaboutindividualsthroughdiscursiveandnon
discursivemeans.Itiscarriedoutthroughanapparatus,anditresultsinthesubjectivicationof
individuals.

26

AsFoucaultwrites,thedisciplinefixesbecauseitisableto...characterize,classify,
specialize[it]distribute][s]alongascale,aroundanorm,hierarchizeindividualsinrelationto
oneanotherand,ifnecessary,disqualifyandinvalidate(ibid223).InthecontextofDrone
technology,Foucaultsconceptofdisciplinemayshedlightonthewaysinwhichtargetsare
subjecttopracticeswhichcometodefinethem.Thiswouldbeamorenuancedapproachthan
thatof,say,GalliotorStrawser,whotakethecategoryofthetargettobeeitherastableelement
intheUAVnetworkoronewhichmaybestabilizedinaproperlycalibratedsystem.Instead,one
mayseemoderndayDronewarfareasinitiatingameansofclassificationfromabovewhich
carrieswithitpotentiallylethalconsequences.
ApplyingFoucaultsideaofdiscipline,onemayseehowtheunpredictableindividual
knownasthetargetbecomesacalculatedrepresentationwithintheUAVnetwork.Onecould
tracethewaysinwhichtheapparatusofDronetechnologysubjectivizedMamanaBibi,an
innocentgrandmotherpickingokrainhergarden,eventuallyidentifyingherinsteadasatarget.
Moreover,Foucaultsapproachtoinstancesofdisciplinedoesnotculminateinaprescriptive
proclamation:hedoesnottrytotellthoseinthemodernpenalsystemhowtheyshouldcometo
definecriminalsinabetterway.Thismeansthatwemaycontinuetoseethetargets
characteristicsandbehaviorsaneweachtime,ratherthansuggestingwaysinwhichtoachieve
greaterepistemiccertaintyasGalliotsuggests.
Foucaultsconceptofbiopowerisrelatedtodiscipline,butitdirectsitselftowards
populationsinsteadofindividuals.ThisisusefulforlookingatUAVnetworksaswell,withtheir
constantsurveillanceofnumerousindividualsboundedwithinterritoriesofinterest.Whereas
disciplineworkstodefinetheindividualintermsofasystemofknowledge,biopowerworksto

27

definethepopulationintermsofasystemofsummaryreserveofknowledgegainedaboutthose
individuals.AsFoucaultwritesin
HistoryofSexuality,
Governmentsperceivedthattheywere
notdealingsimplywithsubjects,orevenwithpeople,butwithapopulation,withitsspecific
phenomenaanditspeculiarvariables(MichelFoucaultHistoryofSexuality25).Healso
exploresthisconceptinhislecturestitled
SocietyMustBeDefended
.Therehestatesthat
Disciplines...dealtwithindividualsandtheirbodiesinpracticaltermsnowanewbody,a
multiplebodywithsomanyheadsthat,whiletheymightnotbeinfiniteinnumber,cannot
necessarilybecounted(MichelFoucaultSocietyMustBeDefended245).Thisfurther
complicatesStrawserandGalliotsdebate.Theiranalysesdonotreachthisrealizationregarding
thelargerfocusofUAVnetworks:thattheirtargetsarenotjustindividualsthatmayormaynot
beproperlyidentified,butpopulationsasawhole.Whereasdisciplinemayshowhowtargetsare
individuallyturnedintoseeminglystableelementsoftheUAVnetwork,biopowermayshow
howtargetsareindividuallymonitoredaspartofalargeraim.Thislargeraimistodefinethe
characteristicsofapopulationinordertogainknowledgeforjustifyingtargetedkillingsona
massscale,thusthreateningnotjustindividuals,butentiregroups.
Thefocusonpopulationdisplayedthroughbiopower,aswellasdisciplinesfocusonthe
individual,pointtothefactthatUAVsmakepossiblethevisibilityandvulnerabilityofboth
singlesubjectsandlargegroups.Whatthismeansisthatthepopulationandtheindividualare
definedbytheUAVnetworkitselfasthescreenasbattlefieldisconstructed.Therearenostable
characteristicsofthepopulationnortheindividual,butrather,characteristicswhichareidentified
andcollectedthroughtechnologiessuchasDrones.Totryandsuggesthowoneshouldtryto
identifythesecharacteristicsbetterwouldbetomissthepoint.Justasheavoidedthistypeof

28

declarativesolutiongivinginrelationtoindividualswhendiscussingdiscipline,Foucaultsdoes
notprescribebetterformsofbiopower.Populationsandindividualsdonothaveessential
featureswhichmaybemoreaccuratelyapprehended:thesefeaturesareonlyestablishedthrough
thesystemsofknowledgethattechnologiessuchasDronesmakepossible.
AsisevidentfromthecomplexwebofrelationsbetweenDroneOperatorsandtheir
supportsystems,understandingtheidentitiesofUAVnetworktargetsbecomesamatterof
understandingthethetechniquesandmethodsinwhichtheyarecaughtup.TheworkofIan
Hackingisusefulinmovingtowardsadeeperunderstandingofthisprocessparticularlyhis
essayMakingUpPeople,whichexplorestherelationofforcesthatcontributetosystemsof
identification.Hewritesthat:
Idonotbelievethereisageneralstorytobetoldaboutmakinguppeople.Eachcategoryhasits
ownhistory.Ifwewishtopresentapartialframeworkinwhichtodescribesuchevents,wemight
thinkoftwovectors.Oneisthevectoroflabelingfromabove,fromacommunityofexpertswho
createareality...Differentfromthisisthevectoroftheautonomousbehaviorofthepersonso
labeled,whichpressesfrombelow(IanHackingMakingUpPeople168).

Thisprovidesuswithahelpfulmodelforapproachinganunderstandingofjustwhois
involvedinthetargetedkillingscarriedoutbyUAVs,amodeltowhichwewillreturn.It
signifiesthefactthatDronesandtheiroperatorsformacommunityofexpertsthatlabelthe
autonomousbehaviorofthoseonthegroundfromabove.
AsHackingexploredtherelationshipbetweenexpertsaboveandrawexperiencebelow,
hewaseffectivelyclearingthewayforaconceptionofhowtargetsareidentifiedbyUAV
networks.Hisnotionthat...numerouskindsofhumanbeingsandhumanactscomeintobeing
handinhandwithourinventionofthecategorieslabelingthemappliesdirectlytothesituation
withregardstotargetsabroad.(IanHackingMakingUpPeople170).Throughthecreationofa

29

categoryfortargetsofUAVnetworksspecifically,anidentityhasbeenconstructedthat,without
thatcategory,wouldsimplynotexist.Thisisafactofthetechnologyitself:withoutascreento
displaythetarget,thereisineffect,notargetofwhichtospeak.
AsimilarthreadmaybepickedupintheworkofLorraineDastonandPeterGalison,
whoemployaconceptknownasworkingobjectsinordertoarticulatehowrepresentative
technologiescreateobjectivecategories.
IntheirarticleTheImageofObjectivity,Daston
andGalisoncallattentiontothetaskallrepresentativetechnologiesface:...tomakenaturesafe
forsciencetoreplacerawexperiencetheaccidental,contingentexperienceofspecific
individualobjectswithdigestedexperience(LorraineDastonandPeterGalison85).Inthe
processofmakingnaturesafeforscience,thesetechnologiesmustselect...standardized
workingobjects,forunrefinednaturalobjectsaretooquirkilyparticulartocooperatein
generalizationsandcomparisons(ibid).Allvisualtechnologiesmustgrapplewiththisissueof
selectingworkingobjects,Dronesincluded.
Containedwithintheselectionofworkingobjectsisalsotheselectionofwhatcountsas
nature,thestandardphenomenaofthediscipline(ibid86).Furthermore,thisselectionalso
requiresthatoneanswersthequestion,asDastonandGalisonraise,fromwhichviewpoint?
(ibid).Hencevisualtechnologies,intheirnecessitytostandardizerealityfortheviewer,also
standardizeaviewpointfromwhichtoapprehendthatreality,givingrisetocategoriesofidentity
whichreflectagiventechnoaesthetic,culturallyinflectedviewpoint.WallandMonahan
explicitlyrefertoanissueofthissortinrelationtoDronesspecifically:
Dronesmayperformpredominantlyinthediscursiveregisterofautomatedprecision
andpositiveidentificationofknownthreats,butinpractice,thesesurveillancesystemsandtheir
agentsactivelyinterpretambiguousinformationthatcontinuouslydefiesexactmatchesorclear
responses.Intheprocess,UAVsystemsmayforcehomogenizationupondifference,thereby
reducingvariationtofunctionalcategoriesthatcorrespondtotheneedsandbiasesofthe

30

operators,notthetargets,ofsurveillance(WallandMonahanSurveillanceandViolencefrom
Afar240).

Dronesandtheiroperatorsmustcometogethertofindworkingobjectsthatrepresentthe
complicatedrealityofthatsituationwhichisbeingsurveilled.Thisleavestargetstobeidentified
accordingtotheunstableconditionsofUAVnetworks.
AsDronesflyoverthehomesofmillions,theyarenotjustthreateningortakingin
informationaboutindividualtargetsandcollectivepopulations.UAVnetworksreconstructthe
visualandspatialconditionsoftheterritorybeingsurveilled,aswasexploredinsectionIIIof
thispaper.Thelanduponwhichthepopulationlivesbecomesanobjectofknowledgeforthe
DronejustasmuchasthetargetatwhichitsHellfiremissilesmaybeaimed.IntheNorth
WaziristanregionofPakistan,forexample,UAVsdonotonlysurveilltheactionsofpeople.Part
ofsurveillingtheactionsofpeopleissurveillingtheirmovement.Whereatargetislocated,how
theyaremoving,wheretheymayhide,andotherspatialmarkersarejustasimportantasthe
supposedidentityofthetarget.Takingininformationaboutwholeterritories,Dronesprovide
theiroperatorswithawealthofdataregardingtopography,infrastructure,andthelike.
ThisleadsustoFoucaultsideaofgovernmentality.Foucaultdescribesgovernmentality
asthetypeofpower...whichhasledtothedevelopmentofaseriesofspecificgovernmental
apparatusesontheonehand,andontheothertothedevelopmentofaseriesofknowledges
(MichelFoucaultSecurity,Territory,Population144).Inasense,disciplineandbiopowerarebut
typesofgovernmentality,withotherobjectsofinterestbeyondindividualsandpopulationsalso
comingintoviewfortheUnitedStatesgovernment.MitchellDeanelaboratesontheconcept
further,referringto...thetechnologiesthroughwhichgoverningismadepracticableandthe
formsofrationalityunderstoodinasubstantiveratherthannormativesensethatrender

31

domainsandproblemsofgovernmentthinkableandanalyzable(MitchellDeanRisk,Calculable
andIncalculable26).UAVnetworks,throughtheircombinationofbiopoweranddiscipline,are
apparatuseswhichmakeproblemsofgovernmentthinkableandanalyzable.Itisthereforenot
enoughtotryandethicallyperfecttherelationshipbetweenoperatorandtarget.Onemustalso
considerthatAmericanUAVnetworks,inalltheirinstability,areenablinganentireregimeof
intelligenceandviolenceabroad.Sucharegimecannotbereducedtoquestionsofarmscontrolor
therelationshipbetweencombatants.ItisnotjustwarfarethatDronesarewaging.Theyarealso
bolsteringthecapabilitiesoftheUnitedStatestogovernfromafar.
AstheUnitedStatesDroneprogramgainsinformationaboutindividuals,entire
populations,andthelanduponwhichtheyroam,itissuccessfullymakingmanyfocusesof
governancevisibleandvulnerableallatonce.AsThijsWillaertwrites,governmentality
dissolvesthedistinctionbetweenterritoryandinhabitants(ThijsWillaertPostcolonialStudies
AfterFoucault158).AnalysesshouldthusfocusonDronetechnologyasaresourcethrough
whichtheUnitedStatesitisabletovisualizeandacquireknowledgeaboutindividuals,
populations,andterritoriesabroadthroughthethreatofbothmasssurveillanceandwidespread
violence.SuchcapabilitiesonthepartoftheUSspeaktothenecessityofconsideringUAVsin
wayswhichmanyotherssuchasStrawser,Galliot,Byman,andotherssimplydonotincludein
theirwork.ApotentlycriticalanalysisoftheUnitedStatesDroneprogramabroadmustsetits
sightsonmorethanjustamorallyjustifiedrelationshipbetweenmilitarypersonnelandtheir
targetsbytakingtimetoquestiontheelementsthatmakesucharelationshippossibleinthefirst
place.Indoingso,onegainsamorenuancedunderstandingofwhatDronetechnologyhas

32

enabledfortheUnitedStatesinitsmilitaryendeavors,arrivingataplacefromwhichamore
cogentcritiqueoftheUSDroneprogramabroadmaybeformulated.

VI.

Conclusion
AstheUnitedStatescontinuestocarryoutextensivemilitaryoperationsthrough

UnmannedAerialVehicles,thecontemporarylandscapeofanalysismustadjustaccordingtothe
complexitieswhichcharacterizethetechnology.ThesignificanceoftheUnitedStatesDrone
programabroadliesnotinahypotheticalstateofmorallyjustifiableuse,butinthepowerof
governmentalitywhicharisesfromsuchanapparatus.TheseUAVnetworksworktomake
individuals,populations,andterritoriesabroadbothknowableandstrikeable.Theapparatusof
Dronetechnology,acombinationoftheUAVanditshumansupportelements,disciplinesthe
targets,exercisesbiopowerupontheirpopulations,scanstheirterritories,andthusenactsspecific
governmentalpowersthatarenotcapturedintheprevailingfocusonpotentiallyethicalusesas
notedthroughoutmuchofthecontemporaryliterature.
Simplyput:thefutureoftheUnitedStatesDroneprogramcannotbeneatlyaddressed
accordingtoanethicalplanfortheirdeployment.ReferringbacktothispapersIntroduction
Section,perhapsitisnottheroleoftheacademic(oranyoneatall)totelloursocietyhowto
moveforwardwithUAVs.However,itismybeliefthatthereisaroletobeplayedbyeachand
everyoneofusintermsofkeepingasharpeyetowardsthedevelopmentofDronetechnology
andthevariousdiscoursesandpracticeswhichwillcontinuetopopuparoundit.Therefore,
insteadofclosingtheconversationwithaprescriptionforhowDronesshouldbeusedinthe
future,IwillcloseitwiththefollowingFoucaultquoteinmind:

33

Iwouldliketofacilitateawholesocialproject,aworkwithinandupontheverybodyofsociety.Idlike
tobeabletoparticipateinthisworkmyselfwithoutdelegatingresponsibilitiestoanyspecialist,including
myselftobringitaboutthat,intheveryworkingsofsociety,thetermsoftheproblemarechangedand
theimpassesarecleared(FoucaultandRabinow288289).

Letthisthesisstandasanefforttoinitiateachangeinthetermsoftheproblem,asanattemptto
moveaninchofclutterfromtheimpasse,whenitcomestotheuseofUAVsbytheUnitedStates
todayandtomorrow.

Bibliography
Altmann,J
rgen.ArmsControlforArmedUninhabitedVehicles:AnEthicalIssue.
EthicsandInformationTechnology
.Vol.15.2(2013):137152.Web.
Arkin,RonaldC.TheCaseforEthicalAutonomyinUnmannedsystems.
Journalof
MilitaryEthics
.Vol.15.2(2010):571589.Web.
Bergen,Peter."America'sWartimePresident."
CNN
.CableNewsNetwork,29Sept.2014.
Web.
Bergen,PeterandRowland,Jennifer.DidObamaKeepHisDronePromises?
CNN.
Cable
NewsNetwork,25Oct.2013.Web.
Bowden,Mark."HowthePredatorDroneChangedtheCharacterofWar.
Smithsonian

34

Magazine
.TheSmithsonianInstitution,Nov.2013.Web.
Blom,JohnD.
UnmannedAerialSystems:AHistoricalPerspective
.CombatStudies
InstitutePress,Sept.2010.Web.
Braun,MeganandDanielRBrunstetter.
RethinkingtheCriterionforAssessing
CIATargetedKillings:Drones,Proportionalityand'JusadVim.
Journalof
MilitaryEthics
.Vol.12.4(2013):304324.Web.
Byman,DanielL.WhyDronesWork:TheCaseforWashingtonsWeaponofChoice.
TheBrookingsInstitution
.Aug.2013.Web.
Canguilhem,George."TheDeathofMan,orExhaustionoftheCogito?"
TheCambridge
CompaniontoFoucault
.Ed.GaryGutting.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1994.7191.
Print.
Coeckelbergh,Mark.Drones,InformationTechnology,andDistance:MappingtheMoral
EpistemologyofRemoteFighting.
EthicsandInformationTechnology
.Vol.15.2
(2013):8798.Web.
Cullen,TimothyM.
TheMQ9ReaperRemotelyPilotedAircraft:HumansandMachinesin
Action
.Diss.MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.2011.Web.
Daston,Lorraine,andPeterGalison."TheImageofObjectivity."
Representations.
Seeing
Science.(Autumn1992):81128.Print.
Dean,Mitchell.Risk,CalculableandIncalculable.
SozialeWelt
.Vol49.1(1998):2542.
Web.
DeBrabander,Firmin."DronesandtheDemocracyDisconnect."
TheNewYorkTimes
.14
Sept.2014.Web.
Foucault,Michel.
DisciplineandPunish:TheBirthofthePrison
.NewYork:Vintage,1995.
Print.
Foucault,Michel.
HistoryofSexuality,Volume1:AnIntroduction
.NewYork:VintageBooks,
1980.Web.
Foucault,Michel,DanielDefert,FranoisEwald,andJacquesLagrange.DitsEtcrits,
19541988
.Vol.4.Paris:Gallimard,2001.Web.
Foucault,Michel,andJamesD.Faubion.
Power
.Vol.3.NewYork:New,2000.Print.

35

Foucault,Michel,MauroBertani,AlessandroFontana,FranoisEwald,andDavidMacey.
Security,Territory,Population:LecturesattheCollgedeFrance,
197778
.NewYork:Picador/palgraveMacmillan,2009.Web.
Foucault,Michel,MauroBertani,AlessandroFontana,FranoisEwald,andDavidMacey.
SocietyMustBeDefended:LecturesattheCollgedeFrance,197576.Firsted.New
York:Picador,2003.Web.
Foucault,Michel,andPaulRabinow."Nietzsche,Genealogy,History"
TheFoucaultReader
.
NewYork:Pantheon,1984.76100.Web.
Foucault,Michel,andPaulRabinow."WhatIsEnlightenment?"
TheFoucaultReader
.New
York:Pantheon,1984.3250.Web.
Florence,Maurice."Foucault,Michel,1926"
TheCambridgeCompaniontoFoucault
.Ed.
GaryGutting.Trans.CatherinePorter.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1994.314319.
Freiberger,Erich.JustWarTheoryandtheEthicsofDroneWarfare.
EInternational
Relations
.18July2013.Web.
Galliott,JaiC.UninhabitedAerialVehiclesandtheAsymmetryObjection:AResponseto
Strawser.
JournalofMilitaryEthics
.Vol.11.1(2012):5866.Web.
Galliott,JaiC.ClosingwithCompleteness:TheAsymmetricDroneWarfareDebate.
JournalofMilitaryEthics
.Vol.11.4(2012):353356.Web.
Gregory,Derek."FromaViewtoaKill:DronesandLateModernWar."
Theory,Culture

&Society
.Vol.28.7(2011):188215.Web.
Hacking,Ian.MakingUpPeople.
LondonReviewofBooks.
Vol.28.16(2006):161170.
Web.
Hough,Kenneth."AerialTorpedoes,BuzzBombs,andPredators:TheLongCultural
HistoryofDrones."
Origins:CurrentEventsinHistoricalPerspective
6.11(2013):Aug.
2013.Web.
Krock,Lexi."SpiesThatFly."
PBS
.Nov.2002.Web.
Lichty,Patrick.Drone:Camera,WeaponToy:TheAestheticizationofDarkTechnology.
FurtherField
.30May2013.Web.
Lemke,Thomas.Foucault,Governmentality,andCritique.
RethinkingMarxism:AJournalof

36

Economics,Culture,andSociety
.Vol.14.3(2002):4964.Web.
Mitchell,Timothy.EverydayMetaphorsofPower.
TheoryandSociety
.Vol.19.5(1990):
544577.Web.
Monahan,Torin,andTylerWall."SurveillanceandViolencefromAfar:ThePoliticsof
DronesandLiminalSecurityScapes."
TheoreticalCriminology
15(2011):24154.
Web.
Rabinow,PaulandRose,Nikolas."FoucaultToday."
TheEssentialFoucault:Selections
fromtheEssentialWorksofFoucault,19541984
.NewYork:NewPress.Web.
Rose,Nikolas.ThePoliticsofLifeItself.
Theory,Culture&Society
.18.6(2001):130.
Web.
Rouse,Joseph."Power/Knowledge."
TheCambridgeCompaniontoFoucault
.Ed.Gary
Gutting.Cambridge:CambridgeUP,1994.92114.Print.
Shaw,IanG.R."TheDronificationofStateViolence,PartIV:ThePredator."
UnderstandingEmpire
.26Apr.2014.Web.
Shaw,IanG.R."TheHistoricalRiseofthePredatorDrone."
UnderstandingEmpire
.28
Oct.2012.Web.
Shaw,IanGrahamRonald,andMajedAkhter."TheUnbearableHumannessofDrone
WarfareinFATA,Pakistan."
Antipode
44.4(2011):14901509.Web.
Singer,PeterW.CanDronesandVirusesBeEthicalWeapons.Interview.
TheBrookings
Institution
.28Feb.2014.Web.
Singer,PeterW.Drones,Warfare,ScienceFiction,andCybercrime:AConversationwith
P.W.Singer.Interview.
TheBrookingsInstitution
.20Nov.2013.Web.
Strawser,BradleyJay.MoralPredators:TheDutytoEmployUninhabitedAerial
Vehicles.
JournalofMilitaryEthics
.Vol.9.4(2010):342368.Web.
Stoler,AnnL."ImperialDuress:ConceptWorkForOurTimes."ImperialDuress:Concept
WorkForOurTimes.BenningtonCollege,Bennington,VT.20Nov.2014.Reading.
Stoler,AnnL.ImperialDebris:ReflectionsonRuinsandRuination.
CulturalAnthropology
23.2(2008):191219.Web.
Szoldra,Paul.DroneSpyingCapabilitiesAreAboutToTakeAnotherHugeLeap.
Business

37

Insider
.29Jan.2013.Web.
Thiele,LeslieP."TheAgonyofPolitics:TheNietzscheanRootsofFoucault'sThought."
TheAmericanPoliticalScienceReview
84.3(1990):907925.Web.
TurkeyOkaysU.S.DronesAgainstISIL.
Rep.WorldbulletinNews,17Oct.2014.Web.
Willaert,Thijs.
PostcolonialStudiesAfterFoucault:Discourse,Discipline,Biopower,and
GovernmentalityasTravelingConcepts
.Diss.UniversityofGiessen.2012.Web.
Williams,AllisonJ.EnablingPersistentPresence?PerformingtheEmbodiedGeopolitics
oftheUnmannedAerialVehicleAssemblage.
PoliticalGeography
.Vol.30.7(2011):
381390.Web.
"WillIBeNext?"USDroneStrikesinPakistan
.Rep.AmnestyInternationalPublications,
Oct.2013.Web.
Yousaf,Farooq.Drones,PakistansWorstKeptSecret.
TheExpressTribune
.The
InternationalNewYorkTimes,30October2014.Web.