1

Fluid Dynamics

Water cannon during globalization demonstration

The continuity equation

We define a system as some invariant collection of
fluid particles. So we can immediately write that the
system mass, Msys does not change
DMsys
=0
Dt
Now write the Reynolds transport equation (b = 1 )
ZZZ
II
DMsys

dA
=
dV +
v n
Dt
t
cv
cvs
Control Volume

System

(a)

(b)

(c)

Recall that control volume and volume occupied by

system coincide when Reynolds transport equation is
evaluated.

The continuity equation

Control Volume

System

(a)

(b)

(c)

Since mass is conserved

ZZZ
II

dA = 0
dV +
v n
t
cv
cvs
This is the equation of continuity. What it says is
that the amount of mass flowing into the control
volume must be equal to the time rate of change of
the mass inside the control volume.
In steady flow situations, there is no accumulation of
mass inside control volume, so
ZZZ
II

dA = 0
dV = 0 ;
v n
t
cv
cvs

Conservation of mass example

Section (1) (pump discharge)

Water flows through a

circular nozzle at the
end of a fire hose.

Section (2) (nozzle exit)

Flow

V2 = 20 m/s
D2 = 40 mm
Control volume

What steady flow rate in kg/s is required to give a

nozzle exit velocity of 20 m/s . The control volume
will contain the hose and nozzle. Now RTE is
ZZZ
II

dA = 0
dV +
v n
t
cv
cvs
RRR

For steady flow t

cv dV = 0
HH
dA = 0 . So
This means cv v n
Flow into hose = Z
flow
Z out nozzle.
dA
=
v n
out

= 1000 20.0 (0.020)2

= 25.13 kg/s
Analysis assumes a uniform nozzle velocity
distribution.

Conservation of mass, simple description

The mass flow rate through the section of a surface
is
ZZ
dA = m
v n
= Q = Ahv i
A

is the
Q is the volume flow rate and v = v n
component of velocity perpendicular to the area A .
The average perpendicular velocity is defined in
terms of net flow rate through the surface
RR
dA
v n
Q
hv i =
=
A
A
In many situations will choose control volume
and will use an average velocity.
surface so v k n

Simple description for steady flow

The convective term is zero
ZZ
dA = 0
v n
A

This can be rewritten as

in Ain hv iin = out Aout hv iout
in Qin = out Qout
m
in = m
out
For incompressible flow, in = out so
Ain hv iin = Aout hv iout
Qin = Qout
Different ways to express, mass entering control
volume is equal to mass leaving control volume.

Conservation of mass, Laminar flow

Incompressible laminar flow develops in a straight
pipe of radius R . Velocity is uniform at (1) and
parabolic with axial symmetry at (2) . How are U
and umax related?
Section (1)

Control volume

dA2 = 2 r dr

Section (2)

dA2

R
dr

u1 = U
Pipe

[ ()]

u2 = umax 1 - _r
R

(a )

(b)

Once again, this is steady flow so the equation of

continuity becomes
II
dA = 0
v n
cvs

Flow(1) = Flow(2)
Divide pipe into small annuli, radius r , width dr .
Area of each annuls is dA = 2rdr .

Conservation of mass, Laminar flow

Section (1)

Control volume

dA2 = 2 r dr

Section (2)

dA2

R
dr

u1 = U
Pipe

[ ()]

u2 = umax 1 - _r
R

(a)

(b)

Flow(1) = Flow(2)
ZZ
ZZ
u1 dA =
u2 dA
(1)

(2)


 r 2 
2r dr
U 2r dr =
umax 1
R
0

 2
2
R
R

R2 U = 2umax
2
4
umax
U =
2
Z

The average velocity U is half the mid-stream

velocity for a parabolic velocity profile.

Conservation of mass, Compressible flow

Air flows steadily across two cross sections ((1) and
(2) ) in a long straight pipe of 10.0 cm diameter.
The temperature and pressure are given in diagram.
If the average air velocity at (2) is 305 m/s , what
is air velocity at (1) ?
p1 = 680 kPa
Pipe
Control volume
p2 = 125 kPa
Flow
T1 = 300 K
Section (2)
Section (1)
T2 = 251.7 K
D = D = 4 in.
p = 100 psia
p = 18.4 psia
v2 = 305 m/s
T = 540 R
T = 453 R
1

V2 = 1000 ft/s

Define control volume just inside pipe surface. For

steady flow no mass accumulates inside control
volume. So m
(1) = m
(2) .

10

Conservation of mass, Compressible flow

Control volume

p1 = 680 kPa
p2 = 125 kPa
T1 = 300 K
T2 = 251.7 K

Pipe

Flow

Section (1)

p1 = 100 psia
T1 = 540 R

D1 = D2 = 4 in.

Section (2)

p2 = 18.4 psia
T2 = 453 R
V2 = 1000 ft/s

m
(1) = m
(2)
1 Av1 = 2 Av2
p1
p2
v
=
v2
1

R T1
R T2
p2 T 1
v1 =
v2
p1 T 2
125 300
305 = 66.8 m/s
v1 =
680 251.7

11

Moving control volume

An airplane moves at 971 km/hr as shown. The
frontal intake is 0.80 m2 and the air density at
entry is 0.736 kg m3 . An observer on the ground
observes that exhaust gases (this includes fuel
exhaust) leave the engine exhaust with an area of
0.556 m2 and a velocity of 1050 km/hr . The
exhaust gas density is 0.515 kg m3 . What is the
mass flow rate of fuel into the engine?

The jet engine will be taken to be the control

volume. However the control volume is now moving.
Thus is handled using the relative velocity concept.

12

Moving control volume

The relative velocity
between the control
volume and the fluid is
important.
v = w + vcv

vcv

v
vcv

vcv is velocity of control volume

v is velocity of the fluid
w is velocity of the fluid according to the
control volume
The fluid velocity, v in Reynolds transport equation
is replaced by w .
ZZZ
II

dA = 0
dV +
w n
t
cv
cv

13

Moving control volume

Use relative velocity between the control volume and
fluid

II

dA = 0
w n

cvs

m
f uel w1 1 A1 + w2 2 A2 = 0
The mass of the fuel contributes to the mass flow
across the control volume surface. The equation
above has been defined with m
f uel equal to the
mass of fuel entering the engine.
m
f uel = +w1 1 A1 w2 2 A2

m
f uel = 270 0.7360.80 5610.5150.558

m
f uel = 2.24

m
f uel = 2.24 kg/s

14

The momentum equations

From Newton II
The rate of change of the momentum of a system is
the sum of all external forces acting on a system.
Assuming an inertial reference frame
ZZZ
Dpsys X
D
v dV =
=
Fsys
Dt
Dt
sys
When control volume
and system volumes are
coincident
X

Fsys =

Fcoincident

The Force on system is

equal to force on contents of coincident control volume

FD
FE

Coincident
control volume

FF

cv

FC
FB
FG
System

FA

15

The momentum equations

The linear momentum equation is
ZZZ
II
Dpsys

)dA
=
vdV +
v(v n
Dt
t
Z Z Zcv
I Icvs

)dA
vdV +
v(v n
Fcvc =
t
cv
cv
RRR

t
cv vdV is the rate of change of the
momentum of the contents of the control volume.
HH
)dA is the net rate of change of the
cvs v(v n
momentum through the control volume surface.
Fcvc is the net force acting on the contents of the
control volume.

16

The momentum equations, Example

The
water
leaking
through the hole of area
A is being replaced.
What is the sideways
force required to hold
the tank in place?

cv

j
h
i
A
Q

The control volume is defined to include the tank

and water inside.
This is steady state so there is no accumulation of
RRR
momentum within the system, i.e
... = 0 .

For a free jet, v = 2gh i .

Only interested in horizontal forces and momentum
flows
II
p

p
)dA = 103 2ghi
2gh i i A
v(v n
cvs

= 103 2ghA i

17

The momentum equations, Example

There are gravity and
normal reaction with
ground acting in vertical direction.
There is a friction force
acting in the horizontal
direction.
Fcvc =

cv

j
h

Fg
i
A
N

II

Q Ff

)dA
v(v n

cvs

Ff

= 103 2ghA i

The friction force is the correct magnitude to hold

the tank stationary.

18

The momentum equations, Alternative

Momentum equation is
simpler when expressed
with mass flow rate
term done first.

cv

j
h

Fg
i

m
= vA
p
3
m
= 10 2ghA

A
N

Only want horizontal velocity component

II

)dA = m
v(v n
(vout vin )
cvs

p
2ghi 0
= m

p

p
= 103 2ghA
2ghi
Ff

= 103 2ghA i

Q Ff

19

The momentum equations, the nozzle

What force is required
to hold a conical nozzle
in places given a flow
rate of 0.60 liters/s .
The nozzle mass is 0.10
kg and the entrance
and exit diameters are
16.0 mm and 5.0 mm
. The distance between
(1) and (2) is 30 mm
and the gauge pressure
at (1) is 464 kPa .

x
g

Control volume

D1 = 16 mm
w1
Section (1)

h = 30 mm

Section (2)

D2 = 5 mm

w2

The anchoring force is the reaction force between the

faucet and threads of the nozzle. The control volume
is chosen to be the screw-on nozzle and water inside
the nozzle.

20

The momentum equations, the nozzle

Forces acting on control volume
FA is anchoring force
Wn is nozzle weight
Ww is water (in nozzle) weight
p1 A1 is pressure at
nozzle inlet
p2 A2 is pressure at
nozzle outlet
z is +ve in upward
direction

FA
Control volume
n

p1A1
w1

FA = anchoring force that holds

p2 A2

w2

nozzle in place
= weight of nozzle
w = weight of water contained in
the nozzle
p1 = gage pressure at section (1)
A1 = cross section area at
section (1)
p2 = gage pressure at section (2)
A2 = cross section area at
section (2)
w1 = z direction velocity at
control volume entrance
w2 = z direction velocity at
control volume exit
n

The aim of the exercise is to determine FA .

II
. . . = Fnet = FA Wn Ww p1 A1 + p2 A2
cvs

21

The momentum equations, the nozzle

Nozzle weight force
Wn = 0.10gk = 0.980k N
Nozzle water weight force. First get volume of nozzle

Vnozzle

2
= (r1 + r22 + r1 r2 )h
3

= (0.0082 + 0.00252 + 0.0080.0025)0.030

3
= 2.84 106 m3

Ww = Vnozzle gk

Ww = 1000 2.84 106 9.8k

Ww = 0.0278 k N
Inlet pressure force
p1 A1 = 4.64 105 0.0082 = 93.3 N
The pressure at (2) is essentially atmospheric, so as
a gauge pressure p2 = 0 .

22

The momentum equations, the nozzle

Fcvs

=
t

ZZZ

vdV +

cv

II

)dA
v(v n

cvs

RRR

The
cv term is zero for a steady flow. Need to
determine convective term. This needs water velocity
which will be obtained from continuity.
At outlet, volume flow rate is
Q2 = u2 A2
0.60 103 = u2 0.00252 u2 = 30.6 m/s
At inlet, volume flow rate is
0.60 103
Q1
=
u1 =
= 2.98 3.0 m/s
2
A1
0.008

23

The nozzle
The convective term is
II
)dA = 103 3.0(k)(3.0)0.0082
v(v n
cvs

+ 103 30.6(k)(30.6)0.00252
= 16.58 k N

Fcvc = Ww + Wn + FA + FP ressure
16.58k = 0.98k 0.03k + FA 93.3k + 0
FA = 77.8 k N
An upward force has to be exerted on the nozzle to
hold it stationary.

24

The nozzle
Alternative evaluation of convective term
m
= 103 0.00060 = 0.60 kg/s

II

)dA = mv
v(v n
out mv
in

cv

= 0.0600 (30.6k (3.0k))

= 16.58k N

25

The nozzle: alternative

The control volume only consists of the nozzle.
Forces acting on control
F
volume
FA is anchoring force
Wn weight of nozzle
Rz Force of water (inside nozzle) acting on
nozzle. Includes pressure
R
and viscous forces at
interface.
Fatm Atmospheric pressure acting on the nozzle.
A

patm

(c)

The atmospheric force consists of the pressure times

the projection of the area perpendicular to the z
direction, Fatm = patm (A1 A2 )
FA = Wn + Rz + patm (A1 A2 )

26

The nozzle: alternative

The control volume only consists of the water inside
the the nozzle.
(p1 + patm)A1

Forces acting on control volume

Ww weight of water
Rz Force of nozzle on water.
Includes pressure and viscous
forces at interface.
(p1 + patm )A1 pressure force at
entry to nozzle.
(p2 + patm )A2 pressure force at
exit to nozzle.
HH
Convective term.

w1
w

Rz

(2)
(p2 + patm)A2

w2
(d)

FA = Wn + Rz + patm (A1 A2 )

27

Some comments
Solution requires combining, equation for nozzle,
equation for water plug, and evaluation of convective
term.
(p1 + patm)A1

FA

patm

w1
w

Rz

Rz

(2)
(p2 + patm)A2
(c)

w2
(d)

FA = Wn + Rz + patm (A1 A2 )
II

|F|cvc = Ww + Rz + (p1 +patm )A1 (p2 +patm )A2

. . . dA = w2 w1 = |F|cvc

28

Alternate for evaluating momentum transfer

Need to work out net transfer of momentum into and
out of the control volume. The surface integral can
be simplified if
Velocity across individual streams is uniform
Fluid density across individual streams is
uniform
Choose cv surface to be perpendicular to fluid
directions
Then convective term is in the case of one stream in
and out
II
)dA = m
v(v n
(vout vin )
cvs

In the case of many streams in and many streams

out.
II
X
X
)dA =
v(v n
m
outi vouti
m
ini vini
cvs

29

The momentum equations, the U-bend

Water flows through a horizontal pipe with a 180o
bend. The pipe cross section area is constant at
0.0100 m2 , the water velocity is assumed to be 15.0
m/s . The absolute pressure at the entrance and
exit are 200 kPa and 160 kPa respectively. What
anchoring force is required to hold the pipe in place?
A = 0.1 ft2

Section (1)

V = 50 ft/s

Pipe bend
and water

z
w

FAz

p1A1
y

v1

x
y
V=

Control
volume

50 ft/s

FAy
p2 A2
v2

180 pipe bend

Section (2)
(a)

Control volume

FAx
(b)

Pressure Force acting on U-bend entrance

Pressure Force acting on U-bend exit
Since cv includes pipe (immersed in
atmosphere) use gauge pressures.
Momentum transport into U-bend entrance
Momentum transport out of U-bend exit

30

The momentum equations, the U-bend

Fcvc

=
t

ZZZ

vdV +

cv

Steady state flow so

Pressure forces

RRR

II

)dA
v(v n

cvs

cv

... = 0

Finlet = (200 101) 0.010j = +0.99j kN

Foutlet = (160 101) 0.010j = +0.59j kN
Momentum flow
m
= 15.0 1000 0.0100 = 150.0 kg/s
m
(vout vin ) = 150.0 (15.0j 15.0j)
= 4.50jkN
II

cvs

)dA = 4.50j kN
v(v n

31

The momentum equations, the U-bend

A = 0.1 ft2

Section (1)

V = 50 ft/s

Pipe bend
and water

z
w

FAz

p1A1
y

v1

x
y
V=

Control
volume

50 ft/s

FAy
p2 A2
v2

180 pipe bend

Section (2)

Control volume

(a)

FAx
(b)

The net force on the pipe bend, is the pressure force

on inlet, anchor force holding pipe, and pressure
force at outlet.
Fcvc = Finlet + Foutlet + Fanchor
4.5j = +0.99j + 0.59j + Fanchor
Fanchor = 6.08j kN
The negative sign means the anchoring force acts to
the left.
The vertical anchoring force is equal and opposite to
weight force. There is no net anchoring force in x
direction (assumes viscosity is zero).

32

The U-bend, alternative

The cv is now
just the water inside the
U-bend.
R is the force that the bend exerts on fluid. Pressure
forces are now in terms of absolute pressures since
control volume isolated from atmosphere.
Finlet = 200 0.010j = 2.00j kN
Foutlet = 160 0.010j = 1.60j kN
Momentum flow
pinlet = v(v A(j))
= 2.25j kN
poutlet = v(v A(j))
= 2.25j kN

33

The U-bend, alternative

The net force on the water in bend, is the pressure

force on inlet, force from pipe (Fpipe or Ry ), and
pressure force at outlet.
Fcvc = Finlet + Foutlet + Fpipe
4.5j = 2.00j + 1.60j + Fpipe
Fpipe = 8.10j kN
The negative sign means the force from pipe bend
acts to the left.
The force is large than Fanchor since the pipe
transmits atmospheric pressure to fluid.

34

Some comments
HH

The
are simple for a uniform velocity profile.
Just multiply v 2 by the area. Remember it is
the projection of the area perpendicular to fluid
flow.
The linear momentum is directional and
directions can be different for fluid entering or
leaving control volume.
RRR

The t
term will be zero for steady flow
and a non-deforming control volume.
< 0 then mass is entering the control
When v n
> 0 then mass is leaving the
volume. When v n
control volume. When positive or negative
momentum is entering control volume depends
also on co-ordinate axis directions and
momentum direction.
If control surface is perpendicular to the
direction of fluid entering or leaving control
surface then the surface force exerted by fluid
will be a pressure force.

35

The external forces acting on a control volume

are positive or negative depending on coordinate
axes.
Only external forces acting on the contents of
the control volume are included in the linear
momentum equation. If the control volume only
contains the fluid, then the reaction forces
between the fluid and its container need to be
included in the linear momentum equation. If
the fluid and its container are inside control
surface, then reaction forces between fluid and
container do not appear in linear momentum
equation (they are internal forces). The force
holding the container (the anchoring force) is
external and does appear in linear momentum
equation.
The force required to anchor an object will exist
in response to surface pressure and/or shear
forces and/or momentum transfer on the control
surface.

36

Some comments
Whether atmospheric pressure should be
considered depends on the choice of the control
volume. As a first rule, choosing control volume
as water plus container means only gauge
pressure needs to considered. This issue is also
influenced by the nature of the questions that
are being asked.

37

Jet Engine thrust

Control volume

patm(A1 A2)
p2A2
u2

p1A1
u1

Section (2)

Fth

Section (1)

z
x

The conditions from a test are Intake air velocity 200

m/s , Exhaust gas velocity 500 m/s , Intake area
1.0 m2 , Intake static pressure 22.5 kPa or 78.5
kPa(abs) , Intake static temperature 268 K ,
Exhaust static pressure 101 kPa(abs)
Estimate the thrust produced by the engine.
II
)dA
Fcvc =
v(v n
cvs

= p1 A1 p2 A2 + Fth + patm (A1 A2 )

Fth is force engine mounting exerts on cvc .

38

Jet Engine thrust

First, evaluate convective term
II
)dA = u1 m
v(v n
1 + u2 m
2
cvs

= m(u
2 u1 )
= A1 u1 (u2 u1 )
p1
A1 u1 (u2 u1 )
=

R T
is
It is u1 m
1 because, v points to right and v n
negative. Substituting numbers
78.5
RHS =
1.0200(500 200)
287268
= 61.2 kN

39

Jet Engine thrust: continued

Control volume

patm(A1 A2)
p2A2
u2

p1A1
u1

Section (2)
Section (1)

Fth

z
x

Fcvs = (p1 patm )A1 (p2 patm )A2 + Fth

(p1 patm )A1 = 22.6 1.0 = 22.6 kN
p2 A2 = 0 1.0 = 0 kN

Fth = (p1 patm )A1 + (p2 patm )A2 + Fcvc

Fth = (22.6) + 0 + 61.2 = 83.8 kN

The force Fth , is the force of the mounting on the

engine and it is acting to the right. The force of the
engine on the mounting block is to the left, and this
is direction engine wants to go.

40

Water Jet
A 10 mm
jet of water is deflected by a ho0.015 m
mogeneous block with
0.010 m
dimension (15 mm ,
0.10 m
Q
200 mm , 100 mm
) and weight 6.0 N .
0.050 m
Determine the flow rate
needed to knock over
the block.
First, need an expression for the Force exerted on
the block by the jet. Then, determine Force
(flow-rate) needed to knock the block over. Initially
make some assumptions
Half the water will be directed up, the other half
will be directed down.
The block does not slide, rather it will tend to
tip about its bottom right corner.
Ignore viscous forces between block and water.
Do not worry about momentum of water
dribbling away on ground.

41

Water Jet: continued

0.015 m
0.010 m
0.10 m

0.050 m

ZZ

entry

)dA = iv 2 (i i) 0.0052
v(v n
= v 2 0.0785 i N

m
= v0.0052 = 0.0785v kg/s
0.0785v 2 = m
2 /0.0785 kg/s
Fcvc =

II

cvs

)dA
v(v n

2
m

= v 2 0.0785 i =
iN
0.0785

42

Water Jet: continued

The force on the wall is equal and
opposite to Force on cvc . The condition for tipping occurs when the
torque applied by the jet exceeds the
torque given by gravity. Torque applied by jet is
jet = FQ L =

m
2
0.0785

FQ

Fg

L
0.05 Nm

Torque applied by gravity is

g = Fg (w/2) = 6 0.0075 = 0.045 Nm
Want jet > g
0.050
m

> 0.045 Nm
0.0785
r
0.045 0.0785
= 0.266 kg/s
m
>
0.050
2

43

Water Jet: continued

What happens if the block is sliding away from the
jet at 1.6 m/s ?
Use relative velocity for convective term
ZZ
)dA
Fsys =
w(w n
entry

= (v 1.6)2 0.0785 i N
Thereafter proceed as previously, but best to
.
determine critical v first, then convert to m

44

The sprinkler head

Which way does a water sprinkler turn when water is
pumped through it?
Will use a control volume on one of the arms
to determine sense of rotation.

Dpsys

=
Dt
t

ZZZ

vdV +

cv

For a steady state situation, the

ignored for steady state flow.

II

cvs

RRR

)dA
v(v n

term can be