Week1

Design,whatisit?

Theprocessoftakinganideatosomethingconstructible.
Creatingdocumentation.
Engineeringdesign(5%calculation,95%context),strengthanddurabilityneedtobe
satisfied.Thegeneralsequenceisasfollows:
1. Idea
2. Conceptdesignadesignthatissufficienttocommunicatethatthe
designerscorrectlyconceivetheidea.Conceptdesignmusthavesufficient
detailinordertotenderandproducethedetaildesignbyaD&Ccontractor
toavoidvariations
3. Tenderdesignifdesignandconstructsufficientdetailhastobeproduced
togetreliableinformation(quotes,pricesetc)fromcontractors.
4. Detaileddesign

B&B

Beltandbracesapproach:usingmorethan1methodtomakesuresomethingissafe
E.g.2typesofwaterproofing.Backupsystemneededaswaterproofingisalways
lesseffectivethaninitialplanned.

PSD

Plans,Sections&Details

Conservatism(ProjHFL
load)

Designingconservativelycanhavemanylongtermbenefitsinaproject.ProjectH
wasdesignedconservatively,andasaconsequencewhenthemachineloadsduring
constructionwerefoundtobesignificantlylargerthanhadoriginallybeenadvised,
thebuiltstructurewasrecheckedfortheseloadsanddidnothavetobemodified
savingalargeamountoftimeandmoney.

FlatArchDesign

Usedwhenexcavationisnearthegroundsurface(i.e.minimaldepthofcover
betweenarchandgroundsurfaceabove).Inherentlyriskyaslittlesupportis
providedbynaturalarchshape.Setscannotbeusedforlongspans,mainarchof
OHCPflatarchdesign.Supportprovidedbyanchorsandmeshreinforcedshotcrete.

Roadheader

Trackedmachinewithcuttinghead.Rotatesanticlockwise.Suitableforirregular
shapes.Howfarroadheadersadvancedependsonthetheirsize.Theyadvance
between15m^3/hrto40m^3/hr.
Alpineroadheader=boomforcuttingheadmovesupanddowntheface.Usesa
conveyorsystemwhichismadefromfibrereinforcedrubber.Thistypeofconveyor
canchangedirection,itismoreflexiblethanotherconveyorsused.

Mitsuiheadrotatedontheendofthebeam

Headings

Toexcavateacabininitialheadingshavetobeundertaken,followedbybulk
excavation.Initialheadingsdonebyaroadheader.Heightofinitialheadingaround
5mforinstallationofanchorandtoaccommodatebulkexcavationequipment.

CrownAnchors

Rockanchorsintothecrownofatunneltosupporttherockandpreventcollapse.

HalfColumn(Split
Column)

Splitcolumnswillperformbetterthancorbelsascorbelshavecomplexinternal
stressesthatareoftennotwelldesignedfor.Splitcolumnsaresimplertodesignand
build.Formbypouringonecolumn,puttingpolystyreneatjoint,pouringsecond
columnagainstpolystyreneandthendissolvingthepolystyrene.

Corbel

Structuralpiecethatjuttingfromacolumntocarryasuperincumbentweight.

HighCostRoadheader
Excavation

RoadHeaderApproximatley$220/m3
Usedforinitialheadingsduetoitsversatility.

LowCostBulkExcavation

Excavators&DozersApproximatley$85/m3
Usedforlowerexcavations.

Span/depthofcoverratio

Thespanreferstothespanofthetunnelcrownandthedepthisthedistance
betweenthetopofthecrownandthesurface.Youneedsomethicknessoverthe
crowntosetupastablerockbeamorrockslaboverthetunnel.

Engagementofstructure
againstexcavationface+
anexampleofthewayin
whichaminoraspect(eg
architectural)canhave
suchanenormousimpact
onD+C

Useofrockfacetosupportstructure.Avoidthisatallcosts.
e.g.Columnshorteningduetoincreasedloadasstructuregetsbiggermaycausethe
concretetocrack(similareffectcausedbycolumnsettlement)

AspectsofReinfConcrete
detailingandfixingfrom
TextbookonBlackboard
.(2013)

Thethreebartrick:usingthreebarsinsteadoftwotocontinuereinforcementabouta
joint,ensuringductility.Aswehavelossofeffectivecoverinthecornerdueto
openingforcesbarsareterminatedinthecompressionzone.

WallSlab

Staircase(top)

Staircase(bottom)

Week2
TBM

Tunnelboringmachine.Suitableforlongdriventunnels,longsetup.Stuckwith
shapeofcuttinghead,onlyabletodolongradiusturn.Suitableforhardrockandsoft
groundtunnelling.Thecuttingshieldrotatesunderhardpressure(thecuttingshield
islocatedbehindthecuttinghead.)andpulverizestherock.Rotationcomesfroma
collectionofhydraulicmotorsthatarerotatingagearagainstarack(flatorcircular
platewithteethonit).
Thepulverizedexcavationproductpassedthroughtheopeningsinthecuttingface
anddropsdowntobepickedupbyorge/screwconveyor.
TypesofTBMSdependentontypeofsoilbeingexcavated:

1.SlurryMachine:soilsofvaryinghardness.Excavatedsoilismixed
withslurrytocreatepositivefacepressuretosustainexcavation.
Closedmachinesoilremovalinvolvespumpingsoilmixedwith
slurrytoplantlocatedoutsidetunnelthatseparatesslurryfrom
muchallowingrecirculation

Advantages
Higheradvancerates
Continuousoperations
Lessrockdamage
Lesssupportrequirements
Uniformtunnelcharacteristics
Greaterworksafety
Potentialforremote,automatedoperation
Disadvantages

Fixedcirculargeometry
Limitedflexibilitytoextremegeologicalconditions
Longermobilisationcosts
Highercapitalcosts
TBMinhardrock
methodofforward
movement

grippers

Thereappeartobemultiplewaysthatthisworks,butforthemostpartthegrippersare

attachedtohydraulicramsandareextendedagainstthesidewallsofthetunnel.To
propeltheTBMforward,additionalhydraulicramsmovethegrippersbacktowards
therearoftheTBMbody.ForsoftgroundTBMs,howevertheforwardmovementis
providedbyramspushingagainsttheconcretesegments.

GrippersareneededforhardrockTBMstogripontotheinnerwallsofthetunnel.
ThisensuresthatthetheTBMdoesnotmovebackwardswhenpressureisapplied,it
hastomoveforwards.SoftrockTBMsdonothavegrippersbecausetheywould
sinkintothegroundcouldnotgetagrip
Grippersareusuallylocatedabout15metresfromthecuttinghead.
Bendsintunnelingareachievedbymanipulatinggrippers.(e.g.onlyputtinggrippers
ontherightside)

rateofexcavation

TBM250m/Week,Roadheaderuptoabout20m^3/hour

crownsupport

CrownSupport(thehighriskareafordesignerandconstructor)
Principles
RockBoltTypes(Bar,Cable,Fibreglass,Swellex)
Anchorage(Mech,Grouted,Chemical)
Atthecrownthereismuchmorepotentialofrockfall.Naturalarchhelpsdetermine
thecrownsupportarrangement.

miscellaneouscrown
supportsystems

CrownSupportwithRockboltspenetraterightuptoabovethenaturalarchandinto
thesupportingzone.Formoderatelyfracturedrock.

CrownSupportwithboltsnotpenetratedintosupportingzone.Forhighlyfractured
rock.

rockbolts

Rockboltsareusedtosupportanexcavationwallorforcrownsupportinatunnel.
Groutisoftenwrappedaroundthebolttoprovideadhesionandreducecorrosionof
rockbolts.Whendrillingaholeupwardsintothecrownawholelotofwatercomes
out,thisisaproblemthatcanbeaddressedbytheuseofgrout.
Agrouttubeiswrappedaroundthebolt,passedthroughaholeinthewasherand
thenthetubeisfilledwithgrout.Aresinbagcanbeusedinsteadofgrout.The

wholerockboltisoftennotwrappedwithgrout,thegroutisonlyusedabovethe
naturalarch,inthesupportingzone.Youdon'twantthegrouttoengagewith
supportingrockinsupportedzone,toomuchtensioninsupportedzone.
Rockboltsarenotusedforsoftcrowntunnels,onlyusedinhardrock.
extentofcollapsetoa
naturalarch

Ifanopeningwithacurvedroofisexcavatedinajointedrockmassanaturalarchis
formedatsomedepthintotherock,abovetheceilingoftheopening.Theformation
ofthearchisaresultofstressredistributionintherockastheopeningisformed.The
rockinthearchissubjectedprimarilytocompressivestresses.Thedistancebetween
theceilingandthelowerboundaryofthenaturalarchdependsonthetypeofground
inwhichtheopeningisexcavatedandthespanoftheopening.

supportedzone&
supportingzone

Supportedzone:
Thezoneofrockbelowthenaturalarch
Thesizeofthesupportedzonewillincreasewithdecreasingrockquality
Youdonotwanttogroutthesupportedzone,sothatloadscanbeproperly
transferredbytheanchorsintothesupportingzone.Theungroutedlength
oftheanchoriscalledthefreelength
Supportingzone:

groutedanchor

Thezoneofrockabovethenaturalarch
Anchorsshouldbegroutedintothesupportingzone
Itistheresponsibilityofthegeotechnicalengineertoestimatethelocation
ofthenaturalarchbasedontherockstrength,inordertonominatethe
correctanchorlength,freelengthandgroutedlength.

Typicalinstallationprocedureforagroutedanchor:
1. Drillaholeoftherequireddiameter(typically75100mm)
2. Wrapagrouttubearoundthebolt.Thistubewillpassthroughaholeinthe
washer
3. Insertrockboltintohole
4. Pumpgroutdownthetubetofillholefromtopdown
5. Tensiontestboltaftercuring
Groutprovidesadhesionandalsocorrosionprotectionspacersareusedtoensure
thattheboltstaysinthecentreofthehole

Groutthesupportingarea.
Youdonotwantgroutinthesupportedzonethereshouldbegroutinthebond

lengthintheloadcarryingstrata
Aplasticsheathcanbeusedinthesupportedzone,wheretheboltiscoveredin
grease,todisengagethebolt

chemicalanchor

1. Pusharesingroutbagupthehole
2. Pushrockboltthroughthebagandrotaterockbolt
Resincanattainfullstrengthinaslittleas8secondsandisnotaffectedbywater
unlikegrout.

mechanicalanchor

Similartodynabolt:metalrodwithanexpansionshellattheendwhichisactivated
andexpandswhentheboltistightenedbyinstallationdrill.Consideredtemporaryas
theycorrodequicklyunlikegroutedbolts.Dontprovidedowelactionduetoairgap
betweenboltanddrillholethereforelackoftransverseshearresistance.

SwellexBolt

Themostpopulartypeofmechanicalanchor.(swellexnail)Fortemporarysupport
Madeoutofsheetmetal.Providesgoodtemporaryfrictiontooutsideoftheholeand
worksinpulloutandtransverseshear

1.Drillholeintorock
2.Pushswellexbolt(nail)intohole
3.Waterorgroutispushedintoboltfold
4.Duetopressureboltexpandstotheperipheryofthehole

domewasher

Domedwasherallowstherockbolttobeeffectiveatarangeofanglesbyensuring
thattheanchornutstaysincontactwiththeanchorplate.
meshreinforcedshotcrete

Whenanchorssecuremeshinthecrownandshotcreteisthenappliedontop.

temporarysupport

Anchoringusingrockboltsisconsideredtemporarysupport,althoughitcanlastup
to100years.

permanentsupport

Insitureinforcedconcreteliningistheonlysupportmethodconsideredpermanent,
if
thismethodisrequireditcanoftenbecostprohibitive.

waterproofinginrail
tunnels

Railindustryinsistsoncastinsitureinforcedconcretetunnelforwaterproofing.This
isexpensiveandprohibitsfuturedevelopment.Waterproofingshouldnotbe
necessaryforrailtunnels.
Itisawastetorequirewaterproofingfortunnelsgiventhatwhenthetrainsareabove
groundanditrainstheygetwetandoperatefine.Sowhyshouldtherebeaneedfor
thetunnelstobewaterproofed,allthatisneededisasufficientdrainagesystemin
thetunneltopreventbuildupofwater.
Theliningofarailtunneldriveninrock,should,inprinciple,benodifferentfromthe
liningofaroadtunnel.I.e.economically,itinvolvesrockboltingandmeshreinforced
shotcrete,withoutexcessiveconcernaboutoccasionalseepagethroughthemesh
reinforcedshotcreteliningintheCrown.

crowncollapsewhere
tunnelgradientvs
beddingslopecreates
reducingthickness
wedge(longsectional
view)

Theplanesofweaknessinthebeddingcancausewedgestodropoutofthecrown
andkillwhoeverisunderneath.Solutionsaretotapthemoutsafelywitha
roadheader,ortorockbolt+mesh+shotcretethem.
Set(eg250UC)

Installationofsetsprovidesaddedcrownsupport.Setsareencapsulatedin
shotcreteorfibrecrete(hasmildsteelfleckswhichincreasethetensilestrength).The
crownisexcavatedroughly,shotcreteisusedtofillinthegapssothatthesetscan
beputinplace(thegapsbetweenthesetsandrockisfilledwithshotcrete).Welded
steel,hardwoodtimberpackingtoapplymutualsupporttothesets.Setsnormally
havelegs.Setsareusually200or250UC.

legsupported/
(springline(not
mentionedinclasswill
explainweek3))
supported

Referstowhetherarchissupportedataspringlineoratitsbase.

WStrap

AWStrapiscommonlyusedwhenadditionalsupportisrequiredinconjunctionwith
rockbolts.Thesesteelstrapsarepulledintotherocksurfacebytheboltsandtendto
conformtomajorirregularitiesintherock.Theyprovidelargesurfaceconfinementto
anylooserockthatmayformbetweeninstalledrockbolts.

Week3
CanopyTubeINEXAM!

Canopytubescanbeusedtoexcavatewhencutandcoverisnotanoptionorrock
boltdonotprovideenoughsupportinthelowrockqualityarea(i.e.portalzone)

Typicalinstallationprocedure:
1. Excavatesmallinitialsection(about2m)
2. Installcanopytubestomax15mlength(thickwallCHSsteeltubeswitha
slightinclineabovethecrownofthetunnel)
3. Excavate1mbeneaththecanopytubes.Canopytubeswillactasa
cantilevertosupporttheloadofthesoilabove.
4. Installaset(usuallywithlegs).Bydrivinginhardwoodpackersthesetwill
beabletosupportthecanopytubes.
5. Repeat3and4untiltheendofthecanopytube.Thelengthofthecanopy
tubezonecanbeincreasedbydrivingasecondtubebelowtheendofthe
firstthisisthereasonfortheinclineofthetubeabovethetunnelcrown.

Portal

Issues
1.
2.
3.
4.

Terrain(favourable/unfavourable)
Geology
AdditionalCrownSupportrequirementsegpipecanopyServicesgas,
electricity,stormwaterdrainage,water,sewage,propertyissues
Constructionaccess

Thepossiblelocationofportalsisanimportantfactorindeterminingatunnel
alignment(bothverticalalignmentandhorizontalalignment).Otherissuesinclude:
1. EntryandExitpoints
2. Availabilityofsuitableportal(seeM5andLaneCoveexamples)Terrain/
Geology(egM5BardwellPark)
3. Obstaclesegriver,creek
4. Gradients(affectventilationsystem)(roadmax68%)Ventilationfacilities
5. Drainage
6. Propertyissues
7. Politics
portalzone

Thezoneatthebeginningandendofatunnel.Theportalzoneisgenerallythemost
problematicareawithtwomainproblems:
1.
2.

Qualityofrock/soil
Depthofrock/soillimitedrockcover

Generallythepreferedconstructionmethodiscutandcover.Ifthisisnotanoption
duetothesurroundingconditions,canopytubescanbeused.

cut&covermethod

Whentheentiretunnelisexcavatedasalongtrenchwithstruttingacross
thetrench,thetunnelisinstalledandthetrenchcoveredinagain.The
EasternDistributorwasconstructedwiththismethod.
Trenchisexcavatedandthenroofedoverwithanoverheadsupportsystem
.
Watercontrolcanbeasignificantissue.
SoftgroundneedtoinstalldiaphragmwallsorCFAwallsgenerallyto
supportusestruttingoranchors.
Anchoringcanbedifficultinacutandcoverjobduetolegalissueswith
puttingananchoracrossprivatepropertyboundaries.
Bexleyroadusedcoverandcutmethod

Thesectionofthetunnelthatconnectsthetwoportalzones.
Thedrivenzonerequiresrepetitiveengineeringcomparedtotheportalzone
Generallyhasabetterspancoverratiocomparedtotheportalzone.

driventunnelzone

Issuesforcrosssectionalsizeandshape:
Futureusage(RoadRailfluidetcetc)
ExcavationMachinetobeuseddependsonavailabilityofmachinesRH
quicktomobiliseTBMtakes>1yearGeology(affectsGeotechnical
separation)
ConsiderDOUBLEDECKERCROSSSECTION
Ventilationrequirement(naturalrelieformechanical)
VentilationsystemFireSmokeexhaustsystem
crownsupport(inheavily
jointedrockin
moderatelyjointedrock)

HeavilyJointedrock
beamisformedthroughtensionedrockboltswhichcreatedanartificialarchnear
theceilingthelooserockneartheceilingrequiredsupportfrommeshandshotcrete

Moderatelyjointedrock
Rockboltsareplacedthroughtothenaturalarchprovidingasupportedand
supportingzonethelooserockneartheceilingrequiredsupportfrommeshand
shotcrete
canuseuntensionedrockbolts
typicalSydneysituation
lowerriskandcheaperthanheavilyjointedsituation

groutedbolt/anchor

Groutisoftenwrappedaroundboltstoprovideadhesionandreducecorrosion.
Whendrillingaholeupwardsintothecrownawholelotofwatercomesout,thisis
aproblemthatcanbeaddressedbytheuseofgrout.
Agrouttubeiswrappedaroundthebolt,passedthroughaholeinthewasherand
thenthetubeisfilledwithgrout.Aresinbagcanbeusedinsteadofgrout.The
wholerockboltisoftennotwrappedwithgrout,thegroutisonlyusedabovethe
naturalarch,inthesupportingzone.Youdon'twantthegrouttoengagewith
supportingrockinsupportedzone,toomuchtensioninsupportedzone.

mechanicalbolt/anchor,

Descriptionalreadyabove

swellexbolt

Shorttermsupportconsistingofahollownaillikeanchorthatisinsertedina
collapsedstate.Afterinsertionthenailispumpedwithwaterathighpressure,which
expandstheboltandfillsthehole,providingfrictionalresistance.

springline

Pointatwhichanarchbeginstocurve(i.e.thepointwherethewallmeetsthe
crown).

haunch

Thickeningatthecornerofthecrowntoimprovestrength.

tensioned
anchor/untensioned
anchor

Provideameansofprestressingalloraportionofafoundation.Thisminimizes
undesirabledeformation/settlements.Tensioningtransfersloadfromtheelement
intothegroutandthenontothesurroundingrockmass.
Untensionedrockboltsallowthelooserocktorelaxwhichwillputtensiononthe
rockbolt

domewasher

Seeweek2.

ventilation

Threemaintypesofventilation:
1. Longitudinalventilationnoductsjusttunnelwithjetfans

2.

Semitransverse(partlyducted)ventilationOneofsupply/exhaustisinthe
ductandtheotheriswithtrafficinthetunnel.

3.

(fully)transverse(fullyducted)ventilationBothsupplyandexhaustair
areinducts.eg.supplyairunderthetunnelinrisersandexhaustfromthe
topmostexpensive

4.

Naturalventilationthefourthoftenforgottentypeofventilationoften
usedinruraltunnels.Thismethodwillstillrequireasmokeextraction
system.

Otherissues:
AirQualityInthetunnelCONoxParticulatesAirIntakelocation
ExhauststackOutletlocationsizeshapeheightInTunnelCleansing
InStackcleansing
shortcircuitingin
longitudinallyventilated
compartments

Occurswhentheexhaustandinletareplacedtooclosetoeachother,resultingin
freshairbeingdrawnthroughtheexhaustagain.Tocounteractthis,ductstakethe
exhaustandinletfarawayfromtheactualventilationstackinoppositedirections.

Waterproofing
constructionjoint

Typesofwaterproofing:
1.Centralwaterstopfoil
2.Backstoppingfoil
3.Waterbar

hydrophyllicwaterbar

Swellswhenittakesinwater.Availableinmanycrosssectionaltypes.
Harbordliftshaftexampleforgottoputinthewaterbarduring
construction.Someofconcretewaschippedawaytoinstallwaterbarand
thenfilledwithhighstrengthmortarwhicheventuallyfailed/crumbled
away.

rearguardwaterstop

Apieceofplasticthatiscastagainstthesoilexposedfaceofaconcretejointto
preventwaterfromentering.

centrewaterstop

Apieceofplasticthatiscastintothecentreofaconcretejointtopreventwaterfrom
entering.

Week4

TBM

(seeweek2)

Assemblyarea(gallery)

AreausedtoassembleTBMmachinenearentrancetotunnel

Initialtunnelexcavation

UseofsimplemachinerytogetthetunnelstartedsothataTBMcantakeover

Conveyor

Carriesspoil(excavatedearth)outfromtheheadoftheTBMtotherearoftheTBM
whereitmaybetransportedawaybytrucks.

Cassette

Thesystemwhereextrabeltmaterialisprovidedintheconveyorsystemsothatwhen
theTBMcontinuesforwardtheconveyorcanexpandfreelywithouthavingtobeslack
atanytime.BeltsusedintheNSSThadbeltsupto2.1kmusingacassette&splices.

SoftgroundTBM

AsoftgroundTBMrequiressupportofthetunnelfacewhilethetunnelisbeing
constructed.Thisisusuallyprovidedbyaslurrybeingmixedwiththespoiland
providingpressureagainstthetunnelface.Thisisthenremoved.
ThetunnelislinedwithconcretesegmentsthatareplacedwithintheTBMshield.The
TBMuseshydraulicjacksagainstthesesegmentstopropelitselfforward.The
pressureofeachjackmaybevariedtochangetheorientationoftheTBM.
BothTBMs(EPBandSPB)areworkinginpotentiallysaturatedsoil.Thepressurein
frontcompartmentreducesthelossofgroundwaterfromsurroundinggroundintothe
tunnel.Thisissignificantassubsidence(depressionofsoil)atsurface,andlossin
bearingcapacitymayoccurasaresult.Limitinggroundwaterloss=limiting
subsidence.

RemotecontrolledTBM
withslurryusedforspoil
removal
(microtunnelling)

ThisTBMissmallandlasercontrolled.Itoperatesverysimilarlytolargesoftground
TBMswiththeexceptionthatthehydraulicjackisattachedatthebeginningofthe
tunnelandnottotheTBMitself.Concretepipesareinsertedatthebeginningofthe
tunnelandpushedagaintheexistingpipestopropeltheTBMforward.

Earthpressurebalanced
TBM

EarthpressureBalanceMachine(EPB):closedmachineusedforsofterfairlycohesive
soils.Suitableforvaryingsoilcomposition.Positivefacepressurecreatedbythe
excavatedgroundkeptunderpressureinthechamberbycontrollingremovalthrough
rotationofscrewconveyor.Muchremovedbyconveyorbelt/skips

Gripper

OneachsideofaTBM,thegrippersystemallowsthemachinetomoveforwardby
grippingontothesidewallsofthetunnelandpushingthemachineahead.Likea
caterpillar!
ForwardmovementforhardrockTBMs

Precastconcretesegment
lining

Precastconcretesegmentsaretransportedthroughthetunnelandinstalledinsidethe
TBMshield.Thesegmentsareboltedtogether.Seeillustrationabove.

Forwardmovementforlargetunnels(>1.8mdiameter)eg.EPBM
Jackedpipeliner

Theentirepipeisjackedfromthemainshaft.Newconcretesectionsarelowereddown
theshaftandthemainjackpushesagainstthenewsectionofthepipe.Usingthrust

cylinderstheTBMadvanceshalfthelengthofapipesection.Alsosectioninterjacks
canbeusedwhichallowittoactlikeacaterpillar.

Forwardmovementforsmallertunnels(<1.8mdiameter)eg.SPBS
Entryshaft

Theentryshaftisaholethatisoftenlinedwithconcrete.Thejackingrigisatthe
bottomoftheshaftandpipesareloweredintoitforjackingtoadvancethemicro
TBM.

Exitshaft

TheexitshaftiswherethemicroTBMwillemergeandbeliftedout.

Directionchangeshaft

AslasersareusedtodirectmicroTBMs,theycanonlymoveinrelativelystraight
lines.Everydirectionchangerequiresanewlaserlevelandthereforeanewshaft.

Ventilation

Thebasicrequirementforaroadtunnelventilationsystemistoprovideasupplyofair
tothetunneltodilutevehicleemissionstoastandardsetbyanauthority.
Fullyductedismosteffective.

Compartment

Apartofatunnelthathasitsownairsupplyanditsownexhaustsystem.Maximum
lengthofaventilationcompartmentinaroadtunnelshouldbeabout1.2km.eg.M53.5
kmoftunnelshouldhave3compartments(3exhauststacksand3intakes)

Limitedlength

Acceptablecompartmentlength=1.2km(Compartmentlengthneedtobelong
enoughtopreventpollutionbuildup)

Dilution

Reducingtheconcentrationofachemical

COandNOx(beforeimprovementinvehicleemissioncontrols)

Particulate control, mircofine particles from fuel combustion (esp.

commercial diesel vehicles)

Airvelocitylimitationsin
duct/tunnel

M5tunnel=36km/hr(10m/s)
Supplyoffreshairismeasuredasavolumetricrateofflow(m3/s)
RelationshipisQ=AV

Maximumairvelocityisupto10m/sinlongitudinalsystemandissignificantlygreater
inaductedsystem(transverseorsemitransverse).ThisprovidesthenecessaryQ
valuetodilutetheair
Ventilationdesignforfire

Thisismostlydesignedassmokeremoval.

Intunnelventilation
system
Externalsystem

Exhaustshaft

Exhauststacks,airintakesandthefansinthosefacilities
Mainaspectofexternalsystemsistheexhauststackheight
Engineerswantexhauststackstobeashighaspossibletogetexhaustairintoreliable
dispersingairways.Thereismuchdebateastowhetherthisisanappropriatemeasure
ofexhaustingpollutantsintotheair.
Thepurposeofanexhaustshaft/stackistoremoveexhaustfromtunnel

Intakefacility

Freshairsuckedintotunnelusinglargefansatintakefacility,oftenlocatedawayfrom
tunnel

Ductingtoavoidshort
circuitingaround
exhaust/intakeshaftarea

Thisductingtakestheexhaustandintakes,whichmaybeveryclosetoeachother,
furtherawayfromeachothertopreventshortcircuiting.

Railtunnelventilation

Thereisgenerallynorequirementforventilationofarailtunneltocontrolairquality.
Thereishowever,aneedforaductedfireproductextractionsystemwhichisableto
targetaparticularlocation.
VentilationDesignFactors:
Allowableconcentrationofpollutants
Trafficdensities

CrosssectionalArea
Gradient
Fleetconditionmix
Fluidtunnelventilation
PIARC(WorldAuthority
establishingdesign
standardsforurban
tunnels)

PIARCcreatedthe"RoadTunnelCommittee"(1957)toaddresstherangeofaspects
concernedintheuseofroadtunnels,suchasgeometry,equipmentandits
maintenance,operation,safetyandenvironment.Sincethen,thiscommitteehas
producedtechnicalrecommendationsacrossallofthesevariousfields.

Week5
Retainingstructures

Structuresusedtoholdbackexcavation.
Generalscenarios
Retainedcut
Retainedfill
Designchecksrequired
Antirotation
Antislide
Groundsupport
Typesofretainingwallstructures
Toeretainingwall:
Option1:useashutterwhenpouringslabsothatyoudontbuildalltheway
totherockface&canputinadrain.ThedrainagepipeMUSTbebelowthe
constructionjointdontwantwatertoseepthroughconstructionjointand
corrodereinforcement.

Option2:Ifoption1isnotpossiblebuildanibsothatdrainagepipewillstill
bebelowtheconstructionjoint

Youwouldnotusuallyusefoilorawaterbarinthissituation(external
retainingwall)asyouareONLYtryingtopreventcorrosionofreinforcement
notseepageintoexcavation.
DownturnCanbeusedtoresistsliding.Easiertoexcavateadownturnatthe
toethanatthebaseofawall.

Heelretainingwallconstruction
Canbeusedforfillonly.
Weightofsoilaboveheelprovidesextrastability.

ReinforcedEarth
Loadfrompotentialwedgeisresistedbythetiebacksystem
Soilactslikeagravitywall

Keystonewall
Prefabricatedconcretesectionsthatslotintoeachotherresistsforceby
deadload
Usuallybuildatanangleof1in10topreventtiltingpastthevertical.
Cribwall
Cellsarebuiltuplogcabinstylefromprecastconcreteortimberandfilledwith
soil.
Usuallybuildatanangleof1in10topreventtiltingpastthevertical.
Canreachback1200,900or750mm
Gabions
Retainingwallmadeofcagesfilledwithstoneandtiedtogetherwithwire.
Dontbotherwithplasticcoatingasitwillgetdamagedpreferedoptionisa
galvanizedcage.
Mobilisationmeansthatcageswillmoveabitbeforetheysettle.

Decisiondiagram

Knowwhereeachtypediffersfromtheothersintermsofdrainage,generalmethodof
designetc.

Diaphragmwall
construction

Nolimittoconstructiondepthduetotheabsenceoffixedconnection
(cableconnection)Cableconnectedclamlowereddownforconstructioninsoft
ground.Goodforuseincongestedareasastheycanbeinstalledwithlittlespaceand
aminimallossofsupporttoexistingstructures.Slotsexcavatedandretainingwalls
thenformedintheslots.Reocageandslurryfedintoslot,thenconcretepouredfrom
bottomupdisplacingslurry.Tremiepipeusedtogetconcretepourbelowslurry

Piling(generalinfofrom
blackboard&classnota
triggerword)

Function
Resistverticalloadsbyendbearingorfriction
Resistlateralloadsbending
Typesofpiles
Driven/Displacementpilesdontremovesoilfromtheholebutdisplacesit
laterallycreatingadditionalcompactionaroundthepileandimprovingskin
friction.E.g.driven,endbearing.
oTimberproblemswithborerattackandrottingjoinbysteelcollar.
oSteelmaybecorrosionprotectede.g.Tefloncoatedjoinby
welding.
oPrecastconcretegoodallroundperformancejoinbycastinscrew
joint.
oAllendbearingdrivenpilesareinstalledtoaset
Bored/Nondisplacementpilesextractsoilwhichisremovedandbecomesspoil.
Largediameter(bored)pilesarenondisplacementpilesE.g.CFA.
oStandardboredpileendbearing(augerhole,caseifnecessaryto
preventcollapse,removeauger,insertreinforcingcage,fillwith
concrete)
oGroutcretepileendbearingorlaterallyloadedwhenusedin
contiguouspilewall.(augerhole,feedconcretethroughaugershaft
asaugerisextracted,addminimalreinforcementthroughwet
concrete)
oFrankipile(expandedbase)seebelow.
Excavated(nondisplacementunlimiteddepth)barette
Screw(displacement)Atlaspile(e.g.easterndistributorparkwaytension
capacitytoresistuplift)
SteelsheetpilesMostcommonintemporarystructuresbutcosteffectivein
permanentstructures.Driventosuitrequiredfunctionse.g.princeshighway
cofferdams.
Drivingandextractingequipment

Drophammer

Dieselhammer

Compressedair/hydraulichammer

Vibratory

Guideframe
Miscellaneoussaspects

Raking

Socketing

Endanchoring
Calculations

Lateralpressuredistributioncohesive/noncohesivesoils

Lateralloadcapacity
Loadbearingtesting

Generallydifficultdoneafterconstructionofapiletotestloadbearing
capacity

Forstaticloadtestingyouneedtodrivethreepilestotestonethisisalotof
work!!

Pacifichighwayexamplebuildingaroadoveresturineclay
Option1preloadingpreloadingwouldtakeupto2yearstoachieve
settlementofclays
Option2limepilelimepilessuchmoisturefromclaydeposittoaccelerate
settlement
Option3wickdrainwillimproveflowrate&acceleratesettlement
FrankiPileCollection

Frankipile(extendedbase):usesapinnedpilejointwhichprestressesthepilesections

together.Frankipilescanbeconstructedinpracticallyallsoilconditions.Shown
below:

Displacementpileseg,Atlaspiles(notoftenused)augerholetorequireddepth,

deliverconcretepriortoremovalofaugertofillhole.
oDisplacementpilesdontremovesoilfromtheholebutdisplacesit
laterallycreatingadditionalcompactionaroundcausingmorefriction.
oAtlaspileshavedeepresistancetopullout
Atlaspileshownbelow:

Nondisplacementpilesextractsoilwhichisremovedandbecomesspoil.Largediameter

basedpilesarenondisplacementpiles
oCFA(continuousflightauger)nondisplacementpile,hasauger
flightsentirewayupshaft,augercontinuestospinsoanycollapsing
materialiscaught,comparablewithdiaphragmwallasconcrete
followsaugerup(likeconcretefollowsbentoniteslurry)
oIfyouneedtogodeeperthanCFA,reverttodiaphragmwallwhich
hasarangeasdeepasnecessary
Antiguousboredpiles&groutcretewallsseriesofpilesinstalledcloseenough
togethertoformastructurallystablewall.Notwaterproof.Putingroundswhichhave
noornegligiblegroundwaterissues.Haveretaininganchorsorsoftgroundanchors
installedathirdofheightfrombase.

CFA/Groutcreteshownbelow:

BarretteFoundationsrectangularsectionpilesdesignedtotakehighverticalloads.

Theyconsistofonepieceofdiaphragmwall.
Secantpilesseriesofpilesinstalledtooverlapandformstructurallystablewaterproof

wall.Nonreinforcedpilesmightbeevery2ndoneuntilchalklikeconsistencyis
reached,andalternatepileshavereinforcementcageputin.
Sheetpilewallsarevirtuallywaterproofandprovidetemp/permapplication.
Diaphragmwallswaterproofcastinsituwalls.Thereisnolimitfordiaphragm

excavationrig.
VibropileGroundisexcavatedusinghighpressurewaterjets.Granularmaterialinform

ofcrushedstoneorsandisintroducedonceaprobehasreacheditsdesireddepth.The
materialiscompactedtoformacolumnasprobeisprogressivelywithdrawn.Diameter
generally0.81.2m

Toefailurewarning

Overturning moment about the toe

The centre of moment is taken about the point of the toe

Stabilising moment must be sufficiently in excess of overturning

moment

This is to ensure theres an adequate safety factor against

overturning.

Differenceindepthof
excavationforCFAvs
DiaphragmWall

Diaphragmwallconstructioncanbetolimitlessdepthsduetolackoffixed
connection

RockFace
Retention/Stabilization
(TeachingAssignment)
INEXAM

SeeTeachingAssignmentWeek6

Inseparabilityofdesign&
construction

Inareallybasicsense,gooddesigncanreduceconstructiondifficulty,savemoney,
reduceproblems.

Options(Teaching

Coveredlaterinthisdocument.

Assignment)Illustrations
Drainage

Requiredbehindnonpermeablewallstoallowwatertoescape.Generousamountsof
granularbackfillcanpreventlateralloadingofretainingstructurefromundrained
material.Veryimportantforretainingwallstructurestoavoidbuildupofporewater
pressuresinadditiontosoilpressurethisputsamuchlargerloadontheretaining
structure.
Typesofdrainage:
Draincoilverycommoncangetformedjointsbutoftennotdonecanbe
washedoutbywaterunderpressureifaccesstopipespermittedduring
construction.
SlottedPVCgenerallythebettersolutionasyoucangetaplumberseelup
toclearit.90mmPVC(standardsize)isnotpreferedasitisthinandeasyto
damagewhenwalkedover.100mmispreferedbutdoesnotcomeinslotted
formslotsneedtobecutmanually.
AtlantisDrainageCellhastobewrappedingeofabrictokeepoutgravel.
Stripdraincannotbecleanedout,mayuseifthereisinsufficientspacefora
pipe,around$3.50/msimilarpricetocordrain.

Anchorage

Anchorsusedtoprovidestrengthandsupportwall
RockAnchors

Cost
Constructability
Analysis
Rotatingthesituationto

Cordraincomesinsheets2530mlong,sheetcanbeusedbehindshotcrete,
costsabout$12/m2quiteexpensive.

SoilNails/SoftGroundAnchors
Frictionsystemstraps,mesh,fabric,grid
Deadman
Soldierpiles(egBluesPtRd)t

improveunderstanding.

Week6
Pilingparticularly
DiaphragmWall

Diaphragmwallscanbeusedeffectivelyaspilesastheymaystartatabout
450mmthicknessandgouptoanythingyouwant.Inthiscasetheyneedto
befoundedoncompetentground.
Inthecaseoftheairporttunnel,thediaphragmwallsDONOTneedtogo
torock/competentground,theygotoadepthsuchthatthestructurecan
resistbuoyancy.Toresistbuoyancyyoucanrelyonweightandfriction
betweendiaphragmwallsandsurroundingsoil.

CFApile(contiguous,
secant)

Needtoaugertorequireddepthintosoil,thenfillholewithreinforced
concretewhileaugerisbeingpulledoutideallygroutcretesinceitissofine
youcanpouritthendropareocagedown.
CFAPilesaremostsuitedforuseinsandswithloadcapacitydevelopedin
bothadhesionandendbearing.Alsocanbeusedinrock,butnotweakclay
Secantiswhenthecirclesoverlapinplan,andcontiguousiswhenthecircles
areseparateandthesoil/rockspansbetweenthepiles

M5CooksRiver
Example

Decision:Tobuildabridgeoratunnel?
Tunnelwas34millionmoreexpensive
Lightpolesforabridgewouldintrudeintotheairspaceenvelope
wouldrequireclosingonerunwayoftheairporttoraiseairspace
envelopehoweveritwasnotintheinterestoftheairporttocooperate.
Asaresulthadtogowithatunnel.
CofferDam
Usuallybuiltoutofasheetpilewallallowingtemporaryevacuationof
waterwhereconstructionistotakeplace.
Needtoputinstruttingfromonesheetpilewalltothenextusually
steelCHS.Wailersareattachedtotheinsideofasheetpilewallto

supportstrutting.
Cofferdamforcooksriverbuiltin3stagescouldntdoall3atoncein
ordertoallowflowofriverandaccessforfishingboatsetc.Candoit
inanyorder.Possiblesteps:
oStep1:Installcofferdam2andplaceroofslab(1)&diaphragm
walls(5)
oStep2:installcofferdams1and3,excavateeastboundtunnel
(3)andwestboundtunnel(4)throughfrom1to3andplace
roadpavementslab

PrincesHwy/NSR
crossingaccident(toe
failure)example

TeachingAssignment
Howtoapproach
designtosimplify
construction&reduce
constructiontime/cost.

7circularcofferdamsacrosscooksrivershapehasnatural
advantageforlateralwaterloadingreducingtheneedforstrutting.
Mainfailurewasnexttoriverattemptedtoengagebottomofsheet
pilesinrockwithsufficientstruttingtoresistlateralloadingofsoil.A
minimumdistancexbetweentheSPWtoeandthetunnelwasspecified
toensurethattheamountofrockinfrontofSPWwouldsatisfytoe
restraint.Toecollapsed,floodingexcavationwithwaterandmud.

Thisdemonstratestheneedforbeltandbraces,onesolutionwould
havebeentousearockanchortoholdbacktoeofSPW

Avoidanceoffrontfacereinforcement,
70degreewedgefailureline(supported/supportingzones)
Analysis:
Loadassessment
Structuralelementdesign(structshotcrete)

 Anchordesign(anchortensilestrength,grout/rockinterfacecylinder)
Improvingnegativemomentcapacity
Effectivedepthconcretecontrol
Shotcretestrengthanddurabilityassumptions.
SOLUTIONS
1.Piledwall,sheetpiling,
Thewallwasalreadyexcavated,makingthisnotanoption.Ifithadnotbeen
excavatedalready,thecostofpilingandproximitytohousingwasprohibitive.
2.CFM(corefillmasonry)wall
Expensivesolution,thecontractorthatquotedthisfounditcosttoomuchand
scarpered.
3.Gabioncages
Thewallwastoohightofeasiblyusegabioncages.
4.Attachedmeshwithvegetation.
Notstrongenoughtowithstandthelateralloads:thisoptioncanonlybeused
forrelativelyshallowslopes.
5.Concrete(insituandprecast)
Tooexpensive.Allprecastelementswouldbedifferentsizes,whichisnot
idealforprecasting.
6.Anchoredsoldierpost
Thisiswhensteelsectionsareboltedintothefaceandinfillpanelsusedto
retain(oftenseenalongrailways).Thisoptionwastooexpensive.
6.Shotcrete
Thisoptionwastaken.Structural(withreinforcingbars)andnonstructural
(withmeshonly)shotcretewasused.Thenonstructuralshotcretewasused
forthebottomoftherockfacewhilestructuralshotcretewasusedtoretain
thesoftgroundatthetop.
Anchors
Ashearanchor(shortstubbyanchor)wasusedatthebottomofthestructural
shotcretetopreventtheshotcretefromslidingdownandthereforecreatinga
pinsupport(thereducedstiffnessofthenonstructuralshotcretebelow
stoppedbendingmomentstransferringasacontinuousslab).Anadditional
rockanchorwasinsertedjustbelowasewerpipeintothesupportingzoneof
therock(behindthefailureplane).Thesetwoanchorscreatedenoughlateral
supporttoresistthelateralloadfromthesoil.Theshearanchorwasanchored
backintothesupportingzonetopreventtheoverallrockwallfromsliding.

Reinforcement
Thecantileveractionoftheshotcreteisresistedbyverticalprimary
reinforcementlaidonthefaceofthewall.Thesimplysupportedactionis
resistedbythehorizontalprimaryreinforcement.Thiswouldbestbelaidon
thefrontfaceoftheshotcrete,butwouldbetiedtonothing.Instead,itislaid
againstthebackfaceandmomentredistributionusedtoturnthatsimply
supportedactionbackintoaverticalcantileveraction.

Week7/8
Stormwaterdrainage

Designstufftoaparticularstorm.Dontneedtobeconservativeasthe
consequencesarenotgreat.
SW=StormWater
OSD=Onsitedetention
SSR=SiteStorageRequirement
GeneralSWdesignprocess:

Adoptageneralstrategychannelorpipeflow
GetauthorityARIandIDF(Intensity,Frequency,Duration)table
Adoptapitandpipelayout
Determinedischargesateachsysteminlet(seeCPAAmanualpg.50design
discharge)
Determinepipesizesforeachreach(seeCPAAmanualpg.50draindesign)
includesenergyline(waterlevelinsystemfordesignstorm)confirmthat
energylineisbelowsurfaceatallinletsi.e.checkthatsystemhasfreeboard
atallinletsfordesignstorm
SelectpipeclasstosuitshorttermandlongtermloaduseCPAAtablesor
CPAApipeselectionprogramme
Selectpitsizestosuitpipes
SelectgratesizesandK&Ginletstosuittrafficloadandinletcapacity
DesignOSD.

Stormwaterpittobelocatedatapointofchangeofdirection(corner)
watertobecontainedinroadway
Pitandpipesystemtowithstandabigstorm.
StormDuration=Timefordropletofwatertopassfromoneendofthe
catchmenttotheother.
HydrologicalHydraulic
Construction/Structura
l

Methodtodesigndrainage:
Hydrologicalconsiderationsbasicallyweatherconditionse.g.flooding
Howmuchwaterpondsorinfiltratesafterastorm?Howmuchwateris
deliveredfromacatchmentintoasystem?
Hydraulicswhathappenstothewaterwhenitgetsintothesystem.
usesoftwaresuchasDRAINSor12Dtodesign
pipes/culverts/drains/pits/overlandflowpaths.Youcanthenrunthedesign
stormeg100ARI(averagerecurrenceinterval)andseehowthesystem
works.Adjustthesystemuntilitworks.
Structuraldesigninvolvesselectionofpipestosuitexternalloadingincluding
constructionvehicleandlongtermvehicleloadingforroads.
Constructionstageisthehighestriskbecausethemachinesareheavy..you
carryoutstructuraldesignforpit/pipesystemforthisstage.
Lastlyyoupresentthedesignusingplans,longsectionsandcrosssections.
TypicallyanARIcomesfromthecouncil=1%AEP(AnnualExceedance

Probability)
Sitegrading

Determineswhichareasofthesitearegoingtogointowhichcatchments.
Fallarrowsareusedtoshowwherewaterisgoinginapitsystem.
Asiteshouldbegradedsuchthatifallthepitsareoverflowing,waterwill
drainontoaroadorsomeotherpitnetworkratherthanintothebuilding.
Gradingisgenerallyat5%forparkingandatmax12%forlongrangedriving

Sitegrading(Callala
Bay
example/Parramattard
example)

NeedtoshapeorgradethecarparkareasothesurfacedrainsParramatta
roadsexistingstormwaterdrainagesystem.Withinthisgradingdesignyou
havetomakesurethepavedareameetstheedgeofthebuildingslabwith
approx100mmoffreeboard(externalpartofasitetobeasuitabledepth
belowthebuildingslabsowaterdoesntgointothebuilding.inthiscasewere
150mmbelow).
Therearestandardsformaxgradingsforcarparkseg5%lateralgrade(AS
2890)whichdictateshowtogradethesite.
Detentionisalsorequired.OSD(onsitestormwaterdetention)isdesignedin
accordancewithCouncilstandards.
SWdrainageshouldbedesignedsuchthatwithintheoutcomeofthedesign
storm,alltherainfallthatfallsontheroofandcarparkshouldbewithinthe
pitsandpipes(DRAINSensuresthis).Parramattaroadisthebackupdrain.

Trenchgrading
methods

SandBags(2perlengthofpipe),Cradles,BeddingContouring(rakedsand
bed)

C,A,Ipipetypes

Rationalmethodforestimatingpeakflowrate
Q(flowrate)=2.78*C*I*A
QisthemaximumflowrateinI/s.
Cisthecoefficientofrunoff.Thisisthefractionofrainfallthat
becomesrunoff.Itsvaluedependsonthecharacteristicsofthe
catchmente.g.pavedcityareas,forestsetc.Duringarainstormthe
actualrainfallcoefficientincreasesasthesoilbecomessaturated.
Aisthecatchmentareainhectares.
Iistherainfallintensityinmm/hrfortheselectedrecurrence
intervalwithdurationequaltothecatchmentstimeofconcentration
(tc)
Pipetypes
PipeTypesRRJ,FJ,FRC,PVC,Poly,CSP
RRJ=rubberringjoint/spigotsocketjoint.RubberRingJoint(RRJ)
pipesarerecommendedforstormwaterdrainagesystems,although
FlushJoint(FJ)pipescanalsobeuseddependentonrequirementsof
theclient/assetowner.RubberRingJointsprovideconcretepipes
withahighdegreeofflexibilitytoaccommodategroundsettlementor
alignmentadjustments.
FJ=flushjointpipeprovidesaninterlockingjointwhichallowsfor

asmalldegreeofflexibilityinthepipelinealignment.
FRC=fiberreinforcedconcretepipesthatareusedinstormwater
applications.Relativelylightweightpipesareadvantagesintermsof
easeoftransportationandinstallation.
PVC=plasticpipeoftenusedinsewageanddrainage
Poly=polyethylene(PE)pipes.Canbesuppliedinstraightlengths
orcoilsreducingtheneedforjointsandfittings.Usedinsewage,water
supply,drainageandirrigation.
CSP=CorrugatedSteelPipeoftenusedindrainagesystemsand
stormwaterdetentionandretentionsystems.Lightweightin
comparisontoconcrete.Sinusoidalcorrugationsareefficient.
Pipeclass:Class2(2tonnes/m^3),Class4(4tonnes/m^3).Class4
morecommon,butmoreexpensive.Shorttermloadingof[pipesduring
constructionisbiggestconcernthereforebetterpipeclasspays
dividendsduringconstructionloading.

Sewerpipes:GenerallyPVCorclayduetoresiliencetopollutants
Methodoflay

Layconcretepavementontopofgravel.Overexcavaterockandthenpour
sandorgravelontop,thenpourconcrete.Otherwiseconcreteiswasted.
Overexcavatingtherockisdonesothatitispossibletogradethesiteusing
sand/gravel.
Excavation,Bedding,LayPipe,Backfill,Compact

StormwaterDetention
Design

Councilsrequiredetentionsystemstocontroldischargefromnewlydeveloped

sites.
TheimageshowsaPit/Tankwithorifice.Dischargeiscontrolledbyheadand
rateofinflowintothesystem.Councilswillimposeamaximumallowable
dischargeandminimumstoragerequirement.Generallythe
postdevelopmentdischargerateisrequiredtobelessthanthe
predevelopmentrate.Designingasystemtooperateatmaximumhead
resultsininefficiencyforallcasesexceptwheremaxheadoccurs.
Highearlydischarge

Create a chamber around the orifice of a tank by building a weir - this

will make the system more efficient as the orifice will reach the design
discharge much sooner. Flap valve allows water into HED chamber
from OSD when HED chamber is low. Flap closes and water will be
from inflow pipes/over the weir if HED is full. We want rainfall to go
straight into the HED chamber when the tank is full.

Surcharge - overflowing of water. This is often through grates in the top

of the tank or pit.

Want to cause the post development discharge rate to not greater than
the predevelopment discharge rate for the same storm.

3 overflows required: one into main detention tank, one into the
downstream pit and surcharge through the top of the tank.

Grates also required for maintenance and rescue

Rainwater

Must be from roof only, all other water runs into the HED
Overflows into the HED via a pipe or spillway
BASIX (building sustainability index) analysis gives rainwater catchment
requirements

Documentation

Laststageofdesign:aswellaslayout,itishelpfultogiveapitandpipetable
forschedulingpurposesinwhichpitsaredesignatedbyletternameandpipes
aredesignatedbythepitstheyspanbetween.Aschematicdiagramof
stormwaterflowisalsohelpful.

Pits

Necessarywhencatchmentwantstodischargeintopipesystemorapipe
directionchangeisrequired.Maximumdistancebetweenpitsdeterminedby
localcouncils.Generallyspecificationgovernsbycleaningrequirements

Backfill

Reinforcedconcretepipesonagranularbed(recycledconcrete)withpitsat

regularintervals.Draincoilswithpolyestersockskeepsiltout.Geofabric
playerplacedovergranularmaterialprovidingfreedrainingsupportof
concretepitsandpreventingpipeworkfloatingawayinastorm.Lateral
supportpreventspipesdeformationundersurfaceloading.

Rousehillcasestudy
(8mdeepRCSewer
Pipecracking
inadequateclass,
unsuitablebackfill)

Haunchsupport

Pipescrackedat12oclockand6oclockinternally,and3oclockand9
oclockexternally.Cheappipeclasschosenrequiringbetterqualitybackfill
materialaroundpipesidewallstopreventcracking.Roundedaggregateused
poorlygradedprovidingstablevolumebutnotstableshapethereforenogood
asbackfillmaterialsupportingpipesunderload(i.e.itwillmoveandcrackthe
pipewhenloaded)
Wellcompacted,larger,angularbackfillmaterialprovidinglateralandvertical
supporttothepipestructureandwillresistancedeformationsinthepipe.

Rubberring(RRJ)=
Spigotsocketjoint

Weberspreferenceinringjoints!

Flushjoint

FJ=cheaperthanaRRJ,butmustbeflat,settlementovertimeis
unpredictableandcandamagepipeswiththisconnection

EnergyLine

Mustbebelowthesurfacelevelatallinlets.Spikeinenergylinerecognised

byDRAINS,whereastheprevioussolutiontothisproblemwastoincrease
downstreampipediameter
Stormwater
Infrastructure

Ideallylaythepipefromthedownstreamendfirst,2accesspointsare
requiredforcleaningandforsafety

Subsoildrainintrench

Theseareperforatedpipesthatarelaidintrenchestprotecttheroadformationsby
drainingthemajorityofthewaterawayfromtheroadstructureaswellasintercepting
groundwaterwhichwouldotherwiseaffectthestructure.Wherepossible,itis
desirabletoplacethedrainsasnearaspracticabletotheedgeofthestructure(either
pavementoraroad)

CallalaBayExample

Seeabove

ParramattaRd
Example

Seeabove

DRAINSsoftware

SplitSystem:Halfdetentionandhalfretention,excellentenvironmental
solution
LeveltermsRL:RaisedLevel,FFL:FinishedFloorLevel,NSL:Natural
SurfaceLevel,IL:InvertLevel

Week9
SiteGrading

Determineswhichareasofthesitearegoingtogointowhich
catchments.
Fallarrowsareusedtoshowwherewaterisgoinginapitsystem.
Asiteshouldbegradedsuchthatifallthepitsareoverflowing,water
willdrainontoaroadorsomeotherpitnetworkratherthanintothe
building.
Gradeat5%forparking
Gradeat12%maxforlongrangedrivingpaths

Gradeatupto20%forshortdrives(e.g.driveways,parkingstructures)
HECRASapplication
andexample

Teachingassignment
drainageexample

HydraulicEngineeringCentresRiverAnalysisSystem:FloodAnalysisSoftware
Package.Goodmodellingsystemforopenchannelflow.Allowsyoutoperform
onedimensionalsteadyflow,unsteadyflow,sedimenttransport/mobilebed
computationsandwatertemperaturemodelling

Mustbeabletodrawgradingcontoursonasite.
Generalprinciplesofsitegrading:
1.
Runoffmustflow(gravitate)toacollectionpointorareliefpoint.
2.
Thesiteshouldhaveanoverlandflowpathforreliefwhenpitsand
pipesfail(mayneedaneasement)

3.
Earthworksvolumes.....myapproachhasbeentoachieveabalanced
designwithminimalcostsinvolvedintransportationofspoiltoorfromthesite
4.
PipegradientsIwouldnotliketoputmynametogradientsanyless
thanwehavenowtheyarealreadyatorbelowacceptedminimalgradients
forresidentialandcommercialpipeddrainagesystems
5.
Pipecoverattheupperendofpiperuns,structuralcovertopipesis
arguablylessthanminimumrequiredandthemanagementofthesiteduringthe
constructionphasewillinvolveavoidingconstructiontrafficovershallowpipes
untilsuchtimeaspavementisconstructedandcured.
6.
AS2890(offstreetparking)complianceintermsoflateraland
longitudinalsurfacegradientsSeeextractsfromAS2890relatingtodriveway
gradients,parkingbaylongitudinalfall,parkingbaycrossfall
7.
Maximumpondinglevelsetbycouncil....Perhaps200mmin
importantcarparkareauptoperhaps500mmislessimportantareas
8.
Theunderlyinggeneralneedtoincorporateanengineereddrainage
systemintothedevelopment.

Week10
pavements

Pavingmachineusedtopaveconcrete,hasastripwidthofabout3m.
Layeredstructurewithlayersincreasinginloadbearingcapacitycloserto
surface.Surfacestressesofwheelloadsdistributedoverabroadareasuch
thatloadbearingcapacityofmaterialisntexceeded.
Keyproperties:Interparticlefriction,interlock,resistancetochangein
propertiesinmoistenvironment
PavementdesignisanaccumulationofESAsoverdesignlife

flexiblepavement

Typesofflexiblepavement:
Asphalticconcrete:naturallyporoussurface,avoidsaquaplaning.
(opengrade20mmstone).Economical,trafficloadingearly,notgood
forshortradiusturns,highmaintenancerequirements,driverfriendly
(lownoise,goodcolour).Baseandsubbaselayersarecompacted,with
thesurfacelaidwithpavingmachineandcompactionusingsmooth
drumsteelroller.Trafficloadingcanbeearlyafterlaying.Composed
ofcoarseaggregate,fineaggregate,bitumen.Thesematerialsare
mixedanddeliveredtositeat180degrees.

Bituminousseal(chipseal):mostprolificpavementtileinAustralia.
Stonechipspressed/rolledandsprayedwithbitumen.Cheapestoption,
poorinhotweather,highmaintenanceanddriverfriendly.Most
commoninAustralia(rareinSydneythough).Baseandsubbase
compacted,bituminousprimerandtackcoatsprayedfromtruck
mountedkettle,stoneshippingsspreadthenrolledusingrubbertyred
roller,slowtrafficokayafterlayingandloosematerialmustbe
broomedoffafterseveraldaysofcuring.

Segmentedpaver/concretepaverblocks:subgradepreparationis
important,mortarbedandmeshreinforcementisagoodoption.(sand
isnotagoodoptiondespitethemanufacturersspecifications,useat
leastamortarbed).Lateralconfinementisneededasthepaverblock
haveatendencytorock.Lockuptopreventrotation,achievedby
tessellatingthepavers.Perforatedorlatticepaversareoftenusedin
carparkareas.Lowmaintenancecosts,failureisnotobvious.
Appropriatefortrafficspeedsupto70km/hr,nojointingissues,easy
maintenance,traffickedimmediatelyafterlaying.

Recomendationsforpreparationofsubgrade:

rigidpavement

TypesofRigidPavement:
Reinforcedconcretewithjoint(bestoption):highcost,trafficked
aftercuringperiod,goodresistancetoshortradiusturns,low
maintenancecost,lessdriverfriendly,affectedbyhightemperatures.
Subbaseandbasecompacted,concretelaidusingpavingmachine(or
conventionalpour),difficulttocureproperly.Jointingitexpensiveand
animportantconsideration
Reinforcedwithoutjoints:Averyporouslayerisneededbelowthe
concreteandexpectedtolastatleast30years
Unreinforced
TypicalCRCPsection

Transverseandlongitudinalcontractionjointscanbeused.Thisallowsfor
shrinkagetooccuratthelocationsofyourchoice.
Reasonforjointsinrigidpavements:makesmovementhappenwhereyouwant
it,meansoftransferringshearfromonesitetotheother.(Aggregateinterlock:
measureofsheartransfer)
Sawcutsusedtoinduceshrinkagecracks(about5hoursfollowingconcrete
pour).Sealantbeadusedatthecuttopreventmoistureinfiltrationtosubgrade
support.Gapisrequiredtobenarrowenoughfortrafficshearloadtobe
transferredfromslabtoslabbyparticleinterlock
Sealantsarealsousedtopreventdirtfillingupthethermalexpansiongaps,and
willtakethesheartransverseacrossthecrack
Curingagentusedtoholdmoistureinconcrete,thetoppingisgroovedtoallow
forfrictionfortraffic,whichinturnpreventsaquaplaning
Joints

Jointsdesignedinawaytopreventmoisture.(Jointssealed)
Thesedividepavementintosuitablelengthsforconstructionpurposes.Also
allowsfordifferentialmovementbetweenabuttingstructuressuchasbridges
andintersections.Purposetocontrolcrackingduetorestrainedcontraction,
warping,loadingandtemperature.
Spacingbetweenunreinforcedjointsis5mspacing,reinforcedjoints1015m
(12misidealasreinforcingmeshcomesin6sqmsheets)
Loadtransferacrossjointsisdonebyaggregateinterlock,amechanical
device(suchasadowel),skewedjoints,randomizedjoints,keyslabsand
thickenededges

Doweljoints:Galvanizedsteelbarpaintedwithbondbreakertoavoidbonding
toconcreteensuringdowelfreetomove.Improvessheartransferandwill
alwayscreateagreaterjointwidthtoallowforthermalexpansion
Isolationjoint:providesnosheartransfer,thereforemustseekbeamaction
fromthickenededgeeithersideofjoint
ContractionJoint:dealswithtransverseloading
ConstructionJoint:placedduringconstructionduetounexpectedhaltinwork
ortemporarydelayetc.
3mainfamiliesof
highwaysurface

Fulldepthasphalt,deepstrengthasphalt,concreteallhaveunboundbase
layers,followedbyaboundfinalsurface

thicknessdesign

Involvestheuseofgraphsasshownbelow,forflexiblepavementsandrigid
pavements.
FlexiblePavements

Simplechartismoretodowithrelationshipbetweencovertoagivenlayer,
ratherthanthicknessoflayer.
Knowthestrengthofthesubgrade(CBRCaliforniaBearingRatio)fora
giventrafficload(DesignTrafficESAs)relatedtonumberofaxlerepetitions.
ESA=equivalentstandardaxle.Approximately910tonnes.
Toputitinperspective,approx.5000ToyotaYaris=1ESA(or9tonne)

EXAMPLE:
10000ESA/dayandadesignlifeof10yrs=10x365
Designtraffic=ESAxDesignLife=10000x10x365ESA

RigidPavement

StartwithAxleLoadloadintonnes(t)

Singlewheelaxle
Dualwheelaxle
Dualdualwheelaxle

StatisticsonthemixofvehiclesonpavementsareconvertedtoanetESA
count.Thischartusesthenumberofaxlerepetitionsperday.
Alwaysbeconservativeusethestatutoryloadlimits,30&aboveaxle
repetitionsandconservativedesignsoakedsubgradeCBRtogetthe
pavementthickness.Itisverycostlytofixpavements
EXAMPLE:foraloadlimitof8.5tdualwheelaxle,at30&aboveaxle
repetitions,

aconservativethicknesswouldbegivenbyaCBR=2%=190mm
anonconservativewouldbeCBR=10%&above=175mm.

Reasonsforvariable
performance

Inadequatethickness,jointingissues,embankmentstability,inadequate
specification,failuretoachievespecifiedquality,other

DGB

Denselygradedbase

DGS

Denselygradedsubbase

bituminousseal

Asaboveunderflexiblepavements

asphalticconcrete

AC20=Asphalticconcrete,20mmmaximumstonesize,minimumof35mm
thickness

collaroypavement

Thiswasapreparationforarigidpavement.Inresidential,concretepours
needtobedonebyhand.
25Mpaconcretetobechutedfromabackofatruck.Waterisaddedtothis
process,suchthattheresultantconcretehasastrengthoflessthan25MPa.

Unexplainedpavementfailuresawcutjointtogetherwithcut(every2/3)
meshwirestoprovidealineofweaknessinmesh,butinsteadthecrack
happenedafootawayfromthejoint.WhatWeberthinksitwas:thatthe
concretewaspumpedinsteadofchutedasitwasoriginallyplanned.Todowith
concretestrength.
rundlemall

Highpressurewaterspraywasusedtocleanpaving.Thiscausederosionof
thesandsubbaseandwashedoutjointingsand.

Week11
pavementteaching
assignment
Posttensioned
concrete

pavementsdesignwithinsitumodificationofsubgradeasacostsaving,
environmentallyappropriatemeasure.RefertoWeberssolutionsforcalcs.
thepracticalconstructionaspectsofposttensionedwork,approximate
Span/depthratiosforRCandPTwork.(Harbordprojectwasusedas
example)PTDrawingingeneralindicatingductdrape,precamberbeinga
probleminthedesign/constructionprocess

Week12
environmental
engineering

Whatisenvironmentalengineering?
Theintegrationofscienceandengineeringprinciplestoimprovethe
naturalenvironment(air,waterandlandresources).
Civilengineertypicallyconsidersair,waterandsoil
Environmentalplannerassessesaproposalforcompliancewith
environmentallaws,putstogetherEIS,runscommunitymeetings,
considerseverythingastheenvironmentincl.flora,fauna,noise,
trafficetc.
Governmentsenvironmentaldepartments,land&environmentcouncil
Investmentbanksbasisforbusiness,carbontaxtobecomean
emissionstradingscheme.
Whatisanenvironmentalproject?

Generallywaterengineering

Canbetunnelventilation(airquality)
EnvironmentalplanningactNSWassessesimpactofaplannedprojectand
consequentlyapproves/rejectsit
DECCWDepartmentofEnvironmentConservationClimateChangeand
Water
EISEnvironmentalImpactStatement(includingflora,fauna,noisebothlong
termandconstruction,visual,traffic,community,constructionmethod,heritage,
etc

SEEStatementofenvironmentaleffects
REFReportonenvironmentalfactors
Thesearetherequireddocumentsforenvironmentalplanningact
ProjectNo1,4,8,9,11

Project1:
Generalenvironmentalplanning.EnvironmentalplanningactNSW
assessesimpactofaplannedprojectandconsequently
approves/rejectsit.EA.EIS.SEE&REF
DECCWDepartmentofEnvironment,Conservation,Climate
ChangeandWater
EA=Environmentalassessment
EIS=Environmentalimpactstatement
SEE=StatementofenvironmentalEffects
REF=Reportonenvironmentalfactors
Project4:Stormwaterdetentionfacility

Stormwaterdetentionhasanenvironmentalbasispreventsdischarge
ofwaterfromanimpervioussiteathighvelocity,thereforepreventing
environmentaldamage.Dischargeshouldbenoworsethantheunbuilt
site.
Project8:ErosionsedimentcontrolmeasuresRosevilleDevelopment

Ownerappliedforresidentialsubdivisioninto11councils,projectwent
tolandandenvironmentcouncilwasapproved

Waterqualityfacilities:GPT,littoralzone(below)

Useofsiltfences

Conflictbetweenremovinggroundcoverforfiresafetyandadding
groundcovertopreventerosion.

Upto50treeshadtoberemovedtobuildthewaterqualityfacilitya
facilitythatprobablywasntrequiredanywayisthisactually
environmentallysustainable?

Environmentallyappropriateopendrain:geotechnicalfabricwithrough
rocksplacedoverthetopandplantedwithvegetationinthedrain.

Constructionstageprotectionoftreestimbertiedaroundtrunk

Cribwallusedtoretaininternalroadembankment:invitedmoisture&
growthoftreerootsmuchmorethananRCretainingwall.

Standardsubdivisionalroadconstructionhassignificantimpacton
trees.
Project9:Hornsbydevelopment

Project11:SouthCreekNutrientOffsetScheme

Sandfilter,constructedwetland,UVlampwaterdisinfectant

SydneyWaterCorporationpayspenaltiestoDECforlicencetopollute

DECfundsdesignofschemedtoreducepollution
Typesofengineeringinvolved:watercatchment/collection/storage,
reusepumpingandreticulation,nutrientextraction,pathogenremoval
Resistchemicalmethodsandpromotenaturalmethods

Nutrientreduction
schemes

Whenfencingisusedtoprotecttheriparianzone.Thispreventsissueswith
theriverbankandalgalgrowth.Bypreventinganimalsfrombeinginthe
riparianzoneunwantednutrientsarenotintroducedintotheriver.
Fencing/nutrientcatchercanalsobeusedtopreventwastefrommarket
gardensenteringtheriversystem.

Offsets

carbonoffsetisaformoftradingthatfundsprojectsthatreducegreenhouse
emissions.Carbonoffsetsarevoluntary.Peopleandbusinessesbuythemto
reducetheircarbonfootprintorbuilduptheirgreenimage.Carbonoffsetscan
counteractspecificactivitieslikeairtravelanddriving.

Licensetopollute

licensesgiventocompaniesallowingthemtoemitacertainamountofcarbon
emissions,etc..

SiteRemediation

returningasitetoitsprepollutantcondition

RattleRack

Designedtostopmuckleavingaconstructionsiteonwheelsofavehicle

Penaltiesforexceeding
licensedlevelsof
pollution

Finesmayapplyforexceedingthelimitsputinplacebythegovernment.

environmentalaudits

evaluationsintendedtoidentifyenvironmentalcomplianceandmanagement
systems.Correctiveactionsrequiredwillbebroughttoonesattention.
GreenStarBuildinggraduallybeingreplacedbyNABERSrating(National
AustralianBuiltEnvironmentRatingSystem)

waterqualityfacility

watertreatmentarea,importanttomakesurethatthewaterqualityis
maintained.

GPT

GrossPollutantTrap(steelracktrapscollectmaterialdowntoadrinkcan
size)

littoralzone

Thelittoralzoneisthepartofasea,lakeorriverthatisclosetotheshore.In
coastalenvironmentsthelittoralzoneextendsfromthehighwatermark,
whichisrarelyinundated,toshorelineareasthatarepermanentlysubmerged.

macrophyteplants
(reeds,baumea)

Amacrophyteisanaquaticplantthatgrowsinornearwater.
Adeclineinamacrophytepopulationmayindicatewaterqualityproblems.
Suchproblemsmaybetheresultofexcessiveturbidity,herbicides,or
salinization.Conversely,overlyhighnutrientlevelsmaycreatean
overabundanceofmacrophytes.

Sedimentpond

Atemporarypondbuiltonaconstructionsitetocaptureerodedordisturbed
soilthatiswashedoffduringrainstorms.Protectsthewaterqualityofa
nearbystream,river,lake,orbay.

detentionpond

Excavatedareainstalledon,oradjacentto,tributariesofrivers,streams,lakes
orbayswhichprotectagainstflooding.Adetentionpondcanalsoprevent
downstreamerosionbystoringwaterforalimitedperiodofatime.

InceptionPond

Usedtocontrolnutrientrunoffintowatersystems

nutrientuptake

Nutrientuptakedependslargelyonwaterflowfromthesubstratetotheroots
andthenuptotheshoots.Rootsdonotintentionallygrowtowardsanutrient
source.Fornutrientuptaketooccur,theindividualnutrientionmustbein
positionadjacenttotheroot.Positioningofthenutrientioncanoccurby:
RootInterception
Therootcan"bumpinto"theionasitgrowsthroughthesoil.
MassFlow
Thesolublefractionofnutrientspresentinsoilsolution(water)andnotheldon
thesoilfractionsflowtotherootaswateristakenup.
Diffusion
Nutrientssuchasphosphorusandpotassiummovetotherootbydiffusion.The
nutrientuptakecreatesagradientforthenutrienttodiffusethroughthesoil
solutionfromazoneofhighconcentrationtothedepletedsolutionadjacentto
theroot.

constructionphase
measures

Protectionoftrees
ensuretherearestormwaterdrainagechannels.

longtermmeasures
civilengineering
designssensitiveto
localenvironment
Timberengineering

alternativeroadcrosssection
cribwall

Timberisaveryeconomicalandenvironmentallysustainablematerial
inlowriseconstruction
Termiteattack,shapestabilityandstructuraldefects(knots)arethe
keyissueswithtimber.Structuraldefectsmaketimberdifficultto
classify.
Highjoist:multilaminatedfingerjoint.Madeoftimberthatwould
otherwisegotowaste.200,250or300mmdepth.50to90mmflange
width.
AS1720describesequationsfortimberstrength.

EWP(Engineered
woodproducts)

LVL

HighJoist

Hyspan

k1factorisimportant&uniquetotimberaccountsforcreep
behaviour(roughly0.95forashorttermloadand0.65foralongterm
load)creepisnotonlyadeflectionissuebutalsoastrengthreduction
issue.

IncludesLVL,Hyspan,HyJoist(timberIbeam)andGluLam(early
versionofhyspan)
Engineeredtimbergenerallynegatesshapestabilityandandstructural
defectsofrawtimber.
Usuallymadefromplantationtimber.
Genericnameforlaminatedveneerlumber
Plymanufacturedbeams

Excellentproduct,usingmaterialthatmayhaveotherwisebeenwaste.
Itismultilaminatedandfingerjointed
Highrigidityratiosandcapacityratios
Isection
MultilaminatedtimberbeamproducedbyCarterHoltHarvey(CHH)
Designbendingstress16MPa
Characteristicstrengthoftimberusedtomanufacturehyspan48MPa
Thedifferencebetweenthesestressesisexplainedbythe
characteristicstressisseverelyreducedbykfactorsandphifactors.
Thisisveryconservativeappropriateforavariablematerial.
Rectangularcrosssection
Knowhowtousesinglepagehyspantable:
Moment>designbendingstress=16MPa>I>beamsize

StrengthGroup

Approachestotimber
design

Thereareabroadcollectionofparametersthatrelatetotimber,wewilllimit
thisto:
FxStressGrade(x=workingfibrestress)e.g.F7has7Mpatensile
strength
SDSeasonedstrengthgroup
SUnseasonedstrengthGroup
MGPxMachinegradedpine(x=ModulusofElasticityparallelto
grain)AcommonpinetimberwouldbeMGP10.Agoodqualitypine
timberwouldbeMGP20.

AFirstPrinciples
Basedonf=M/Z(Notetheinfluenceofk1(durationofload)apart
from11otherfactors
CanuseAS17203.2tofinddesignmomentcapacityforabeam
B.SpanTables
ParticularlyCarterHoltHarvey(CHH)
C.DesignIT
SoftwareforHyspan,HyjoistandotherNONEngineeredSoftwood
andHardwood
Cancomparehyspanandhybeamtonaturaltimber
RLWtributaryarea
Willgiveyoualistofoptionswithrigidityratios(>1meansrigidity
exceedsrequiredrigidity)andcapacityratios(>1meansthatdesign
factorofsafetyexceedsminimumrequireddesignfactorofsafety).
GenerallyaimforRR=1.5,andusuallycorrespondingCRwillbefine.

Castlecragproject

UsesHyJoist,verycosteffective,heavilyreliantonglue,very
importanttokeepthisproductoutoftheweatherasEWPwill
generallystarttodelaminateiftoomuchwaterisabsorbedshould
providetarpaulinprotectionduringconstruction.
Builderstendtogetstudwallsdesignedbystudmanufacturersstuds
werespacedtoofarapartandbuckled.
Usesacombinationoftimberandsteelmostlyarchitectural.
TimberfitsinbetweenupperandlowerflangesofsteelIbeams
illustrationsofhowtodothisindesignIT
MightchooseaPFCratherthanUBsoyoucangetacleanface.
SHSpostsusedwheretherearesubstantialloads.

CRANEENGINEERING
KeyIssuesforto
addressatthe
beginningofaproject

Whyhaveacraneonabuildingsite?
Speedofloading&unloadingconstructionmaterials
Reductionofworkplaceliftinginjuries
Wheredoyoulocateacrane?
SiteLocation(Denseurbanarea,orruralspace?)
ConstructionZone
Trafficplanning
Hoarding
Liftingplatforms
Whatistheheaviestlift?
Whohiresthecrane
Whatwasbudgetedforinthetenderandwhatsizeofcranedoesthis
moneybuy?
Whereisthecranelocated
Entryandexitofcrane
Lengthofjibrequired
Whatspaceisavailableinthebuildingforacranepenetration?
Buildingtieneeded?
towercranefoundations
Doesthecraneneedtogoontopofabuilding?Needtodetermineif
thebuildinghasenoughcapacity.(Existingliveloadofbuilding,
structuraldrawingsandanymodificationstothestructure)
Doesthecraneneedtobeclimbedduringconstruction?
cranescanbelocatedinliftshafts,mayneedtolockinpositionasthe
cranemovesandcouldhittheliftshaftwalls.Havetobecarefulwhen
usingthecollars(lockinginplace)asthecranecanbuckle.Mayneed

toaddadditionalsupport.
TypesofCranes

Hammerheadcrane
Luffingjibcrane
mobilecranes
Dieselorelectric

Fixedtobuildingor
Free

buildingtiesmayneedtobeused.Iftherearetighttolerancesofmovementsin
theshaftofthecrane,thenitwillhavetobetiedtothebuilding.Ifthecrane
extendstoohigh,thenthecraneshouldbetiedintocontinueloading,however
thisrequiresalotofthoughtintoloadingpaths.

Slewing

Jibmovesbackandforth(i.e.rotatesin360degrees).Generallycannot
freestandahammerheadcranetallenoughinthecity.

Luffing

Jibmovesupanddown,usefulforhighbuildingsorinrestrictedspaceswhere
thereisntmuchroomtomovearound.

Whyaremorecranes
notremotelyoperated

Largercranesneedoperatorstoseewhatishappeningonsite.Itiseasierto
seewhatisgoingoniftheoperatorisinplace.Forsmallerjobsremote
operationisok.If2cranesareincloseproximity,atleastonecraneneedsa
cabin.

BaseDesign(Inservice
/OutofService)

TypesofFoundationsforCranes:
concretepadinground:morecommon,verycheap,canbedesigned
foranysoilconditions

ballastedbase

Rockanchors:usedifyouhavegoodgroundconditionsandthereisnot
muchroomforconcretepad.2to3timesmoreexpensivethan
concretebasesolution.

Tablesofloadingrequirements,loadfactorsandloadcombinationrequirements
analyzed.(AS1418)
Cranemanufacturersprovidetechinformationincludingcranereactions.Need
tocheckloadcombinationsused,windloads,backwardstabilityandload
factorsused.(useEuroCodeorFEM)
CranePhases:
ErectionPhase:installation

InService:wheninuse.Longjiblengthcancauseissuesforinservice
phase,largeoverturningmoment.

OutofService:whentheoperatorstopsforthedayandgoeshome.

Thewindeffectisimportanttotakeintoconsideration.Forhigher
towercranes,thebasemomentoutofserviceismuchgreaterthanthe
momentinservice,basedontheassumptionthecranecanonlyoperate
uptocertainwindspeedsandwhenwindspeedsexceedthisvaluethe
cranemustbecomeoutofservice.

Whenusingacraneontopofabuildingitisverydifficulttodetermineifthe
buildingisstrongenough.
QuaintLoadUnits

Beawareofdifferentunitsinthemanufacturer'stechinformation.
Decanewton(DaN)=10NiscommonlyusedinEurope.

Mast

Attachedtothebaseandgivesthecraneitsheight.mainsupportingtowerof
thecrane,madeofsteeltrusssectionswhichareconnectedtogetherduring
installation.

ClimbingTower

Sectionliftedbythecraneandattachedtogantrybeam.Hydraulicjacksraise
thecranetocreatespaceforanewsectionwhichistheninserted.This
processisrepeatedwhenheightisrequired.

SlewRing

Partofthecranethatletsthebaseofthecranestaystillandthetopmove.
Selferectingtowercraneshavetheslewringatthebottom.

Jib

thepartofthecranethatholdstheload.(workingarm)

CounterJib/CraneSelf
Climb

Usedwhenacraneselfclimbs.Itbalancesthecrane.
Forselfclimbtooccurazeromomentisrequiredattheslewring.
Cantbedoneinwindyconditions.

AccidentInvestigations

boltsoftenfailinthefirstfewthreadsinthenut,theyflyoffwithlittletono
warning.
Needtobecarefulwhenarrangingliftingsetup.

Needtoensuregoodcommunicationbetweencraneoperators.
LegalIssues

Howtoselfclimba
crane

Youcanerectacraneoversomeoneelsesproperty.
YoucannotliftaloadacrosssomeoneelsespropertyasthereisOH&Sand
legalissues.
Keyconcept:Needtointroducezeromomentbyholdingacranesectionatthe
correctradius.Asthereisnotmuchholdingthetopofthecranetothebottom
thiscanbedangerous.
Hydraulicramspushthetopofthecraneup,andanewcranesectionheldina
gantryisslidinbeneaththetop.Hydraulicramsarethencontractedand
climbingcancontinue.

MARINEENGINEERING
Influenceofmarine
environmentoncivil
engdesignand
construction

Concrete(ingeneral)

Corrosiveenvironment,largeloads,unforgiving,catastrophic
consequences.
Needtodesignforsomecorrosiongenerallyassumethatthe
protectivecoatingwillnotlastthelifeofthestructure.
Generallylimitedto4materials:metal,concrete,timber&plastic.
Concretespallingleadstocorrosionofsteel.
Needtodesignforsplashzone,submergedzoneandburiedzone
eachzonehasdifferentproperties.
GeneralRules
Avoidthickconcretesections,useaminimum50MPa,DONT
prestress,useasmallnumberoflargediameterbars
MarineStructuresCode:AS4997specifiesCoatingsandSacrificial
Systemsformarineenvironments

Underwaterconcrete
placement

Hasadesignlifeof50years,howeversometimesitwillonlylastfor10
years.Oldermarinestructurestendtolastlongerthanmodernones
duetouseofhighearlystrengthconcrete,howeverthisformhashigh
levelsofshrinkageandcrackingallowingcorrosionofreo.
Concreteisaspongeandabsorbsmoisture&chlorideions.
Moderncementsaregenerallydevelopedforhighriseapplications.
Needatleast50MPaconcreteinamarineapplication.
Cancoatconcretewithsilanetopreventchlorideioningress.
Avoidprestressedconcreteasitcanfailwithoutwarning.
Requiresintricatecompactionandspecialiseddetailing
Extrastrengtheningwhencorrosionoccursisdonewithcarbonfibres
strips

Underwaterconcreteplacementisachievedusingatremiepipe.Pipeplaced
tothebottomofthepourandconcretepumpedthrough,asconcreteisdenser
thanwaterthewaterisdisplaced.Concreteisoverpumpedtoremovethe
affectedconcreteatthewater/concretejunction.

Underwaterreinforced
concrete(reo
protection)

Keytogoodreinforcedconcretedesignisgoodqualityconcrete(50+
MPa)andplentyofcoverandreinforcement(75mmcover),wantto
preventcracking
Prestressedconcreteisavoidedinthemarineenvironmentasitcan
failwithoutwarning
Stainlesssteelreinforcementgoodstrategy,butveryexpensive
Fiberglassreinforcement(VRod)anextrudedcompositematerial,
lightweight,nosteeleliminatingcorrosion,howeverlargecost

Structuralsteel
protection(coatings,

DensowrapProtectionprovidingflexibilityandcorrosionresistance
HDPESleevesusedtoprotectsteeltubepiles

painttypesetc)

Preferredpiletypes

Poreblockingadmixtures,Zincanodes,StainlessSteelReo
Trilaminatepolyethylene
Epoxypaintedpile
Paint
Stainlesssteel&aluminum(reduceneedforaprotectivecoating)

SteelPile
Asconcretepilesarepronetocrackingwhichleadstocorrosionofthe
reinforcement.Steelpilesaretrilaminateencased,witha20yearlife,
abrasionandcorrosionresistant.
Highmomentcapacity
Durable
Mightrequireadrivingshoetopreventbuckling
Piledepthisdependantondepthofwater,strengthofrockbelow,
hammersizeavailableandpilesize
Whenusingtimberpilesaborerresistanttimbersuchasturpentineis
preferred.

Piledrivingoverwater
(stabilisingthe
platform)

Methodofpiledriving
1. Pitchpile(movethepiletoverticalposition)
2. Vibratepiledownwithahydraulichammer
3. Drivepiletosetwithahydraulichammer
Platformisusuallystabilisedwithawaterballastsystemwherewateris
pumpedbetweentankstokeepthebargelevelandstable.Ajackupbargecan
alsobeusedtoisolatetheplatformfromtidalinfluences,howeverthismethod
requires12daystomovelocations.

Piledrivinginsoftrock
Pilesocketinginhard
rock(canisterdrill)

Dependantonthetypeofrock

KurilpaBridgeexample:
Foundationsrequiredbetweenoperatingfreewayandbikeway
Falseworksystemusedtosupportpilingrig
Requiredpilingwithacanisterdrillduetoveryhighstrengthrock
Methodofpilingwithacanisterdrill:
1. Pilescrewedasmalldistanceintorock
2. Cannisterdrillinsertedthroughhollowcentreofpile
3. Holeisdrilledtorequireddepthandspoilisremoved
4. Tremiepipeinsertedintohole,andpileisfilledwithconcrete.
5. Overflowconcreteatthetopofthepiletoensurethatallcompromised
concreteisremoved.

TensionPiles

Tensioncapacityisbasedonshaftadhesionbetweenthereinforced
concrete&sidewallsofshaft

Classicmooringdolphinwillhaverakedpilesasitissubjecttoboth
inwardandoutwardloadsandthepilesaresubjectedtotensionand
compression.Lotsofimpactabsorptiontechniquesareputinplace
Cannisterdrillingoftenusedtogetthenecessaryembedment/shaft
adhesion.

Whysocketinrock?

MilsonsPointExample

Socketinginrockprovidesadditionallateralcapacity(stopstoefailureofthe
pilethroughtherock)andadditionaltensilecapacitythroughshaftadhesion.
Theprocessinvolvesdrillingaholeinrockandinsertingpileintorock.

Nolandaccess,busywaterway,highwake
Solution:offsitefabrication,completeworkduringthenightorearly
morning
Pilesdrivenintosandstone
Vrodemployedintoppingslabsinlaterwharvesextrudedcomposite
materialwithnosteelcomponentsothatitcannotcorrode.
HDPEsleevesonsteeltubes
Hydraulicplatformnotapontoon
Verticalsupportpiles,bracedbyatriangulatedprefabricatedtruss

BrisbaneSewage
TreatmentPlant

Drycofferdam
Sheetsinstalledwithvibrator,pumpwaterout,excavatesoftsediments,
drivepiles,castconcrete,removesheetpilewalls.

YarraSewerCrossing

Wetcofferdamconstruction(waterisnotpumpedout)wallretains
softmudsotheriverbedcouldbeexcavatedwithoutsoftsediments
immediatelycollapsingintotheexcavation.

IronCoveBridge

GladstoneMaterials
OffloadingFacility

Pilesdrivenintosandstone
Eachpilecapissittingon1012steeltubes,wheresomeofthepiles
wererakedtoprovidehorizontalsupport
Precasttheentireconcretecell,withweldedplatestoattachpilesto
thecell.Verystricttolerancesallowedforandveryhighstrength
concreteused.Onceliftedon,thegapsweresealedupbydiversand
groutpumps
ROROrollonrolloff
LOLOloadonloadoff
PASpotentialacidsulfatesoils,needtobetreatedwithlime
Startedwithdredgingtoallowshipstogetintothefacility(suction

dredge&excavatordredge)
ExcavatedPASsoilsandreplacedwithrocklocatedonbargesin
bundabergthatweretowed180kmtomeetdeadlines
CombiwallusedwithM85tiesontoanchorwall
SPWdrivenfromwaterratherthanlandunusualbutthisallowed
machinerytobeoutofthewaysothatotherworkcouldgoon
Fendersweldeddirectlyontokingpiles,weldingmadedifficultdueto
tidalrange.
ROROdolphinsallsteel,nopaintprotection,6mmcorrosion
allowance,prefabricated.

PrestressedandPostTensionedConcrete
Post tensioned
concrete

General principles:
Key idea is to introduce internal forces to counteract loading. The beam/slab has
tensioned strands positioned in the beam/slab section so as to induce a negative
(hogging) moment. This counteracts the design load, resulting in a small positive
moment with lower compressive stress than would be the case in convectional
reinforced concrete thus resulting in a thinner required depth of slab.

Uses

Highrisebuildings,multistoreycarparks,transportinfrastructure,staycable
bridge,balancedcantileverbridges,incrementallylaunchedbridges,bridgewidening,
LNG/LPGtanks,strengtheningofpipesandreservoirs

Box girder cantilever

launched bridge

How is stressing steel installed for launching? (all negative moment)

How is each successive box connected to the previous set of boxed?
Boxes are held together by compression.
How is stressing steel set up, after set down (with positive moment
induced?
General notes

During launching the launching nose provides support at the next pier

Tendons are stressed twice, once during launching and once at the final
location.

Partial prestress

Full prestress - designing prestress that no cracking will ever occur.

Partial prestress - stressing to 70% of the balance load such some tensile stress will
occur at service load but the crack width is limited by the prestress.
It is not economic or particularly useful to fully prestress everything, so partial
prestressing is usually used.

Installation sequence
including early
stressing (when) and

After 24 hours an approximate insitu strength of 7MPa is achieved. 25% of the

stressing force is applied to prevent shrinkage cracking as the the small
compression locks up any cracks.

final stressing (when)

After 4-7 days (may be as low as 2 days), an insitu strength of approximately

22MPa is achieved and the rest of the stress is applied.

Prestressed

Steeltensionedbeforecastingconcrete,individualwires,concretebondswithwire
providinganchoragedevelopment,tensionedcablescutwhenconcretereaches
appropriatestrengthplacingacompressionforceintheelement,usedmainlyinprecast
memberconstruction

PostTensioned

Tensionedaftersettingofconcrete,tendonsinbundles,ductspressuregroutedto
protectagainstcorrosionandbondwiththeconcrete,hydraulicjacksareusedtostress
thetendons

Advantages

Generalruleistoinduceinternalforcestobalanceouttheexternalloadingforces

Improvedserviceloadbehaviour,efficientuseofhighstrengthmaterial,reducedoverall
structuralcost,improvedrecoveryfromoverloadduetocrackcontrol,largerspans
(moreslender),fatigueresistance,improvedstrengthinshearandtorsion,reducedfloor
tofloorheight,deflectioncontrol,earlyformworkstripping,reducedmaterialshandling,
economyincolumnandfootingdesign
Disadvantages

LotsofQualityAssurancerequired,withadditionaloperationforgrouting.Very
expensive,abouthalfthecostofPTislabour(muchmoreintensivethanreinforcement),
howeverthiswillbebalancedoutbytheadvantagesofPTandthedecreasein
reinforcementcosts

Costs

PT:$1000/tonneof12.7mmstrands
Reinforcement:$1800$2000/tonne
MorePTisrequired,butyouaregettingabout3.5timesthestrengthwithPT
BreakevenpointforPTvsRCisabouta7mspan
Economyfactors:Posttensioning,reinforcement,concrete,formwork(mostexpensive
part),speedofconstruction,foundationcosts,faadecosts
Economicaldesignfactors:Partialprestressing,selectionofcolumngrid,formwork
layout,constructionjointdesign,simplicityindetailing,anchoragereinforcement,L/D
ratios,Loadbalancing,terminatetendonswhereverpossible,finiteelementanalysis

Strands

Consistsof67wireswrappedaroundeachother
Usually12.7or15.2diameter

Tendons

Canbesinglestrandormultistrand(upto55strands)

Live(jackingend)
hardware

Stressingblockablockwithholesthroughitthroughwhichthestrandspass.
Thewedgeslockintothisblock
Wedgessmalltubesthatgooverthestrand.Whenthestrandtriestopull
backintotheconcretethewedgesaredrivenintothestressingblockandhold
thestrandintension.
Anchorageguidethesolidpieceofsteelthatiscastintothesideofthe
memberandholdsthestressingblock
Recessformerapieceofplasticthatcreatesaholethattheanchoragesitsin.
Itispulledoutaftercastingandbeforetensioning.Mayalsobeusedtocreate
atopstressingpocketifthesideofthememberisnotaccessible.Therecessis
filledinafterwardsforcorrosionprotection.

Grouttube

Atubeconnectedtotheanchorageforpumpingofgrouttofillduct.

Antiburstreinforcement

Thecompressiveforcesplacedontheconcreteareconcentratedattheanchorageand
maytendtomaketheconcreteexpandoutlaterally(poissonsratio).Ahelicalantiburst
reinforcementiswrappedaroundtheanchoragetopreventthisfromhappening.

Bonded

Lubricatedstrandsinductgroutedaftertensioning(groutedinAustraliaandAsia
accordingtoStandards)
Advantagesofbonding:Higherflexuralcapacity,excellentcrackdistribution,good
corrosionresistance,flexibilityforlatercuttingofpenetrations(fixwithcarbonfibre),
easierdemolitionrequires an additional operation for grouting, more labour

intensive, overall material cost is generally less as you dont need as much normal
reinforcement.
Unbonded

Overseas, particularly in America the duct is not grouted leaving tendons

unbounded. This can be a problem during demolition and any building
modifications as the tendons remain live and will fail dramatically if cut.
UnbondedtendonsaretypicallyusedinbridgesinAustralia.Thebridgecode,AS5100,
doesnotrequiretendonstobebonded.Theyaregoodastheycanbeeasilyinstalled
andreplacedduringandafterconstruction.
Noduct:sheathedandgreasedstrands
Ducted:Waxedorgreasedstrandssheathedandcementgrouted

DeadEnd/LiveEnd

Dead:nostressing,onionstobondeffectivelytotheconcreteandtransfertheloadinto
theconcrete
Live:stressingend,ifspanismorethan30myouwillmostlikelyhave2liveends

Generaldesignprocedure

1. Initialsizing:Architecttodictatethecolumnspacing
2. Chooseloadtobalance,usually70%to100%ofdeadload.Iftheliveloadisreally
large,wepatterntheloadingandbalanceoutabout25%ofliveload

3. Performcalculationtodeterminetheprestressingforce
4. Checktheultimatecapacityofthesection,wheretheloadingcodewillgiveyou
thesefactors
5. Checkservicestresses
a. Attransfer:whenwelockoffthestrands,i.e.afterthefirststress.
OnlySW,meaningtoomuchloadwillcracktheslab
b. Atfullserviceload:Nofactorsontheloads,justwhatthestructureis
experiencing.Thegenerallyarelimitstothesestresses
6. Checkshearstrength:eitherbeamshearorpunchingshear
7. Checkdeflections(performiterations)
8. Structuraldetailing:i.e.thinkaboutthePTin3D
Span/DepthRatio

FlatPlate(3kPa):L/D=45,withanendbayat39,simplespan34
FlatSlab(3kPa):L/D=52,withanendbayat46(i.e.1012%thinnerthanflatplate)
BandedSlab(3kPa):L/D=27,withanendbayat23,simplespan20
SlabbetweenbandsL/D=56(52),endbay44(42)(bracketsforbw<25%Ls)

TypesofPTslabs

FlatPlate:excellentforheadheightissues,verycommon,theinternalceiling
generallyfixeddirectlytoconcrete

FlatSlab:Differenttoflatplateasithasdroppanels,highernegativemoment
capacity,providesthesmallestfloortofloordepth.

BandedSlab:Verycommon,bandsprovideexcellentanchoragetofitPT,therefore
theconcreteonlyspansbetweenbeamtobeam,tendtojustpainttheceiling

Specialisedbandedhighriseslab:Spans1220m,dictatedbythearchitect,
requiresintermediateperpendicularbandstotraditionalbands

Flyingformwork

Formworkthatisbuiltinprefabricatedsectionsandliftedoutofthesideofthebuilding
andraisedtothenextlevelafterfinalstressing.

AxialCompression

Lessthan1.4MPatolesstobeabletocontrolcracking
1.4to2.4MPagenerallyacceptedrange
2.4to3.5MPaupperlimitcheckshortening
Above3.5MPaexcessiveshortening

SupportRigidity

Ifthesupportsarerigid,theprestressingforceismovedstraightintothecolumns,not
intothebeamresultinginmassivecracksaroundthecolumn.Thereforethecolumnare
designedtoofferlimitedrestrainttoallowtheslabtoshorteneffectively.
Ifnecessary,isolatetherestrainingelementse.g.theliftshaftwithacorbelorsplit
column

Stressing

Allstrandsarestressedto85%oftheirultimatetensilestress
Initialstressat7MPa(24hours)
Finalstressat22MPa(4to7daysusually)

MovementJoints

The spacing is generally 50-70m in PT slabs. Compared to a conventional RC slab

that requires movement joints spaced at 10-15m only about 1/5 of the number
of joints are required for a PT slab.

PrestressingContractor

GenerallyinSydneyandMelbourne,thePTcontractorwillbeadesignandconstruct.
ConsultingengineerstendnottodetailthePTandwillleaveittobedealtwithonsite,
soitsmoreeconomicalforaPTcompanytoC+Cthemselves.
WhendesigningPT,thecentrelines,highandlowpointsarefixed,withtheductdraped
betweenthese.

Demolition

BondedtendonssimilartoRC,maybedemolishedbyhammeringconcreteoff
slab.Caremustbetakenwithtransferbeamswhichmaydeflectupwardsiftoo
muchloadisremoved.

PTdrawings

Boldtendonsaretypical,othertendonsarelinkedtoparalleltendons.