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MedievalIndianCulture
Friday,July42014,4:12PM
The13th&14thCenturies
Persian/ArabicLiterature
1. Poetry was a popular form. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hassan were great poets. They also wrote
qawwalisandcreatedanewIndianstyleofpoetryandistheoriginatorofHindustanimusic.
2. Historywritingwasanotherpopulartrend.Barni,Afif,Sirajetc.
3. Bookswewritten,speciallydictionaries,withpaintedillustrations.
PersianvsArabicHistoriography
2.analyticaltype.keepinmindthathistoriographyisthestudyofhowhistoryiswritten.itisthestudyofallaspectsof
writinghistory.goingbythisdefinition.....volumewisearabichistoryworksarelessvoluminous,persianmore.
reason,persianhadbeenthecourtlanguageofmedievalrulers.whateverwaswritteninarabicwasby
travelersbeforedelhisultanate,byreligiousscholars,arabimmigrantstoindia.(listherefamous
examples )perspectivesarabichistorianswerenotsympathetictohindutraditionsandculture.mostofthe
workswrittenbyreligiousscholars,immigrantscarrythattingeoffanaticismandsuperioritycomplexwith
respecttoindiaingeneralandhindusinparticular.persianmoresympatheticastheywerewrittenbythose
whosettledhereandnonreligioushistorians.contentandstylenodifferencesthatiknowof.standard
muslimstylehistoricalwritingwithplentyofallusionstoreligiousterms.veryfewwereobjective.mostofthem
werewrittentopraisetheirpatrons.eulogiesandexaggerations.politicalhistory,culturalhistory,economic
history,militaryhistoryetcwerethegenres.
methods of study both relied on general observations, litterary sources written before them in their languages. very
less or no importance was given to numismatics, inscriptions, archaeological sources, nonarabic and nonpersian
literature.
AlUtbi'sKitabiYamini
1. HehimselfwasSecretarytotheSultanMahmud.Hethusplayedanimportantroleinthegovernmentat
Gazni, and no doubt had first hand knowledge of many of the events he described, at least those that
took place in the capital. His work covers the entire reign of the first sultan of Gazni Nasirud din
Subuktgin, and of his son Mahmud up to the year 410 H. (1020 CE). As the founder of the Ghaznivite
dynasty,SubuktiginplayedanextremelyimportantroleinthehistoryofIndiaandCentralAsia.
2. DespitehisproximitytoSultanMahmud,AlUtbiseemstohavelittleornodirectknowledgeofIndia.He
seems to have little knowledge of Indian topography and his statements regarding localities and place
namesareunreliable.NoIndianwordsappearinhistextasidefromRai.
3. HisnumerousincursionsintoIndiawerelargelyraidsdesignedtocapturespoilinmaterialwealth,slaves
andlivestock.HeisportrayedasazealousMuslimeagertodestroy"idoltemples",butthiswasprobably
justificationforpillage,sincetheseactivitiescontravenedtheearlierArabpolicyofgrantingHindusand
Buddhistsprotecteddhimmistatus.
MinhajusSiraj'sTabakatiNasiri
(a)Motivationbehindwriting
1. Minhajservedinveryhighpostsinhiscareer.Hewasveryclosetothesultans.Thushisinterestswere
completelyalignedwiththeinterestsofthesultanatei.e.topreserveandestablishstronglytheTurkish
rule.
2. Anothermotivationdefinitelywouldbetopleasethesultanandheworkedundermanysultans.Butthis
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wasaminormotivationonlyashedidn'tdependonwritingtoearnhislivelihood.
3. By glorifying the western connections of Islam he sought to inspire the muslims as well which was
neededastheywerefacinganumberofchallengesinthatage.
(b)Importance
1. Due to his proximity to the sultans the value of his work goes up because it reflects the thoughts of a
person whose interests were completely aligned with that of the Turkish rule and who was actively
helpingthesultansinpreservingandestablishingtherule.
2. Thesultanatewasinanascentandinsecurestagethen.Thesultanwastryingtoestablishhislegitimacy
and authority and for this he had even sought investiture from the Caliph. In his work Minhaj tries to
establish the historical links of the Sultanate with Western Asian Islam and covers this in his initial
chaptersitself.
3. By glorifying the western connections of Islam he sought to inspire the muslims as well which was
neededastheywerefacinganumberofchallengesinthatage.
4. His interests were in the preservation and propagation of Turkish rule and his writings reflect the
insecurity of the age. He didn't care who was the sultan so long as the rule was preserved. Thus he
praised each and every sultan very highly despite the fact that he may have violently replaced the
previoussultan.Forthesamereasonhekeepsabalancebetweenallsultans.
5. Wherehedepartsfromtheotherwritersofhisagewashecoverednotjustthehistoryofhissultanbut
alsotheentirehistoryofIslam.
6. Because he was writing a history of a long period it was necessary for him to draw upon the works of
other scholars. Wherever he finds 2 conflicting opinions he mentions both with sources along with the
one he accepts and the reasons for doing so. For his own period he relies on his own experiences or
thoseofwitnesses.
7. He gives an indiscriminate religious tone to his work. He almost absent minded uses terms like Islamic
armiesanddevil'sarmiestodescribewarseveniftheywerebetweentwomuslimrulersonly.Bydoing
this he merely showed where his sympathy lay. This tells us about the educational system of the day
becausehewasaproductofaneducationalsystemwhichwashighlyreligiousandusedonlyreligious
terms.
8. HisbiasagainstHinduscanbeseenonlywhenhedescribestheconflicts.Otherwiseheignoresitwhen
theyposenothreattothesultanate.Thisclearlyreflectstheattitudeofthesultanaterulersaswellwho
used religion to achieve their goals in the conflict situations only and otherwise were indifferent in all
practical purposes. In many instances Minhaj goes ignores the uncomfortable religious aspects of a
problemaswellifitrancountertohisobjectives.Thisattitudewasreflectedinthesultansaswell.
(c)Limitations
1. Heremainedconfinedtotherulingandeliteclassonly.Butthistellsusaboutthenatureofstatesystem
inthosedays.
(d)ComparisonwithBarani
1. Minhajcomesacrossasascholarwholivedinaturbulentphaseonewheretherulers'concernwasthe
preservation of their rule and for which they had to make many compromises and even shift goalposts
i.e. be practical. We cannot expect him to be driven by any particular ideology or political leaning.
Institutions were fluid and situation was dynamic and one had to be very careful. By Barani's time the
institutionshadstabilized,selfpreservationwasnolongertheoverridingobjectiveandonecouldstickto
anideology.TensionswereemergingbetweentheseinstitutionsandthisisreflectedinBarani'swritings
aswell.
2. Minhajwritesindetailaboutdifferentamirsindifferentareasandthusmanyoftheeventsarerepeated.
Baraniontheotherhandfocusesontheeventsofonlyoneareaandwritesperiodwise.Thusthereisno
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repetitioninBarani.
3. Minhajmostlychronologicallylistsvariouseventsanddoesn'tanalyzesthetrends,elementsofcontinuity
/ discontinuity and the reasons thereof. Barani tries to analyze some aspect or the other at the end of
eachchapterforinstancehoweachsultanviewedpunishmentas.
4. Minhajdoesn'ttellusabouttheproblemsfacedbythesultans.BaranitellsushowBalbanstrengthened
his position, how sultanate changed under Khaljis, how mongol threat changed the nature of sultanate
underAlauddin.
ZiauddinBarani(TarikhiFiruzshahi&FatwaiJahandari)
(a)Motivationsbehindwriting
1. Baranihimselfwritesthathehopedthathisworkwillhelpotherslearnfrompastmistakes.Heclaimshe
wasrepentfulfornotcriticizingMbTwhenitmattered.Bythiswork,hehoped,peoplewilllearnandnot
committhesamemistakes.
2. But in reality he had fallen out of favor of the new sultan Firuz and was even imprisoned. Firuz had
outlookwhichrancontrarytoMbTinmanywaysandhenceBaraniwaswritingtopleasehimandearn
favor.
(b)Importance
1. Hisworkdoesn'tjustreflecthisownthinkingbuttellsusabouttheviewsoftheeducationalsystemand
the particular section of maulvis. These maulvis relied on extremist form of Islam to preserve their
existenceinpolity.Theyexpectedthesultantoconsultthemonevenpoliticalmattersandthiskepttheir
importanceintact.ButunderMbTthedominanceofmaulvishadreduceddrasticallyashehadtomake
many compromises to propagate and strengthen his rule in India which included appointment of even
Hindustohighofficesandnotconsultingthemaulvisinpoliticalmatters.Theywerethusfearfuloflosing
powerinthepoliticsoftheage.Thisisreflectedinthework.
2. Thus he prescribes that the sultan must take steps to propagate Islam, punish non muslims, impose
shariatandgivemoreauthoritytomenof(muslim)religion.
3. Byhistimethesenseofinsecurityinthesultanatewasoverandthesultanswerewellestablished.There
was no need to draw legitimacy form the western connections any more (in fact delhi was the sole
survivingmuslimsultanate).Sultanatehadnoconnectionsleftwiththewest.SoBaranimakesnoattempt
todraworiginfromwestandmerelycarriesforwardfromMinhaj.HefocusesonlyonIndia.
4. Barani'sworkandviewsexpressedreflecttheinsecurityofhisclassinthatage.BeingaTurkorahigh
bornwasnolongerconsideredenoughtoqualifyforahighpost!Thisclasswasfacingcompetitionfrom
theeducatedIndians.Onehadtohavequalitiesalsotosucceed.Baraniandhisclassobviouslyresented
it and in his work he criticizes the low born, prescribes they shouldn't be given education neither
employed in state service. In an ideal muslim world all higher born will have assured hereditary high
offices.
5. Barani represented a class of nobles who depended on land and the surplus extracted for their well
being. Thus he was also very critical of merchants and traders and prescribed that the state should
ensuretheydon'taccumulatewealth.
6. HeobviouslyhatedHindusbecauseofbothhiseducationandthefactthatmanyofthemwereemployed
in higher posts and were richer than him (who was languishing in jail). So he is very critical of highly
placedhindusandignoresthepoorhindusasheignorespoormuslims.
7. Baranitriestoanalyzesomeaspectortheotherattheendofeachchapterforinstancehoweachsultan
viewedpunishmentas.HetellsushowBalbanstrengthenedhisposition,howsultanatechangedunder
Khaljis,howmongolthreatchangedthenatureofsultanateunderAlauddin.
(c)Limitations
1. HisworkFatwaiJahandariisnotahistoricalworkatall.Baranihaspresentedhisownviewsinformof
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MahmudGazni'slessonstohissons.Moreoverthehistoricaleventspresented(fromGazni'stongue)are
ofdoubtfulhistoricnature.ThebookisjustareflectionofBarani'sownthoughtsonhowthingsshouldbe.
2. Barani tries to mention many sources but fails to bring them out clearly. Moreover if any fact was
convenientforhimandsupportedhisviewshewouldclaimithadcomefromagodfearingmuslimand
hecouldthustakeitonitsfacevalue.
3. In TarikhiFiruzshahi he rarely mentions any chronology and wherever he does that it is of doubtful
nature.Perhapsitwasduetothefacthewaswritingfromjailandthushadtorelymostlyonhismemory.
4. Hisbookisabundleofexaggerationsandhecontaminatesmanycharacters.
ShamsiSirajAfif:TarikhiFiruzshahi
(a)Motivationsbehindwriting
1. He was clearly not trying to please Firuz because Firuz had died by the time. He was writing in a time
whensultanatehaddisintegrated,anarchyprevailedalloverandTimurhadplunderedDelhi.Sohewas
tryingtorecollecttheoldgloriousdays.Hemissesthepastinlightofhispresentandthatiswhyhetries
topaintaprosperousandpeacefulpictureofolddays.
(b)Importance
1. Hiswritingreflectstheanarchiststateofaffairsofhistimeandhowhetriedtojustifyeachandeveryact
ofFiruzinordertoportrayapastthatwasgloriousandsorelymissed.
2. In his attempt to portray Firuz's reign as one of total peace and prosperity and under a great king, he
tells unintentionally us about Firuz's weaknesses. On his part he merely focuses on positives and
presentstheweaknessesasiftheyappearhisstrength.Hedidn'ttrytohidefactsbecausehadthisbeen
thecasehewouldhavenotevenmentionedtheweaknesses.Examplesarethefamousbribecaseand
themilitarydefeats.
3. Hedidn'tcomefromaverywelltodofamilylikeBarani.Soheisfreefromhisbiases.Hedidn'thaveany
strongideologicalleaningsMoreoverhewritesinaverysimplelanguage.
4. HeisalsofreefromtheantihindubiasesofBaraniandMinhaj(probablybecausehewasfreefromthe
extremist atmosphere in his upbringing like them and also because the muslims of the age didn't face
any threat from hindus they were ravaged by mongols). Though he praises Firuz's act of burning a
brahmanandimposingjiziyabutthatisapartofhisgeneralattempttoportrayFiruzasagreatkingand
hisreignasagoldenage.
5. Comingfromacommonerbackgroundwefindhemovesbeyondthesultanandhisdurbarinhiswork
andtalksabouttheproblemsfacedbythecommoners.
IbnBatuta'sRehela
1. It is not a reliable source at all. It is interesting only because it throws some light on the socio political
eventsoftheage.ButthewriteriscompletelybiasedagainstMbT.
2. Moreover his description of places and things doesn't have any depth and he simply briefly describes
thinswithoutdoinganyresearch.
AmirKhusrau
1. AmirKhusrautooktheliteraturefromelitestothecommoners.Hewrotenumerouspopularpuzzlesina
form which is enjoyable to common people. This was perhaps because he was very close to sufis and
hence influenced by them and also contributed to their cause. Thus his writings are a reflection of sufi
movement.
2. Hewasapoetandnotahistorian.Whateverhistoryhewrotewaseitheroninstanceofthesultans(who
eventoldhimthetopicsonwhichtowriteabout)ortopleasethem.Evenwhilewritinghistoryhisfocus
wasonthepoeticaspectandnothistoricaltruth.
3. His first work was KiranusSaden (1289) which was written to please Bugra Khan and his son Kakui
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Bad.Inthishetellsusaboutdelhi,itsbuildings,durbar,sociallifeofamirsetc.andhishatredtowards
mongols.Naturallyhisfocuswasonthepoeticaspect.
4. HissecondworkwasMiftahulFutuh(1291)inwhichhepraisedJalaluddinandhismilitarycampaigns
againstMalikChajju,againstRanthamboreetc.
5. KhwajainulFutuhorTarikhiAlahiwaswritteninahighlyornatestyleanddescribedthefirst15yearsof
hisreign.Althoughitisagainmoreofapoeticworkitshistoricalsignificancecomesfromthefactthatitis
theonlycontemporarysourcewehave.ThisbookdescribesmilitarycampaignsofAlauddinandMalik
KafurandpresentsabeautifuldescriptionofthephysicalandculturalgeographyofIndia.
6. His next work is Ashika which talks of Alauddin's son Khijr Khan's desire for princess of Gujarat
Devalrani.GedescribesthecampaignslaunchedtogetherandalsothegeographyofIndia.
7. InhisworkSipiharhepraisesMubarakKhalji.
8. HisstrongpointisthathehasgivenalotofdatesandingeneralheismoretrustworthythanBarani.His
writingsalsohighlightsthesocialconditionsprevailingintheagesomethingmosthistoriansoftheage
couldn'tdo.Hetellsusaboutthepeople,theirdances,songs,settlements,professionsetc.
AlBerouni'sKitabulHind
(a)Motivationbehindwriting
1. Some scholars believe that he sympathized with Indians because Mahmud had plundered his native
placetoolikeIndia.HencehewassosympathetictoIndiancause.
2. In reality he was motivated by pure scientific and intellectual curiosity. He wanted to understand Indian
philosophical,religiousandscientificthought.Heanalyzedeverythingthatcameacrosshiminacritical
andscientificmannerandpresentedhisanalysisinanunbiasedmanner.
(b)Importance
1. In his quest he found that most of the information he came across about India is based on secondary
sourcesonly.Herealizedthatsecondhandinformationisinvariablycorruptedasitpassesfrompeople
to people. Hence he was driven to find the original sources and hence he began to learn Sanskrit and
collectancientIndiantexts.HereferredtoworksofVarahmihira,Aryabhatta,Brahmagupta,Patanjalias
wellasBhagwadGita,VishnuPurana,VaayuPurana.
2. For this he also consulted many brahmans of the age whenever he needed some help in proper
interpretation.
3. Hehadacompletelyscientificoutlookandanunbiasedopinion.Soreligiousconventionscouldn'tcorrupt
him.
4. Wherever he feels his understanding and knowledge is lacking he accepts it without hesitation. He
mentionsitclearlywhereverhehadtorelyonsourceswithouttestingfortheirauthenticityorsecondary
sources.
5. HedescribesIndiansociety,culture,festivals,dress,food,entertainment,scientificthought,philosophical
thought etc. in great detail. He describes the weights and measures used in India, distances,
geographicalfeatures,alphabetetc.prevailinginIndia.Notonlydoeshemerelydescribethembutalso
criticallyanalyzesthem.Hetalksofthelegalsystemasmentionedinthescripturesandhighlightshow
the prevailing system differed from it. Weavers were low even among the outcastes who lived only
outsidethevillagesandtowns.HetellsusthatBuddhismwasnottobeseenanywhereandhehadonly
heardaboutit.HetellsusabouttheinfluenceofBhaktibyrecognizingafirmmonotheisminNIndia.
6. He expresses regret that Indians had abandoned the scientific outlook of their ancestors and had
relapsedintostagnationinmindandinthought.Insteadofkeepingtheirmindsopenandlearningfrom
othersastheirancestorsdidtheynowreliedonlyontraditions.
(c)Limitations
1. Hisworkismostlylimitedtotheintellectualclassoftheagewhichwasobviousgivenhismethodology.
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Heholdsignorantpeopleinverylowesteem.
HindiLiterature
1. Parochial / feudal outlook: After the fall of the Gupta empire the political landscape had become
increasingly fragmented and the land based feudal system which developed encouraged a local
parochialoutlook.Wecanseethisclearlyintheliteratureoftheage.
2. Stagnationinthesociety:Thesocietyhadshutitsmindtowardsembracingnewideasandencouraging
originalthinking.Wefindasimilartrendintheliteratureasitbecamevoidoffreshoutlookandcontinued
onestablishedthemesonly.
3. Phases of hindi literature: (a) ancient phase (adi kaal): reflects the feudal order of the day, (b) bhakti
phase (bhakti kaal): reflects the impact of bhakti movements of the day, (c) reeti kaal: after the bhakti
phase when the zamindari and jagirdari systems returned with new vigor along with the presence of
romanticism.
Phase1:Ancientphase/AdiKaal/VeerGathaPhase(814centAD)
(a)RasoLiterature
1. Itwascalledveergathaphaseearlierbecausethefirstliteraturefoundcomprisedalmostexclusivelyof
thewritingsofthecourtpoetsglorifyingthebraveryoftheirrulingmastersinordertopraisethem.They
oftenwerefullofexaggerations.ExamplesarePrithvirajRaso,ParmalRaso(AlhaandUdal),Beesaldev
Raso (love affair of Ajmer ruler Beesaldev and Malwa princess Rajmati). In addition to glorifying their
braverythepoetsalsoglorifiedtheirloveaffairswithbeautifulprincessesoftheage.
2. Reflectionoffeudalisticorderandparochialoutlook: The literature was full of praise for the local rulers
andhowtheyfoughtotherlocalrulers.Theyleftnowordsunwritteninthepraiseoftheirlocallordsand
ridiculing the other chiefs. Their aim was not to present historical facts but to glorify their masters. By
glorifying wars and feuds they played an important role in promoting regional rivalry and disturbed
nationalunity.
3. Reflection of cherished ideals in the society: Bravery and love. Fighting wars was noble. These wars
were fought solely for personal reasons of the rulers be it vengeance or to get a princess or simply to
display one's bravery and never for the interests of the state. They consider a brave warrior to be the
mostnobleperson.
4. Reflection of poor status of women in the society: The way they focus solely on the beauty of the
princesswhileglorifyingtheloveaffairsoftheirmasterstellsusthatwomenweretreatedmerelyasan
objectofconsumption.Womenwereexpectedtoperformjauharandsati.Theyhadnoexistenceoftheir
own.
5. Reflectionoflackoflawandorderandpeaceinthesociety:Theyglorifywarsontheotherchiefs.They
glorifyviolenceandmentiontheinsecurityofcommonpeoplespeciallyiftheyhadanyvaluables.
6. Reflectionofthestatesystem:Therulershadnoconcernwhatsoeverwiththewelfareoftheirsubjects.
Theymerelycollectedtaxesandfoughtwarsandwereconcernedwiththeirowngloryandwelfareonly.
7. Reflectionofgrowthofregionaldialects: Many of these works use a mixed form of regional Rajasthani
dialectsastyleoftencalledpinglestyle.
(b)SiddhLiterature
1. It reflects the contemporary religious and cultural life very well. It was written for the propagation of
VajrayanbuddhistsectineasternIndiainthelocallanguages.Thisliteraturetellsusaboutthechanges
whichhadoccurredinthebuddhistreligionovertheages.
2. They criticize complex rituals, traditionalism, extremism and advocate a simple life. They show a
dominanceofmysticideasintheirthoughts.Atthesametimetheyalsoadvocatecontinuationofgrihasta
life.
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(c)JainLiterature
1. It flourished in western India in the form of poetic literature in local languages. For the poetic form it is
also called Raas literature. It comprises of the poems which were sung in the jain temples by the
worshippers.
2. Theytoldusaboutthecontemporaryfeudsetc.buttheirmainaimremainedtoemphasizetheprinciples
ofnonviolenceenshrinedintheJainreligion.ChandanBalaRaasisafamouswork.
(d)NathLiterature
1. It emerged in eastern India as a reaction to Siddh literature. While the Siddh literature believed in
continuation of normal married life the Nath sect opposed consummation. It was advocated by
GorakhnathandMatsyendranath.
2. They believed in austerities and self control. They idealized a man who doesn't get deviated from his
pathdespitebeingsurroundedbyalltemptations.Ithaselementsofmysticisminit.
(e)MaterialLiterature(LaukikLiterature)
1. Romantic literature: Its main works are Jaichandra Prakash, Jai Mayank Chandrika and Vasant Vilas.
Theirmainemphasiswasonexpressingthefeelingsofheart,descriptionofwomenetc.
2. Literature for commoners: Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He wrote
numerouspopularpuzzlesinaformwhichisenjoyabletocommonpeople.
Phase2:BhaktiPhase(1416centAD)
1. Differentprovincialrulersbegantopatronizemusic.DuetothefusionofIndoIslamicmusic,khyalstyle
emerged.Textswerewrittenonthismusicwhichformedapartofthebhaktiliterature.
2. Thisperiodwasaperiodofgrowingregionalismanddecliningcentralauthority.Thiswasreflectedinthe
rapid growth of regional languages as well which became fully developed in this period. Similarly new
styles of literature emerged in different parts and attained maturity. This trend is reflected in the bhakti
periodliterature.
3. Bhaktimovementsoughttoinvolvemorepeoplewithitandtoawakenthem.Thisledtothedevelopment
ofliteratureforpeopleinsteadoftheliteraturefortheelitesasinthepreviousrasoliterature.
4. Bhaktiandsufimovementledtospreadofcommunalharmony.Thiseffortcanbeseenintheliterature
aswell.
5. Bhakti movement drew from the basic tenants of upanishads and vedas but was progressive in its
outlookandhumanistincharacter.Thiscanbedirectlyseeninitsliteratureaswell.
6. The nirgun literature can be divided into two one emphasizing knowledge (like kabir, nanak, dudu
dayal)emphasizedonthegreatnessoftheteacher.Itwasmoreradical,egalitarian,assimilatory,vocalin
their criticism of traditional rituals and closer to the masses. The other type of nirgun literature
emphasized on love (sufis, chandayan, mrigavati, padmavat) which preached monotheism and tried to
bringhindusandmuslimscloser.ItwasromanticinnaturewithGodastheloveobject.Theybelievedby
lovingGodwecaneliminatealldifferences.TheyportrayGodasawomanandsoulasaman.
7. The sagun literature can be divided into two one devoted to Rama (tulsidas, ramanand) and other
devotedtoKrishna(mira,surdas).Theyuseahighlypoeticliteraturewhichcouldbesunginthetemples.
Phase3:TraditionalPhase/RitiPhase(Mughals)
1. Under the Mughals we saw the emergence of a truly composite ruling class which included Hindus as
well.WecanseetheimpactintheliteratureofthetimeasitcameclosertotheIslamicliterature.Wecan
seethedescriptionsofthedresses,attitudeandpractices,subjectsetc.allinawaywhichindicatedthat
both communities had come closer to each other. Thus the protagonists of hindi literature now freely
wore dresses made of fine silk and muslin, used arabic perfumes, engaged in entertainment like the
mughal rulers, their durbars, various practices became more like mughals. Even the religious subjects
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likeKrishnaandRadhaareportrayedinanintenselyromanticandplayfulmannerandwearingmuslim
costumes. There is a clear departure from the traditional focus on spiritualism and devotion towards
worldlypleasures.Thereisincreasedfocusonwealth,wineandwomen.
2. Under Akbar we find many muslim writers like Rahim, Raskhan composing in Hindi while many Hindi
worksbeingtranslatedintoPersian.AnewupanishadcalledAllahoupanishadwasevencomposed.We
seethatthewriterswhotriedtopreachcommunalismcouldnotfindanypopularityinthisage.
3. Withrespecttowomen,theliteratureclearlyshowsthemasanobjectoftobeenjoyedasagainsttheir
depiction as goddesses, mothers etc. earlier. Even characters like Sita and Radha were no longer
objects of worship but the focus was on their body and makeup and they were treated as objects of
consummation.
4. Thuswecanseeacleardeclineofbhaktispiritintheliteratureofthisageandinsteadbeingreplacedby
consumptionwhichwasalsothesocialundercurrentastherulingclass(whoweretheaudienceofsuch
literature) believed in consumption only. Thus this literature can also be called as class literature. In
oppositiontothistherewasaminorstrandofmassliteraturespeciallycomingfromsufisaintsoftheage
likeMiraetc.whichopposedworldlyconsumption.Wecanalsoseeastrandofliteratureemphasizingon
moralsintheformofdohasofRahimetc.
5. Just like the ruling class was separate from and unmindful of the problems of the masses the class
literaturealsoignoresthemassesandfocusesonlyonthelifestyleoftherulers.Wecanalsoseeaclear
movement towards attributing divine association to the emperors and kings as was emphasized by the
Mughals.
SanskritLiterature
Kalhana'sRajtarangini
(a)WhywassuchaworkwrittenonlyinKashmir?
1. Some scholars believe that Kashmir because of being cutoff from rest of India and its distinct
geographical setup was able to maintain a separate cultural identity. Thus regional loyalty was very
stronginKashmir.MoreoverithadconstantinteractionwiththeBuddhistsinTibetandChinaaswellas
withCentralAsia.Suchplaceshadastrongtraditionofhistoriographyandhencetheworkwaswrittenin
Kashmir.
2. But it must be recognized that in that period entire India was fragmented into numerous localities and
under feudal system. Regional outlook was strong everywhere. Such attempts to write on regional
historiescameupeverywherebutwhatmakeKalhana'sworkuniquewasitssenseofhistory.
3. Kalhanawasdifferentfromotherrasowritersinthesensethatheprobablydidn'thavethepatronageof
anyruler.Thatswhyhisworkcouldriseabovethepettynatureofhiscontemporaries.
(b)Motivationsforwriting
1. Hewritesinthekavyastyleinordertomakeitinterestingtothereader.Thoughheensurescreativityin
hiswritingyetheneverlosessightofhismaingoalvistowritehistoricaltruthsasseenbyhim.Thushe
maintainedhisobjectivityinmostmatters.
2. He was writing in a very turbulent period. Harsha's reign had ended and there were lots of wars and
struggles around. He wanted to write impartially so as to present facts before people and make them
learnfromtheirmistakes.
(c)Importance
1. Hementionshissourcesindetail.Hementionsthe11scholarswhogavehimthefamilytreeofKashmir
rulers.Hementionsthelegends,myths,folkloreetc.whereverhehadtorelyonit.Buthisstrongestpoint
ishereliesoninscriptionsinthetemples,landgrantinscriptionsetc.andmentionsthemclearly.
2. His work is divided into 8 parts. First 3 cover history of more than 3000 years which mainly rely on
Puranasandlegends.Hisrealhistoriographybeginsfrom4thpartandin46hecoverstheKarkotaand
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Utpal rulers. For these parts he relies on inscriptions as well as buddhist texts. In 7 and 8th part he
coverstheLoharadynasty.
3. Inthebeginninghecomesacrossasamerepresenterofvariousfolklore.Therewasnoattemptofany
analysis.Butaswecomeclosertohisperiodwecanclearlyseethecriticalanalysisdonebyhim.This
expresses his views clearly on matters as well as contemporary realities. For instance Kashmir went
throughaveryturbulentphasepostHarsha.Localfeudalelementshadbecomeverystrongandthere
wasanarchy.Sohesaysthatakingshouldbestrongsothathecancontroltheaffairsofthekingdom
efficiently. He should make sure that no one in even the remotest village has sufficient wealth left with
him so that he could even think of posing a challenge to the king. He writes that the feudal elements
derivetheirstrengthfromthevastamountoflandtheyhold.Hecriticizeskayasthasandbureaucratsand
accusesthemofharboringtreacherousintentionsagainstthekings.Heneverpaintsanybodyinfullwhite
orblackandimpartiallytellsusabouthisstrengthsaswellasweaknesses.
4. Ittellsusaboutotherrealitiesofthesociallifeaswell.Hementionsveryproudlythathebelongedtoa
brahman family. The society had rich who fed on fried meat and drank perfumed cool wine. While the
poorhadtoliveonwildvegetables.ItsaysHarshaintroducedageneraldressinKashmiroflongcoats.
Hegivesusawholelotofotherinformationlikegeography,familytreesofimportantpeople,economic
activitieslikecoinmouldingetc.
5. It contains a striking description of the engineering works supervised a minister of Avantivarman.
LandslidesandsoildegradationledtoagreatamountofrubbleandstonebeingdepositedintheJhelum
riverwhichimpededtheflowofwater.Thiswascleared,embankmentswereconstructedtopreventthe
landslides,damswerebuiltandlakesweredrained.Theministerevenmanagedtodivertthecourseof
the Jhelum and the Indus rivers slightly which led to reclamation of land for cultivation. This has been
supported by archaeological evidences and subsequent economic prosperity of Kashmir and it led to
withdrawalofKashmirfromtheplainspoliticssincetheneedtomovetherewaslessened.
(d)Limitations
1. His analysis is not entirely free from his biases. Thus while he criticizes bureaucracy (because it was
made of mostly kayasthas) and says the bureaucracy had corrupted the kings and persuaded them to
followantipeoplepolicies,hesaysthatthekingshouldconsultbrahmansinstead.Thisperhapsreflects
hispersonalgrudge.
Architecture
Features
1. Before the advent of Turks, Rajput architecture belonged to the trabeatestyle and had flat roofs, false
archesandstone/mudbased.ButTurksbroughtwiththemtheIslamicstylevistruearches,domesand
usedlimemortarandbrickbased.
2. Turkish architecture was technologically superior as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar, headers
andstretchersbrickoutlay,wasmassive.
3. Italsoleftenoughspaceforthecirculationofair.
Howthearchitecturereflectscontemporarysociopoliticoeconomicrealities?
1. Urbanization:Turkswereurbandwellers.Theirmonumentsareinurbanareasandpromoteurbanism.
2. Concentration of wealth: The turkish rulers extracted all the agriculture surplus in their hands. This
surplushadtobeputtouseandithappenedintheformofgrandmonuments.
3. Reflects the distance between the rulers and the ruled, the despotism of the sultans: Each monument
reflectsthetastesofthesultanasbecauseoftheirscaleeachsultantriedtobuildaccordingtohislikes
toexpandhisglory.AlauddinbuiltAlaiDarwazawhichwasmajesticinscale.Thisreflectsthedespotism
ofthesultanandhisabilitytoextractsurplusfromthepeasants.
4. Communalcomposition:MostofthemonumentswereIslamicwhichshowedthedistributionofpowerin
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theurbansociety.Islamdoesn'tpermitimagesofbirdsandanimalssofloraldesigns,geometricdesigns
andcalligraphycameup.
5. Theycanbedividedinto3phases(a)DuringandimmediatelyafterTurkishconquestwhenmanyhindu
templesweredestroyedandnewislamicmonumentsweresoughttobecreatedintheirplacequickly.(b)
ExchangeofskillsandtraditionsbetweenIndianandIslamicarchitectureformsbutatthesametimealso
shows lack of mastery of Indian craftsmen over the new Islamic form, (c) evolution of a special Indo
Islamicform.
6. DuringandimmediatelyafterTurkishconquest:Turkishrulershadnotyetestablishedthemselves.They
neededtocreateanaweamongtheruled.ThusIltutmishcreatedmanymonumentsinDelhisothatthe
publiccouldbeawed.QutubMinarwasbuiltasasymbolofTurkishvictory.Furtherthemonumentsof
the age can't be divided exclusively into secular and religious monuments. This is because the rulers
needed monuments which could be used for huge public gatherings of the nascent Muslim society in
India.Thustheywereoftenlocatedinthemiddleofthetownandhadlargeopengardeninthem,pillared
verandahs on 3 sides and the praying site facing west. There was a raised platform where imams and
sultans could address the public. First such monument of the kind was Kuwwat ul Islam in Qila
Pithora. They had come to India as conquerors. So they didn't bring along any masons. So the initial
monuments have a deep influence of Indian architecture. The buildings of this phase were built by
demolishing parts of existing hindu temples and converting them according to muslim needs by
destroyingtheimages,puttingawallingarbhgrihaandinscribingQuranicverses.Alsotheflatroofhad
to be converted into a dome and flat windows into arch. The Indian craftsmen were used to their
traditionalstyleonly.OneoftheearliestmonumentsisAdhaiDinKaJhopdawhichwasbuiltbyQutub
uddinwhichhasfalsearches.
7. Expanding muslim population in India and subsequent rise of Indian muslim class: A mosque's area is
often proportional to the Muslim population living in the area. Thus Quwwat ul Islam mosque was
expandedbyIltutmishandAlauddin.AsIndianmuslimclassgrewstrongeritalsogotitsfairsharein
therulingclassintheformofKhaljis.Sotheexpansionofthemosquealsosymbolizesrisingpowerof
Indianmuslimclass.
8. ExchangeofskillsandtraditionsbetweenIndianandIslamicarchitecturalforms:Graduallyweseepure
form of Islamic architecture coming as Indian craftsmen began to master the new form. Balban's tomb
had the first True arch. Jamatikhana mosque of Alauddin is the first true Islamic monument. Alai
Darwaza can be construed to be the first monument which symbolizes the end of the initial phase of
insecurityandtheIndoIslamicarchitecturalform.
9. Tughluqage:ThemonumentsbuiltwereinferioringrandeurandbeautycomparedtotheKhaljiphase.
Perhaps they represented a reaction to the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the economic problems
facingthesultan.UnderGhiyasuddinTughluqwecanseethecontinuationofthefusionofIndoIslamic
forms.Thusinhismausoleumwecanseeakalashkeptontopofthedome.Theconstructionworkin
Tughluqabad may also reflect the haste and commotion in the face of impending Mongol threat. Firuz
constructedmanymonumentsbutnonematchedthegrandeurofearliersultans.SpeciallyunderFiruz,
slopingwallscalledsalamiwereprevalenttogiveanimpressionofsoliditytothemonument.Truedomes
wereconstructedbuttheyweresomewhatsmall.Pentagonaldesignscameup.
10. Lodiage:Lodisbelievedinthekingshiptheoryofbeingfirstamongtheequals.Thisisalsoreflectedin
thearchitectureaswefindthatthemonumentsbuiltbymanyAmirswereequalinscaleandgrandeurto
those built by the sultans. By their time, the octagonal designs, double domes and headers and
stretchersbricklayeringstylescameup.Charbaghstylealsocameup.
Painting
1. Thesepaintingsalsoshowmanymusicalinstrumentslikevariousformsofveena.
EvidencesofGrowthofPaintingsUnderSultans
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1. Itwasgenerallyconsideredthatthesultansdidn'tfavorpaintings.Butrecentevidencesfirmlyestablish
that paintings flourished under the sultans, under the provincial rulers of the age as well as under the
eliteelementsofthesociety.
2. Contemporary writer Tajuddin Raja says that paintings were quite popular under Iltutmish's reign. He
explicitlytalksofpaintingsinvolvinghumanandanimalfigureswhiletheCaliph'senvoywaswelcomedat
theport.Othercontemporarywritersconfirmwhathesays.
3. WefindbothdirectandindirectevidencesofpaintingsbeingusedasillustrationsinbooksduringAlaud
din'srule.AmirKhusrauwritesindetailhowthesedesignswereprepared.
4. ShamsiSirajAfifinhisTarikhiFiruzshahiwritesclearlythatFiruzbannedthelivingportraitsofhumans
inthepalacegalleriesandbedroomsofthesultan.Thistellsusthatsuchapracticewasfollowedrightin
theheartofsultanate.
5. SimilarlyBaraniwritesinTarikhiFiruzshahithatJalaluddinfinishedtheworkofconstructionofapalace
startedbySultanKakuibadanddecorateditwithpaintings.
RegionalPaintings
1. Jaunpur paintings: Various plays and other literary works in the Avadhi language make liberal use of
illustrations and/or talk explicitly about paintings. Prominent are the romantic works of Chandayan and
Mrigavati. The subjects of such works were often derived from Ramayan and Mahabharat. Another
PersianmanuscripthasbeenfoundwhichisheavilyinfluencedbyPersianpaintingstyle.
2. PaintingsunderJainmerchants:Since910centADwefindminiatureillustrationsinreligiousworksof
Buddhism,JainismandHinduismunderthePalas.Inthe1315centADsuchatraditionemergedvery
stronglyunderthepatronageofrichJainmerchantsandspreadtocentralandnorthernIndiaaswell.In
AhemdabadmanysecularaswellasreligiousJainworkswerecreatedwhichhadillustrationsinthem.
3. Mandupaintings: We have found 4 major manuscripts here which give evidence of flourishing painting
art here. A manuscript found here (Niyamatnama) has many miniature portraits of Sultan Nasiruddin
Khalji.ThesepaintingsshowclearfusionofIndianandPersianart.Theyusebrightandlivelycolorsand
reflectthelivelinessofthedurbarofMandu.AnothermanuscriptisMiftahulFuzalawhichisadictionary.
ThemanuscriptVostanshowsheavyinfluenceofPersianart.The4thoneisUjaibulSannati.
4. Bengalpaintings:AmanuscriptSharafnamahas9paintings.Sikandarnamahasbeautifulpaintingsonits
openingpageitself.TheyshowclearfusionofIndoIslamicforms.
CompositeCulture
1. ThefusionofIndoIslamicculturebeganwiththeTurksin13thcentury.BeforethatArabmerchantswere
residinginIndiaintheMalabarandRashtrakutaempireandArabshadalsoconqueredSind.Butstillnot
muchexchangehappened.ThisfusionreachedgreaterheightsundertheMughals.
Music
1. Despite the opposition of religious extremists, music flourished under the Sultans. Amir Khusrau
developedanewIndianstyleofpoetry.MbTandZainulAbedinwerebigpatronsofmusic.Thenunder
Mughals it reached its zenith. Abul Fazl tells us about the prominent musicians in Akbar's court which
includedbothHindusandMuslims.UnderBijapur'ssultanIbrahimAdilShahmanytextswerewrittenin
poetry.Hehimselfwasapoet.BahadurShahandMuhammadShahalsoencouragedmusic.
LanguageandLiterature
1. OneofthemajorstepswhichpromotedthefusionwasthecompletePersianizationoftheadministrative
work. This encouraged Hindus to take up Persian learning and they also began to contribute to the
Persianliterature.
2. Regional languages also began to liberally exchange with Persian due to this move. Though they kept
their basic grammar and syntax but incorporated many words from Persian (specially Marathi for
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instance Peshwa, Avadhi, Bengali). We can see the influence of Persian in Nanak's work as well as
Tulsi's Ramcharitmanas. Regional languages also developed as the Muslim rulers in provinces also
patronized them (for instance ZainulAbedin encouraged compilation of Rajtarangini, he also
encouraged Kashmiri literature. Sanskrit works came up in Muhammed Begara's reign, Gujarati works
were encouraged by Ahmedshah. Similarly Bengali, Telugu etc. were encouraged by the local rulers).
ManyworksweretranslatedfromPersianandSanskritintotheseregionallanguages.
3. Akbar was very fond of literary works and had a big library of works in many languages. He also got
manyworkstranslatedintoPersian.
UrduLanguage
1. The Turkish invaders came here and settled here. With time their links with Central Asia broke
(specificallyduetoMongolinvasions)andhencetheyhadtorecruitfortheirarmedforcesfromamong
Indians.NaturallytherewasabarrierincommunicationbetweenthePersianspeakingcentralasiansand
hindi speaking Indians. Thus urdu came up as the camp language. Amir Khusrau was one of the first
prominentwriterstoalsotakeupUrdu.
2. Whenthesufisaintsandsubsequentlythesultanswenttodeccantheyfacedthesamelanguagebarrier
again. So the language which subsequently came up after exchanges with the regional languages is
calledDeccanilanguagewhichevolvedintothemoreformal/classicalformofUrdu.Withtheexpansion
ofMughalempirein17thcenturyinDeccanthespreadofDeccaniincreased.
3. In18thcenturyUrduemergedastheleadinglanguageofthegentryandsymbolizedtherevoltagainst
thePersiandominance.
ProvincialArchitecture
1. Gujarati style represents the clearest influence of Hindu style of architecture. We can see this in the
JamaMasjid@Ahemdabad,KhambatandBadiMasjid@Champaneretc.wheretheyresembleHindu
and Jaina temples closely. The dome was supported by slender minarets. Influence seen in Fatehpur
Sikri.
2. In Golconda fort we can see that the arches were ornamented with Hindu motifs like cranes, parrots,
lions,peacocksetc.SimilarlyinBijapur'sJamaMasjidwecanseesculpturesofPipaltreesonthewalls
whichisasacredtreeforHindus.
3. UndertheBundelas@OrchhaandDatiawecanseearchesalongwithHindustyle.UnderMarathaswe
canseeIslamicfeatureslimeminarets,domesetc.whichareevenusedintheconstructionoftemples.
Marathasalsohadgardensconstructedintheirpalacesalongwithfountains,canalsetc.
ReligionandPhilosophy
1. Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced each other and the popular thought. Diniilahi was a
manifestation of the fusion. Dara Shikoh was also a great assimilatory character and influenced by
sufism.
2. Still the exchange couldn't take place beyond some popular practices and beliefs. At the philosophical
levelthefusionwasnotvisibleexceptfortheabovementionedinstances.Thereweresomesufisaints
who incorporated some practices of hindu saints like yoga etc. A particular sect of Muslims believed
Prophet to be an avatar, Muinuddin Chisti to be a demigod. We can see people of both community
celebratingmanyfestivalstogether.Thiscommunalharmonywasencouragedbytheprovincialsultans
aswell.
EvolutionofaCompositeRulingClass
1. WithtimethedominationofTurksendedandwecanseeIndianMuslimsrisingintherankoftheruling
class. Then there were many Hindus who were exploited in the Hindu society, they sought to take
advantage of the new situation for their advance. Slowly even the better off hindus aligned themselves
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with the sultans and even though they didn't get a share directly in the upper echelons of power they
werequiteimportantforthesultanate.
2. When Sikandar Lodi ordered for the adoption of Persian as the official language many learned Hindu
classeslikeKayastha,Kashmiribrahmansetc.learntPersianandtookadvantage.Therulingclassatthe
village and local level still comprised predominantly of hindus. Yet before Mughals a truly composite
rulingclasscouldn'temerge.
AmirKhusrauinMusic
1. He was very much influenced by Indian music and gave many new ragas (like tilak, sarpada, saajgiri)
andtaalsbyfusingIndianandIslamicmusic.HeissaidtohavepopularizedQawwalisandinventedtabla
andsitar.
SufisinMusic
1. Theycontributedintheformofgazalsandqawwalis.Gazalisaromanticformofmusicwheretheobject
of love is a person in this world only. Qawwali is the romantic music where the object is God. As such
gazalsbecameverypopularinthedurbarsofsultans.
CultureinMughalEmpire
PersianHistoryWriting
NatureandCharacter
1. InNIndialandrecordswerekeptinPersianonly.InSIndiahowever,bothlocalandPersianlanguages
wereused.ThisgaveagreatboosttothespreadofPersian.
2. ThehistorieswerewrittenwithintheconfinementofIslami.e.criticismofKuran,Hadi,Sunnaetc.isnot
possibleanditmustremainwithintheconfinesofthereligion.
3. Therisingmightoftheemperorhadaninfluenceonthehistoriographyaswellandnowthehistoryofthe
agebecamethehistoryoftheemperor.Thecompletedworksnowcametobededicatedtotheemperor.
TheearlierArabictraditionofgivingsourceswasalsodiscontinuedhere.Divineassociationofthekings
wasemphasizedupontoestablishtheirsovereignty.Wefindthetraditionofhistorywritingspreadingto
theprovincesaswell.
4. We find extensive use of religious terminology in the texts which might appear to the extent of outright
communalatthefirstglance.Butitmustbekeptinmindthatinthosedaysreligionandeducationwere
intricatelylinked.Thescholarswereinvariablymenofreligionandtheyknewnoterminologyotherthan
religious.Thustheymakeindiscriminateuseofsuchterms.Forinstanceusingsuchtermslashkarikufra
andlashkariislamevenwhenbothsidesfightingeachotherwereMuslims.
5. Wemustalsokeepinmindthattheinterestofmuchofthehistorywritingsectiondifferedfromthoseof
thesultans.Thehistorywritingsectionmainlycamefromthereligiousulemmasclassandwantedsultan
to be bound by the shariat and kuran so that he would have to consult them on all matters and their
importance in the politics grows. Sultans on the other hand were not willing to accept any sovereignty
abovethem.Sotopleasetheulemmasandtoshowtheircompleteloyaltytowardsshariatwheneverit
was possible they tried to give religious color to actions otherwise necessitated by politicoeconomic
considerations. The historians naturally used to give lot of importance and communal color to such
events.
6. Thepoliticalstabilityandeconomicprosperityoftheagecanalsobeseeninsuchworks.
DifferencesfromSultanateEraHistoryWriting
1. Thecompletedworksnowcametobededicatedtotheemperor.
2. TheearlierArabictraditionofgivingsourceswasalsodiscontinuedhere.
3. Theemperorsusedtopayalotofattentiontohistorywritingsthemselvesasisevidentfromthetradition
of autobiographies in the mughal age. When they couldn't they appointed highest scholars for the task
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andgavethemfullaccesstoallgovernmentrecords(includingtheclassifiedones)andgavethemother
privilegesaswell.Butasusualthismeansthesewritingswereoftenbiased.
4. In the mughal works we can see events presented chronologically year after year along with all the
dates.ButinBarani'sworkweseelackofsuchchronology.
5. Thetechniquesofpapermakingandbindingshowedmarkedimprovementoverthesultanateeraandso
wehavelargeramountofsourcesofmughalerawithus.
ZahiruddinMuhammedBaburandTuzukiBabri
(a)Importance
1. ItsimportanceisthatitsanautobiographyandthisiswhereMughalsdifferedfromsultans.Theworkis
fromsomeonewhowasshapingtheIndiaoftheageandbroughtarevolution.Hedivideshisworkin3
partsfirstpartrunsfromhisaccessiontothethroneofFarganaandendswithleavingSamarkandfor
thefinaltime,secondparttellsusabouthisstrugglesandwarsinIndiaandthethirdparttellsusabout
thestateofaffairsinIndia.
2. Hedescribesthepoliticalsituationofthecountryingreatdetail.Hetalksaboutdifferentprovincialrulers
likeGujarat,Malwa,Bijapur,Golcondaetc.,Vijaynagar,Bengal,Rajputana.Hetalksaboutthedifficulties
faced in keeping the conquered areas firmly under his control. He talks about the difficulties faced in
collectinglandrevenue.
3. Being a foreigner he tells us in detail about all things which struck to him and which may have been
ordinarytoaresidenthere.Hewasakeenobserveranddescribespeopleandgeographyingreatdetail.
He writes about their clothes, food, habits, behavior, profession, social structure, festivals, art forms,
architecture,technologiesetc.ingreatdetail.Thusheproducesarichaccount.
4. He also writes very frankly about his own mistakes. It also gives a good account of the conditions
prevailinginHumayun'sinitialyearsandtellsusabouthisstrengthsandweaknessesaswell.
(b)Limitations
1. Hecanbeaccusedofdistortionoffactsalsospeciallywhilehighlightinghismilitaryvictories.
2. HeformsanegativestereotypeofIndiansbasedonhisobservationsofcertainbackwardsectionsofthe
society.
3. HealsoleavesoutcertainprovinceslikeSind,Kashmir,Odisha,Khandesh.HeneglectsPortugueseas
well.
4. Hisisalsoabrokenaccountsometimesithadlongbreaks.
Humayun'sHistoriography
1. TarikhiRashidi by Hussain Mirza: He was a senior commander in Babur's and then Humayun's army
and hence the importance. He talks in detail about Humayun's period. He writes about character and
habits of Humayun. He gives a different and detailed account of circumstances leading to the battle @
Kannauj and Kamran's role in it. He said that some revolts had emerged in Punjab and Qandhar so
Kamranhadtoreturnimmediatelybutheleft5000sawarswithHumayun.
2. KanuniHumayuni by KhondMir: The writer was a senior official under Humayun and thus gives us a
goodaccountoftheeventsandconventionsofthedurbar.
3. Humayunnama by Gulbadan: She was a step sister to Humayun and tells us in detail about the life of
royalladiesandHumayun'sexileandconqueringKabul.
Akbar'sHistoriography
1. Ithad3strands(a)theofficialversioni.e.AkbarnamawrittenbyAbulFazlandwhichwassponsoredby
Akbar, (b) neutral version i.e. TabakatiAkbari written by Nizamuddin Ahmad, and (c) antiAkbar
versionMuntakbhutTarikhwrittenbyBadayuni.
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(a)AkbarnamabyAbulFazl
1. AbulFazlwasaliberalpersonlikeAkbarandconsequentlyhadcomeveryclosetohim.In1590hewas
entrustedwiththetaskofwritinghistoryofAkbar.ThefirstpartstartswithAkbar'sbirthandendsin1572
wherehetalksaboutcreationoftheuniverse,otherreligionsandtheirprophets,Akbar'sancestorsetc.
Inthesecondonehecoverstheperiodtill1588.ThethirdpartisAiniAkbari.The4thparttalksabout
thegeography,people,climate,indiansaints,sufisaintsetc.ofIndia.Inthefinalparthegiveshisbrief
autobiography.
2. HestudiedallrelevantArabicandPersianhistorybooks,heusedallrelevantofficialrecords,farmaans
etc., he interviewed a lot of people including the amirs and Akbar himself, he knew intricate details of
manythingsbeingahighamirhimselfandwhenevertherewasadisputeregardinganythingheusedto
takeopinionofmaximumpossiblenumberofpeopleconversantwiththematterandiftherewasstillany
disputeleftthenAkbarusedtotakeadecision.
3. Abul Fazl was a great supporter of Akbar's liberal religious ideas and he wanted to strengthen his
positionfurther.SohehighlightedthedivineaspectofAkbar'skingshipandalsopraisedsulhikulpolicy
ofAkbar.Hesupportedhisclaimtomustajir.Variousreligionsgenerallyassociatebirthsofprophetsor
greatmenwithsomedivinesigns.AbuFazltriestolinkAkbar'sbirthwithsomedivinesignsaswell.Ifhe
was not given formal education during his childhood, Abu Fazl links it to such a tradition among the
prophets.HewantedpeopletobelievethatAkbarhadanelementofdivinityinhimsothattheyfollowhis
orderswithoutanyissues.
4. He rejects the highly ornamental style of Persian writing of previous historians and instead writes in a
verysimpleandyetlovablelanguage.UnlikeotherPersianhistorianshedoesn'tuseanysuchlanguage
whichcanevenhintatreligiousintolerance.Thiswasabigbreakfromthehistorywritingtraditionofthe
age.
5. AiniAkbari reflects the liberal religious views and sulhikul thoughts of Akbar. It tries to give a
harmonious portrayal of hindus and hindu philosophy and presents them as being tolerant, liberal and
assimilatory.Althoughitmustbenotedthathedidn'tknowSanskritlikeBerouniandthussufferedfrom
this handicap. He tries to portray the apparent differences between various religions as a result of
different languages, ignorance of the religious heads and interpreters, their traditional and fanatical
outlook,useofreligionbythemandtherulerstoservetheirpersonalambitionsetc.Inrealitythereisno
difference between any religion. He rejects the claim of old historians that in India there is an inherent
conflict between the muslims and hindus. He also rejects any fanaticism be it in hindus or in muslims.
ThushepraisesTodarmalforhisqualitiesbutcriticizeshimforhislackoftolerance.
(b)TabakatiAkbaribyNizamuddinAhmad
1. Nizamuddin was a high ranking officer under Akbar yet wrote in a neutral way. His book covers the
historyofsultanateandAkbarandotherprovinceslikeBengal,Malwa,Jaunpur,Kashmir,Sindetc.He
didn'twritetogainfavorsfromtheemperorandwasamanofhighintegrity.
2. HeusesotherworkslikeTuzukiBabri,Akbarnamaandnumerousotherhistoricaltextsofhisage.
(c)MuntakbhutTarikhbyAlBadayuni
1. Badayunirepresentedthetraditionalfanaticalulemmaclass.Hehadgrownupandreceivededucationin
averyorthodoxandfanaticalenvironment.HehatedAkbarforhisreligioustolerancewhichhebelieved
hadledtotheignoranceoflearnedscholarslikehim.Hebelievedthatallthehighpostsandinfluence
should be exclusively reserved for muslims and that too for learned scholars like him. This was his
biggestlimitationbutatthesametimealsoletsusknowtheimpactofAkbar'spoliciesonthissection.
2. BadayunihadbeeninvitedtoibadatkhanaaffairsofAkbar.Buthesoonfoundoutthathisorthodoxviews
wouldhavenoimpactontheemperor.HewasalsojealousofAbulFazl(whonotonlyinfluencedAkbar's
policiesbutalsowasinvolvedinimplementingthem)whomheaccusedofpoisoningtheemperor'smind
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and this hatred shows in his work. He believes himself to be a soldier of Islam and brands both Akbar
andAbulFazlasenemiesofIslam.HewasalsodissatisfiedfromAkbarforhisregulationsimposedon
madadimash(thetaxfreelandgrantsmadetomuslimulemmas).
3. His work has 3 parts first one begins from Subuktgin and lasts till Humayun's death (this can be
considered as a summary of TabakatiAkbar), second relates to Akbar and third relates to some sufi
saints,poetsandmuslimscholars.
4. His work is full of religious intolerance and hatred for hindus. But it must be kept in mind that he was
jealousofrichhindusastheywerericherthanhimandfocuseshisvenomonthem.Atthesametimehe
ignorespoorhindusjustlikeheignorespoormuslimsasthisreflectsthetypicalmindsetoftheprivileged
classoftheage.
5. Hisresearchandanalysiswasshallowashewasnotreallyinterestedindescribinganyeventoftheage.
HemerelywantedtopourvenomonbothAkbarandAbulFazl.
TuzukiJahangiribyJahangir
1. Thisisanautobiographyanddescribesindetailhiscampaignsincludingfailures,factionalismemerging
in the high noblery, transfers of mansabdars and how he himself turned away from his responsibilities.
Theworkreflectshisdesires,hisefforts,successes,failureseverything.Hedescribeshowhewantedto
belikehisfather.Hewritesindetailabouthisdailylife,histhoughtsveryhonestly.
2. Hedoesn'tstaylimitedtohislifeonly.Healsodescribeshisofficers,hisperceptionabouttheirthoughts
andfactionalfightsetc.Thismakesitaverygoodsource.Healsodescribesthegeographicaldetailsof
hisjourneytoKashmir,Malwa,Ajmer,GujaratandPunjab.
3. First15yearsofhisreignwereverygoodbutfromthe16thyearonwardsproblemsbeginandhestarts
toretirefromactivelife.Thisisreflectedintheformofirregularentriesinthebook.Inthealteryearshe
delegatedtheresponsibilityofhistorywritingtoMotmidKhanwhowritesinthenameofJahangirtillthe
19thyear.FromthenonhewritesIkbalnamaiJahangiriinhisownnamewhichagainisaveryreliable
source.
Padshahnama(forShahjahan)
1. Thishas3versions.FirstwaswrittenbyKazwiniwhichcoversthefirst10yearsofhisreign.Nextwas
written by Abdul Hamid Lahori and covers first 20 years of the reign. The third version was written by
Muhammad Waris which covers the last 10 years of his reign. This work covers in detail the princes,
amirs,scholars,sufis,poets,campaigns,politicalevents,transfersetc.
Aurangzeb'sHistoriography
(a)AlamgirnamabyKasemShiraji
1. He covers the first 10 years of his reign. Like other official historians, he too had access to all the
governmental records. Where he needed more information he could investigate anyone and was also
free to consult the emperor. He liberally praises Aurangzeb and criticizes his brothers and even
Shahjahan.HepraisesthoseamirswhosidedwithAurangzebinhissuccessionwar.
(b)MuntakbhulLubabbyKhafiKhan
1. This is a critical work of Aurangzeb's reign and he writes how the peasantry was oppressed by the
mughalsandalwayslivedinfear.Healsocriticizesthehandlingofdeccaniaffairsandhisworkcontains
theelementspointingtowardsthedeclineofmughalempire.
(c)FutuhatiAlamgiribyIsardasNagar
1. Thiscovershisreignupto34yearsandtalksindetailabouthisrelationswithrajputs.Hewriteshowby
1691 Aurangzeb's policies had failed and his noblery had hatched ambitions to carve out independent
principalities.
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EuropeanSources:JeanTaverner
1. He was a merchant and hence was interested mostly in economic activities of the country. But a
difference between him and other writers is that he didn't remain confined to the court activities. He
travelled across India and also wrote about the people, social life (whatever he could understand) and
economiclife.Thushebecomesanimportantsourcealbeitonewhichshouldbeinterpretedwithproper
caution.HethuswritesabouttheproductionactivitiesinIndia,themerchants,thesarafs,theinvolvement
ofamirsintrade,varioustemplesetc.
2. Onelimitationisthathetravelledthroughforestssohecouldhavewrittenaboutthetribalstherebuthe
didn't.Thenhiswritingsonreligiousandculturallivesareatbestshallow.
EuropeanSources:FrancisBernier
1. HehadstayedinIndiaforalongperiod.Sohecametounderstandthecircumstanceshereinabetter
way.Hehadaccesstotheroyalcourtsandhencewritesaboutthelivesoftherulingclassincludingthe
princesses.Hewritesabouttherajputsaswell.
2. Healsothrowssufficientlightontheeconomiclife.Hewritesaboutthecraftsmen,thepeasantsetc.But
heincorrectlyassertsthattheemperorwastheownerofalllandhere.
3. On amirs he writes that they lived a very consuming life. Despite large incomes they were always
indebted. He talks about the transportation means, the mughal army, the brahmans and their narrow
mindsetandsuperstitions,thesatisystem,devadasisystemandcraftproductionprocessesinIndia.
MughalArchitecture
Features
1. Change&Continuity:Doubledome,charbaghstylewereelementsofcontinuity.Influenceofprovincial
architecture,kalash,petradurastylewereelementsofchange.
2. Due to the central asian origin of the emperors the architecture was characterized by fusion of Hindu
IslamicarchitecturespeciallyunderAkbar.Onesuchinfluenceisthekalashplacedontopofthedomes
which was borrowed from Hindu temple architecture. In SJ's time, greater emphasis was placed on
Islamic character of buildings. Thus during Akbar's period we can see a fusion of regional styles into
Mughalbuildings.InRedFortwecanseedistinctGujaratiandMalwainfluence.Theuseofdomeswas
avoidedandinsteadreplacedbychatris.Domeswereusedonlyinthemosque.Wecanseetheuseof
colorfulandglazedtilesontheexternalwallsinSikriwhichresemblePersianstyle.Ontheotherhandthe
internal walls and chatris were ornamented with motifs of different animals and human beings in the
Rajput style. Fatehpur Sikri too saw huge influence of Gujarat and Rajput styles. Rajput influence is
witnessed in the doors and windows and in Jodhabai's and Birbal's palaces while Kashmiri influence is
visibleinMariam'spalace.InBirbal'spalacewecanseethearchesweredecoratedwithmotifsoflotus,
roseandotherflowers.IntheDiwaniKhaswecanseetheinfluenceofJain,BuddhistaswellasHindu
styles.
3. It used the charbagh style. Initially the monument was constructed in the middle of the garden on a
raisedplinthandflowingwater.Humayun'stombisthefirstexample.Shahjahanchangedittoplacingthe
monumentinonecornerofthegarden.
4. Manybeautifulgardenswithflowingcanalswerecreated.ItbeganwithBaburwhogotagardencreated
inAgrawhenhebegantolivethere.ExampleareShalimar@Lahore,NishatBaghinKashmir.
5. Doubledomewasanotherfeature.Humayun'stombisthefirstexample.
6. Red sandstone from Dhaulpur was extensively used by Mughals. Examples are Shahjahanabad and
Fatehpur Sikri. Marble was also used. From Jahangir's time a visible shift was made towards use of
marble.
7. SomenewcitieslikeDinPanahbyHumayunandShergarhbySSSwerebuilt.
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8. Pietra dura style was used for ornamentation. Floral designs were carved in walls and semiprecious
stoneswerefittedintheseengravingsforentiredesign.
9. LastexampleofMughalarchitectureisSafdarjungtomb.
10. Thearchitecturewassuitedtotheclimaticconditionsoftheland.Theroomswerelargeandairy.There
werebiggardensaroundthebuildingandmanyfountainsaswell.Theroofshadthekhuskhusgrassto
keepthemcool.
MughalArchitectureasaReflectionofContemporaryLife
1. Itsymbolizesthegreatpoweroftherulingclassandthegreatdividebetweentherulersandtheruled.
Mughalsbroughtavastareaofthecountryundertheiradministration.Theyhadelaboratemachineryto
extracttheagriculturesurplusandthissurpluswasconcentratedinfewhandsonly.Thisgavethemthe
abilitytoprovideforbestoftheresourcesfromalloverthecountryintheirmonuments.Thisshowsinthe
superiority of their architecture. The elite and privileged class used burnt bricks, mortar and stones
(because stone cutting and polishing was costly) and arches, domes and vaulted roofs in their
constructions.TheyalsomadeuseofglassesfortheirwindowsandJahangirevenusedcoloredglasses
whichwereveryexpensive.Commonersusedmudbricksorkucchahouses.
2. Theyreflecttheincreasingpoweroftheemperoreveninrespectofhisamirs.ThuswhileintheLodirule
wefindthatthemonumentsofhisamirswereasgoodasthoseofthesultan,inmughalagemonuments
oftheemperorswerewayaboveanybodyelse's.Whiletheemperorshadtheresourcesandcapacityto
obtainbestofmaterialandlaborfromanypartofthecountryhisnoblesandprovincialrulers/governors
clearlycouldn'tdoso.
3. WecanseetheimpactofAkbar'sdesiretobethereligiousleaderofIndianmuslimsaswell.InDiwani
Aam@Sikriwecanseethattheemperor'sthronewasplacedinthewesterndirectionwhichgavehim
religious supremacy as well. The use of many provincial styles in the buildings can be seen to reflect
Akbar's desire to be the emperor of whole India and not just a part of it. But this innovative and
assimilativecharacterwasreplacedbyatraditionalcharacterinShahjahan'smonuments.
4. Themonumentsclearlyshowthestateoftheempireinthosedays.Forinstancethemajesticfusionand
smooth construction of Sikri shows the stability and the strength of the empire. By Shahjahan's time a
stagnationhadoccurredwhichwecanseeinthelackofvarietyintheconstruction.Thefreshnessand
culturalfusionofthebuildingsgavewaytoartificialgrandeur.Theinnovativeandassimilativecharacter
of Akbar's time was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's monuments. It appears that this
was an attempt to hide the growing problems of the empire. By Aurangzeb's time the architecture
declined due to his personal indifference as well as economic condition of the state. Whatever
monuments are there show traditional style only and lack of creativity. Instead the monuments of the
regionalprincipalitiesbegantogrowintheirattraction.Thisshowsthedeclineoftheempire.
5. These majestic projects reflected the cultural currents and tastes of the age in the ruling class. The
emperorsoftenpersonallypaidattentiontotheplansandconstructionofthemonuments.Thuswehave
paintingsofAkbarobservingtheconstructionofFatehpurSikripersonally.
6. After300yearsofliberalexchangesandchanges,Indianarchitecturestylehadstabilized.Thecraftsmen
hadbecomemastersoftheirartandthisshowsinthebuildingswhichshowastylethatismoremature
anduniformthanitspredecessors.Architectureduringsultanateperiodwasheterogenousandmorelike
acollectionofdifferentstyles.
7. Theconstructionmadeuseoflaborintensivetechnologieswhichindicatetheabundanceofunskilledand
skilled labor of the age and that it had become an important industry. Large amount of labor was
employed.ForinstanceAkbarnamatellsus4000workerswereemployedeverydayfortheconstruction
of Agra fort. Jama Masjid of Delhi employed 8000 workers and Taj Mahal employed 20000 workers
workingeveryday.
8. Thearchitecturewassuitedtotheclimaticconditionsoftheland.Theroomswerelargeandairy.There
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werebiggardensaroundthebuildingandmanyfountainsaswell.Theroofshadthekhuskhusgrassto
keepthemcool.
9. ThearchitectureclearlyshowsafusionofIndoIslamicstylesandshowstheprevailingundercurrentsof
communalharmonyandliberalexchangeinthesociety.
10. Themughalamirsusedtoconstructtheirbuildingsclosetothebuildingsconstructedbytheirancestors.
11. Thefoundationofanymajorprojectwaslaidonlyafterconsultingtheastrologicalcharts.
MughalPainting
Howtheyreflectthecontemporarylife?
1. PainterswerebothHinduMuslimsaswellaslowercastehindus.
2. Court patronized. Book illustrations played an important role. Karkhanas were established for painting.
Painterswerepaidmonthlysalaries+bonuses.
3. Itwasunislamicyetliberalinterpretationofislamallowsit.
4. PaintedportraitsofAkbarshowingdespotism.
5. Specializationabsent.
6. Mughal paintings show the construction scenes of the big monuments and also tell us about the used
technologies. For instance some paintings show us how stones were cut and polished to be used in
FatehpurSikri.
7. Courtscenes,huntingscenes,warswerepainted.Indiancolorsweredeveloped.
MughalPaintingsunderAkbar
1. IntheinitialphaseduringAkbar,paintingsusedtodrawheavilyfrompersianstylethoughwecouldsee
someinfluencesofIndianstyleoccasionally.Oneofthefirstimportantpaintingswastheminiaturestyle
DastaniAmirHamzaorHamzanama.Ithad1200paintingsandusedbrightcolors.AmirHamzawasa
Persian mythological hero and Akbar used to enjoy his stories. Hamzanama depicts foreign plants and
flowers.WecanalsoseeinfluenceofHindusstyleinthepaintingofwomeninit.InAnwariSuhailiwe
canseethatthebirdsandanimalsarepaintedinaverynaturalstylewhereasinpersianstyleanimals
arepaintedinaveryartificialway(theyappearmorelikemasksthanaliveanimals).ItshowsIndiantrees
andflowersbutpaintshillsandcloudsinpersianstyle.ThesepaintersweremostlyPersians.
2. InthenextphaseAkbar'spolicieshadbecomemuchmoreassimilatoryandtheresultingfusionculture
had become mature. Akbar was becoming more interested in analysis of different religions. So he
wanted many books of different religions to be translated into Persian. Such translations would also
include miniatures. This gave a big boost to the fusion process. We can see the same impact in the
paintings as they now included various provincial styles like Gwalior, Gujarat, Rajputana, Lahore,
Kashmiretc.ThiswaspossibleastheirpainterswerenowdrawnfromalloverIndiaandnotjustPersia.
TootinamaisanimportantpaintingfromthisphaseandwecanseeIndianinfluenceinbothsubjectsas
well as style. The most famous painting of this age was Razmnama which worked as a milestone for
otherpaintings.
3. WithtimewecanalsoseetheEuropeaninfluenceinthepaintings.Itbeganwhenin1580Akbarinviteda
missionarytohisdurbar.Theybroughtmanypaintingswiththem.Themughalprinceswereimpressed
andthepainterstriedtoincorporateitsfeaturesintheirownpaintings.Inthebeginningtheyjustcopied
theoutlinesandfilleditintheirowncolorsandstyle.Lateronwecanseetheeuropeaninfluencebothin
the subjects and style. A popular feature now was that the front objects were put in a perspective by
changingtheirsize.
4. DuringthefinalyearsAkbarwasbesiegedwithmanyproblemsincludingtherevoltofprinceSalimand
death of princes Murad and Daniyal. We can see the corresponding decline in the paintings as well
specially miniatures. This decline was evident not only in quantity but also quality as they now lacked
creativity.
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MughalPaintingsunderJahangir
1. DuringAkbar'sreignthepaintingwasboundbythesubjectofthemanuscriptofwhichitformedapart.
Jahangir freed it from this limitation and encouraged free paintings (on subjects dictated by him)
including portraits. Initially he got some of the paintings redone from the royal library. Then he turned
towards life size portraits and other scenes from royal life. It must be kept in mind even Akbar got
portraits done but under Jahangir they became the dominating theme. Jahangir was eager to have
importanteventsofhislifeandreignrecordedandaskedthepainterstopainthisdurbarscenes,festival
celebrations,flowersandanimalswhichinterestedhimetc.ThereisonepaintingwhichshowsJahangir
aimingforalioness'seyeandaRajputprinceispointingtowardsit.
2. ThepaintingsoftheageelevatedJahangir'sauraandshowedhiminamajesticform.Maybetheyarean
attempt to take his mind away from the dissonance of his failures to tackle some of the problems he
facedorsomeofthedesireshecouldneverfulfill.Theywerejustanattempttoshowhimasagreat,all
conquering, merciful and just ruler. For instance we can see him greeting the persian ruler on equal
termsthoughhenevermethim.Theonepaintingshowshimpresidingover(asagreatgreatemperor)a
meeting of many kings and princes from far off lands. In another he is seen as kicking Malik Ambar's
head.
3. Thusgraduallyinhisreignwecanseeminiaturesdecliningandgettingreplacedbyfreestylepaintings
includingtheportraits.
4. Thepaintingsalsoshowtheanimalsandbirdsinaverynaturalwayandfocusontheirbodilyfeatures
with a preciseness which is amazing. We can see signs of scientific study of such subjects before the
paintings.
MughalPaintingsafterJahangir
1. ForsomeyearsShahjahanletthemworkastheywereworkingunderJahangir.Butlateronhebeganto
havehimselfpaintedinassociationwithsomedivinepowerslikeforinstancetheangelsthemselvesare
descendingonearthtokeepthecrownonhishead,ortheyarestandingholdingflagsintheirhandsand
prayingforhisvictoryandlonglife.Healsohadhimselfpaintedinmostimposingforms.Inonepainting
wecanseeAkbar,JahangirandShahjahanwithAkbardirectlygivingthecrowntoShahjahan.
2. Perhapsallthiswasanattempttohidethedeclineinthefortunesoftheempire.Thatiswhythereistoo
muchofglorifyingtheemperor.Thedeclineinmughalpaintinghadclearlysetinandcreativityhadgiven
waytotraditionalism.
3. European influence can be clearly seen in these paintings as there is generally an illuminated circle
behind his head radiating light as in the european paintings of Jesus. Further we can see that the
backgroundisgenerallypaintedblurinlightcolors.
RajputanaSchoolofPainting
1. Rajputanapaintingscanbebroadlydividedinto(a)courtpaintingswhichdepictasusualthelifestyleof
thefeudallords.Wecanseeclearmughalinfluencehereintheformofdresses,symbols,background,
sceneryetc.Theinfluencegrewasthepaintersreturnedfromthedelhicourtduetothedeclineofthe
empire.(b)literarypaintingswhichtypicallydrawtheirsubjectmatterfromhindureligion.Theyalsoshow
lessinfluenceofislamicartandmoreofrajputtraditionalartonlybecausetheinteractionwithmughals
wasmoreintherulingclass.(c)folkpaintingswhichtypicallyshowfestivals,celebrations,dailylifeevents
etc.
MewarSchool
1. It mainly flourished in Chittor, Udaipur, Nathdwara, Deogarh, Sirohi, Saawar under Sisodias. It shows
comparativelylesserinfluenceofmughalstyleduetodistantpoliticalrelationswiththemughals.
2. Under Rana Amar Singh we can see that the men clothing is triangular in the bottom part of the body
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which indicates mild mughal influence only. Under his successor Rana Jagat Singh we can see an
increaseinthereligiouspaintingsaswellascourtpaintings.Thesepaintingsdepictedmenandwomen
in a mix of mughal and traditional wear, birds, flowers etc. all in their natural state but the hills were
paintedinmughalstyle.
3. Inthefirsthalfof18thcenturythecourtpaintingsflourishedfurtheraslotofpainterscameback,butafter
thatwecanseeadeclineundertheinfluence.
AmberSchool
1. ItflourishedunderKachwahasinAmber,Jaipur,Alwar.
2. Here the folk painting and literature related religious painting flourished more. It flourished under Man
Singh,SawaiJaiSinghandhissuccessors.Butby19thcenturyitlostitsappeal.
MarwarSchool
1. ItflourishedunderRathoresinJodhpur,Bikaner,Jaisalmer,Pali.Withtimewecanseegrowingmughal
influence in the Jodhpur school as the traditional rajput elements were replaced by refinement and
adornment.Itportraysmenandwomeninstockybodiesandmenwithmustaches.
2. Bikaner school was the one most closely affiliated with the mughal style as it had very close political
relationswithmughals.Insteadofbrightcolorsorbeautifulsceneryworklikeotherrajputschoolsituses
softlinesandcolorassortmentlikethemughals.Itappearsthatwhenmughalpainterswereneglected
under Shahjahan they came to Bikaner. Apart from the mughal influence we can also see deccani
influenceherebecauseRanaAnupSinghstayedindeccanforlongunderAurangzeb.Theytoofocuson
thebodilybeautyofwomenwhoarelightandslim.
BundiSchool
1. ItflourishedundertheHadasinBundiandJhalawar.BundiwaslocatedbetweenAmberinnorth,Mewar
insouthandKotainwest.SoBundiusedtoattractpaintersfromalltheseschoolsandhencedeveloped
itsdistinctstyle.
2. Ittypicallyusedbrightlivelycolors,focusedonthebodilybeautyofwomenandaddedtotheirbeautyby
using sceneries including hills, rivers, forests, trees, fruits, flowers etc. in very natural sense. It used a
specialmixtureofcolorstoshowtheskyinbackground.
3. In18thcenturythesubjectsweremostlyhuntingscenes,durbars,portraitsofthefeudallordsandtheir
entertainment(examplesofmughalinfluence).Ittoodeclinedinthelaterhalfof18thcentury.
KotaSchool
1. AlthoughitisclosetoBundi,itstilldevelopedauniquestyle.Bundipassedthroughaturbulentphasein
the 18th century. So many painters from there came to Kota and worked here. Thus it came closer to
Bundi.
2. Thesubjectsweremostlyhuntingscenes,portraitsofthefeudallordsandtheirentertainment(examples
ofmughalinfluence).Ittoodeclinedinthelaterhalfof18thcentury.
KishangarhSchool
1. TheRanaherewasveryinterestedinartformsandwasinfluencedbysagunbhakti.ThefamousBani
Thani painting is from Kishangarh. The paintings here depict Radha and Krishna in gardens or
celebratingfestivalsetc.Itwasverymuchinfluencedbybhaktiandthefocusisonthebodilybeautyof
Radha.
PahadiSchoolsofPainting
KangraSchoolofPainting
1. This school reflects the closeness to nature and uses natural scenes to express human emotions. For
exampledrytreestosymbolizeseparation,brightflowerstosymbolizemeetingetc.
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2. IthasmanyregionalvariationswhichcanbeseeninBilaspur,Jammu,Mandi,Garhwal,Chamba,Nurpur
etc.
BasauliSchoolofPainting
1. WecanseeaclearfusionoffolkartofKashmir,MughalschoolandRajputschoolhere.Itschiefcenters
wereJasrota,Mankot,Bandharlata,Jammu,Nurpur,Chamba.
2. Initiallywecanseethetraditionalartformsclearlywithpeoplewearingtraditionaldressesandornaments
etc.AftertheturbulenceinDelhiduetoinvasionsandthronegames,manypainterscamehereandwe
see the influence of mughal style growing. This we can see in the form of changes in dresses,
expressionsofwomen,ornamentationetc.
GulerorEastKangraSchoolofPainting
1. OneofthereasonsforitsdevelopmentwasthatduetodisordertheroutebetweenDelhiandNWFPand
KashmirchangedfrompassingviaLahoretoviaJammu.Sowithtimethiscameundermughalinfluence.
DifferenceswithMughalandRajputSchools
1. Whilemughalschoolhasfocusedonthesplendoroftheemperorandhiscourt,pahadischoolexpresses
theemotions,nature,religioussentimentsetc.Thuspahadischoolcouldfocusonlifeoutsidetheroyal
sphereaswell.
2. Pahadi school tries to portray common life style and clothing style through krishna as it happened in
Europeanrenaissance.Thuskrishnaisdepictedaswearingpahadidressesandamongpahadiwomen
wearingtraditionaldresses.Thescenesaredepictedintheoriginalstateofnature.
3. Apartfromkrishna,pahadipaintingsalsodepictcommongirlsplayingthecommongamesofthedayor
playing music or depicts animals and birds in their natural settings. Women are shown as well like
mughal paintings. the paintings of the princes and their families are very much mughal styled. The
differenceherethoughisthatwhilesuchmughalpaintingsfocusedonsomepoliticaleventslikebattles,
surrenderbytheenemy,receivinganambassadoretc.pahadipaintingsonsucheventsarefew.
ProvincialArchitecture&Painting
LucknowSchoolofPainting
DeccaniSchoolofPainting
1. It flourished in Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar. There was a lot of exchange between the three
centers due to the upheavals of the age so it is often difficult to distinguish which painting belonged to
whichplace.TherewereexchangeswithRajputsaswellasMughals.Nizamshahisultansalsowelcomed
thepaintersfromVijaynagarempire.Thusthepaintingsshowagoodfusionwithhindustyleaswell.
2. These paintings show openness as against the traditionalism which crept into mughal paintings during
Shahjahan. The most famous painting is that of a yogini (or princess) from Bijapur. Adil Shah I and
Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur were great patrons of art including paintings. Their paintings are clearly
influencedbywesternromanticschool.
PatnaSchoolofPainting
LucknowSchoolofArchitecture
RajputanaSchoolofArchitecture
ClassicalMusic
1. Originallytherewasonlyonesystemofmusicbutinmedievalage,northIndiacameundertheinfluence
ofPersianmusicleadingtoformationof2schoolsHindustani(north)andKarnataka(south).Theyhave
commonbasicfeatureslikeraga,taal,performanceincludesasoloist(eithervocaloroninstrument),a
drummerandatanpura.
2. InitiallyDhrupadstylewaspopularwhichusedveenaastheinstrument.Anothermusicstylewhichwas
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popularamongpeopleinthosedayswasDhamarstylewhichfocusedondescribingkrishnaalongwith
the country girls, krishna playing holi in Braj, celebration of festivals etc. Mughal court couldn't remain
uninfluenced by Holi and Tansen et al composed many Dhamars as well and thus this folk music style
founditswayinthemughalcourts.ApartfromthesetwotherewasthebhaktimusicspeciallyfromKabir,
Miraetc.whichwassung.ThenAkbaralsogavepatronagetomusiciansfromsouthernindiaaswellas
north west. Thus an all encompassing music evolved in his period. Jahangir was a patron of music as
wellspeciallygazals.ThiscontinuedunderShahjahanbutdeclinedunderAurangzeb.
3. Inthe18thcenturyunderMuhammedShah(courtmusiciansAdarangandSadarang)andunderrulerof
Jaunpur, the khyal style emerged dominant. It differed from dhrupad in the sense it allowed for more
freedomofthemusicianaswellaswaswaslightandfulloflife.Ithasonlytwoparts(sthayiandantara)
asagainstthe4indhrupad.Itismoresuitedtothefemalevoiceandthishelpedinitsspread.Inkhyal
styleaswellthereweretwotypeschotakhyalandbadakhyal.Badakhyalhasslowtempowhilechota
khyalhasmediumandhighandhencebecamemorepopularamongthetwo.Khyalwasdifficulttoplay
onthetraditionalveenaandhencenewinstrumentslikesitarandtablacameup.
CarnaticMusic
1. IncontrasttoHindustanimusic,themainemphasisinCarnaticmusicisonvocalmusicmostcompositionsare
written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in gayaki (singing)
style.
2. ItpeakedunderVijaynagarempire@Tanjavurin1617century.PurandarDasisknownasthefatherof Carnatic
Music.BhaktimovementandfolkmusictraditionscontributedalottothedevelopmentofCarnaticmusic.
Shruti
1. It refers to musical pitch, the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of graded
pitches in an octave. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a raga in Carnatic music, the
numberthatcanbedistinguishedbyauditoryperceptionistwentytwo.
Swara
1. Itconsistofsevennotes,"sarigamapadani".Everymemberoftheswarahas3variants(likera,ri,ru)except
forsa,pa,ma.Itreferstoatypeofmusicalsoundthatisasinglenote,whichdefinesarelative(higherorlower)
positionofanote,ratherthanadefinedfrequency.
Raga
1. In Carnatic music, it prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. It specifies rules for movements up
(aarohanam)anddown(avarohanam),thescaleofwhichnotesshouldfiguremoreandwhichnotesshouldbeused
moresparingly,whichnotesmaybesungwithgamaka(ornamentation),whichphrasesshouldbeusedoravoided,
andsoon.Ineffect,itisaseriesofobligatorymusicaleventswhichmustbeobserved,eitherabsolutelyorwitha
particularfrequency.
Tala
1. Taals are the repeating succession of beats or claps like on a dholak (dhikdhadhikdhak
dhin).Theyhavecyclesofadefinednumberofbeatsandrarelychangewithinasong.
HindustaniMusic
1. FusionofVedicandPersianmusicaswellassufitradition.NameslikeAmirKhusrauandTansenareassociated
with this school. Sufi tradition brought religious assimilation in the music as Muslim singers sung praising Hindu
deitiesandviceversa.
2. It is traditional for performers who have reached a distinguished level of achievement to be awarded titles of
respectHindusareusuallyreferredtoaspanditandMuslimsasustad.
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DhrupadStyle
1. Its name is derived from the words "dhruva" (fixed) and "pada" (words). This tradition can be traced back to
Vedas. But it saw a decline from 18 century onwards. A newer genre, khyal, gained popularity at dhrupad's
expenseasitplacedlessconstraintsonthesingersandalsothenewinstrumentsbeingdevelopedthesitar and
thesarodwerenotsuitedtodhrupad.
2. Dhrupadasweknowittodayisperformedbyasolosingerorasmallnumberofsingersinunisontothebeatof
thepakhavajormridangratherthanthetabla.Thevocalistisusuallyaccompaniedbytwotanpuras.
3. Dhrupad styles have long elaborate alaps and gradually accelerates. The alap is derived from a mantra, in a
recurrent,setpattern:arenena,tterenena,rirerenena,tenetone.Inmoststylesofdhrupadsingingcan
easily last an hour. It is broadly subdivided into the alap proper (unmetered), the jor (with steady rhythm) and
thejhala(acceleratingstrumming)ornomtom,whensyllablesaresungataveryrapidpace.Thenthecomposition
is
sung
to
the
rhythmic
accompaniment:
the
four
lines,
in
serial
order,
are
termedsthayi,antara,sanchariandaabhog.
KhyalStyle
1. Khyalbasesitselfonacollectionofshortsongsoftwotoeightlineseachcalledabandish.Khyalbandishesare
typically composed in a variant of Urdu / Hindi, and sometimes in Persian, Marathi or Punjabi, and these
compositions cover diverse topics, such as romantic or divine love, praise of kings or gods, the seasons, dawn
and dusk and they can have symbolism and imagery. The bandish is divided into two parts the sthayi and
theantara.Thesthayioftenusesnotesintheloweroctave,whiletheantarausesinupperoctave.
2. Everysingergenerallyrendersthesamebandishdifferently,withonlythetextandtheragaremainingthesame.A
typicalkhyalperformanceusestwosongsthebadakhyalin slow tempo comprising most of the performance,
whilethechotakhyalinfasttempousedasafinale.Thesongsaresometimesprecededbyimprovisedalap.
3. Thesingerusesthebandishasrawmaterialforimprovisation,accompaniedbyaharmoniumorsarangi,tablaand
atanpurainthebackground.
TaranaStyle
1. ItisatypeofcompositioninHindustaniclassicalvocalmusicinwhichcertainwordsandsyllablesare used in a
mediumtempoandfasttempo.ItwasinventedbyAmirKhusrau.
TappaStyle
1. Tappa originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and developed as a form of classical music
byMianGhulamNabiShori@Oudh.
ThumriStyle
1. ItisasemiclassicalIndianmusic.Itdeveloped@OudhanddealsmainlywithKrishna.
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