Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Equipment required:
Analog Communication Kit, CRO, Connecting wires.
Components required:
1. Transistors: BC107 (2 nos.)
2. Diodes: A79 (1 no.)
3. Resistors: 8 K-1 No, 10K-(2nos), 100 K-(4nos)
4. Capacitors:0.1F-(2nos),-0.0015-(1no), 1KpF-(2nos),22F-(1no),0.01 F-(1no)
5. Inductors -2.5mH-(1no)
Theory:
In Amplitude modulation of a carrier signal is varied by the modulating voltage whose
frequency is invariably, lower than that of the carrier frequency. In practice, the carrier
frequency may be high frequency (HF), while the modulating frequency is audio frequency.
Formally AM is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is
made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating voltage.
Let the carrier voltage and the modulating voltage, Vc and Vm respectively be represented by
Vc = VcSinct
Vm= VmSinmt
Note that phase angle has been ignored in both expressions since it is unchanged by the
amplitude modulation process. Its conclusion here would merely complicate the preceding
without affecting the result. However, it will certainly not be possible to ignore phase angle
when we deal with frequency and phase modulation.
From the definition of AM, it follows that the (max amplitude V c of the unmodulated
carrier will have to be made proportional to the instantaneous modulating voltage V mSinmt
when the carrier is amplitude modulated.
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Representation of AM
Amplitude modulation may be represented in any of three waves depending on the point of
view . Fig 2 shows the frequency spectrum and so illustrates equation 3 . AM is shown simply as
consisting three discrete frequencies , of these the central frequency , i.e. the carrier has the
highest amplitude , and other two are disposed symmetrically about it , having amplitude which
are equal to each other , but which can never exceed half the carrier amplitude.
The appearance of the amplitude modulated wave is of great interest, and it is shown in fig2 for
one cycle of the modulating sine wave. It is derived from fig1 , which showed an amplitude , or
what may now be called the top envelope , is given by the relation A = (V c + VmSinmt )
.Similarly , the maximum negative amplitude , or bottom envelope , is given by - A = - (V c +
VmSinmt ). The modulated wave extends between these two limiting envelopes and has a
repretion rate equal to the unmodulated carrier frequency.
It will be recalled that Vm= mVc and it is now possible to use this relation to calculate the index
(or depth ) of modulation from the wave form of fig 2 as follows.
Vm = (Vmax Vmin)/2
Vc = Vmax Vm = Vmax ( (Vmax Vmin)/2 ) = (Vmax Vmin) / 2
M = Vm / Vc = ( (Vmax Vmin) / 2) / ( (Vmax Vmin) / 2)
M=(Vmax Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin)
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AM Demodulator
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) Apply the 100 KHz carrier signal and amplitude of 6V(p-p) to the input of AM modulator at
100 K pot and 1 KHz of modulating signal to the AM modulator at 100 K pot as shown in
the circuit diagram.
3) Apply the power supply of 12V as shown in the circuit diagram.
4) Observe the amplitude modulated wave synchronization with the modulating signal on a
dual trace CRO following figure shown the connections.
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5) Adjust the 10 K linear pot for carrier suppression and 100K linear pot for proper
modulation.i.e. 100%.
6) Now by varying the amplitude of the modulating signal , the depth of modulation varies.
Calculate the maxima and minima points of modulated wave on the CRO and calculate the
depth of modulation using formula.
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Result:
Amplitude modulated signal is generated and original signal is demodulated from AM
signal Depth of modulation is calculated for various amplitude levels of modulating signals.
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Equipment Required:
Analog communication kit , CRO, connecting wires.
Components Required:
1. ICs:8083,LM-565,TL08IC(OR)TL084
2. Resistors:4.7k-(2nos),10k-(5nos),15k-(1nos),30k-(1nos),300k-(2nos)
3. Capacitors:0.1F-(2nos),0.001F-(3nos),0.0022F-(1no)
Theory:
The general equation of an unmodulated wave, or carrier, may be written as X=A sin (t+)
Where X = instantaneous value of voltage or current.
A = (maximum) amplitude
= angular velocity (rad/s)
= phase angle, rad
Note that we represent an angle in radians.
If any one of these three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal, normally of a
lower frequency, then the second signal is called the modulation and the first is said to
modulated by the second. In the frequency modulation, frequency of the carrier is made to vary.
For simplicity, it is again assumed that the modulation, signal is sinusoidal. This signal has two
important parameters which must be represented by the modulation process without distortion:
namely, its amplitude and frequency. It is assumed that the phase relations of a complex
modulation signal will be preserved. By the definition of frequency modulation, the amount by
which the carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value, called the deviation, is made
proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage. The rate at which this
frequency variations or oscillations takes place is naturally equal to the modulating frequency.
The situation is illustrated in fig 1, which shows the modulating voltage and the resulting
frequency-modulate wave. Fig -1 also shows the frequency variation with time which is seen to
be identical to the variation with time of the modulating voltage. As an example of FM, all
signals having the same amplitude will deviate the frequency by the same amount, says 45 kHz,
no matters what their frequencies. Similarly, all signals of the same frequency, says 2 kHz, will
deviate the carrier at the same rate of 2000 times per second, no matter what their individual
amplitudes. The amplitudes of the frequency modulated wave remains constants at all times, this
is , in fact the greatest signal advantage of FM.
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Fig -2
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Circuit description:
In this kit, frequency modulation is generated by using IC
8038.The frequency of the waveform generator is a direct function of the DC voltage at terminal
8 (measured from V+).By altering this voltage, frequency modulation is performed. For small
deviations (e.g.+ (or) 10%) the modulating signal can be applied directly to pin 8,merely
providing DC decoupling with a capacitor as in Fig 3.
An external resistor between pins 7 and 8 is not necessary, but it can be used to increase input
impedance from about 8K (pin 7 and 8 connected together) to about (R=8K).
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Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure:
Step 1: connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
Step 2: check the circuit properly and apply the power supply to the circuit
Step 3: observe the carrier signal from the FM modulator at pin 2 of the
IC 8083, which is 82KHZ.
Step 4: apply the modulating signal frequency of 4KHZ, 6Volts(p-p) from the function generator
to the FM input at pin 8 as shown in the figure below.
Fig:
Step 5: Trigger CRO with respect to CH1.adjust amplitude of the modulating signal until we get
undistorted FM output. It is difficult to trigger FM on analog CRO.That is why you adjust
modulating signal amplitude until small distortions notified in Fm output.
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Demodulation fig:
FM
Demodulation
fmax
fc+f
fmin(Hz)
fc+f
f(Hz)
=
Result:
The frequency modulated signal is generated and original signal is demodulated and modulation
index is calculated for Fm signal
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Equipment Required:
Analog communication kit, CRO connecting wires.
Component Required:
1. ICS:1496- (1no)
2. Resistors:100-(1no),820-(1no),1k-(1no)1.2k-(1no),2.7k-(1no),10k-(3nos),47k(1nos),5Ok-POT
3. Capacitors: 1F-(1no),22F-(1no),100F-(2nos)
Theory:
One circuit that lends itself extremely well to balanced modulator application is the differential
amplifier. A simplified diagram of a differential amplifier is shown in figure 1.
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Fig 2
IC Balanced Modulators:
Fig-2 shows IC that has been specifically designed for use as balanced modulators. Fig-2 is the
1496 balanced modulator, which is manufactured by Motorola, National and Signetics. This
device uses a differential amplifier configuration similar to what was previously described. Its
carrier suppression is rated at a minimum of -5db with a typical value of -65db at 500 kHz.
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Equipment Required:
Analog communication kit, C.R.O, connecting wires
Components Required:
1. Resistors: 47, 100, 1k, 50k -pot
2. Capacitors: 0.1f, 0.01f, 0.001f, 0.047f
Theory:
Frequency modulation is much more to noise than amplitude modulation and is
significantly more immune than phase modulation. A single noise frequency will effect the out
put of a receiver only if it falls with in its pass band .The carrier and noise voltages will mix and
if the difference is audible, it will naturally interfere with the reception of wanted signals.
The noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on lower ones.
Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and correspondingly
cut at the receiver, improvement in noise immunity could be expected. This boosting of higher
modulating frequencies, in accordance with a prearranged curve, is termed pre-emphasis, and
the compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis.
If two modulating signals have the same initial amplitude, and one of them is preemphasized to (say) twice this amplitude, where as the other is unaffected (being at a much
lower frequency), then the receiver will naturally have to do de-emphasize the first signal by a
factor of 2, to ensure that both signals have the same amplitude in the output of the receiver.
Before demodulation, i.e., while susceptible to noise interference the emphasized signal had
twice the deviation it would have had without pre-emphasis, and was thus more immune to
noise. Side band voltages are de-emphasized with it, and therefore have correspondingly lower
amplitude than they would have had without emphasis again their effect on the output is
reduced.
The amount of pre emphasis U.S FM broadcasting, and in the sound transmission
accompanying television, has been standardized at 75 micro seconds, whereas a number of the
other services, notably CCIR and Australian TV sound transmission, use 50 micro seconds. The
usage of microseconds for defining emphasis is standard. A 75 microseconds de-emphasis
Corresponds to a frequency response curve that is 3 db down at the frequency whose
time constant RC is 75 microseconds. This frequency is given by f=1/2RC and is therefore
2120HZ: with 50-micro seconds de-emphasis it would have been 3180HZ.
If emphasis is applied to amplitude modulation, some improvement will also result, but it is not
as great as in FM because the highest modulating frequencies in AM are no more affected by
noise than any others. Apart from that, it would be difficult to introduce pre-emphasis and deemphasis in existing AM services since extensive modifications would be needed, particularly in
view of the huge numbers of receivers in use.
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Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Observe the
3. I/P waveform on the CRO in channel 1.
4. Adjust the amplitude of the sine wave using the amplitude knob to a particular voltage, say
4V or 6V or 10V etc.
5. Measure the O/P voltage in the CRO and note down in the observation table.
6. Calculate the attenuation and Log f values as shown in the observation table.
7. Draw the graph frequency (X-axis) and attenuation in db (Y-axis) to show the emphasis
curves on a semi log graph.
8.Various values of R and C are available so that the time constant in suitably selected
depending upon the application.
Pre-Emphasis
i/p voltage=4volts
Frequency
(Hz)
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Output
(volts)
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Log f
Attenuation (db)
20 log eo/ei
I/p Voltage=10volts
Output in volts
Logf
Attenuation in db
20 log eo/ei
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Theory:
A Frequency changer(mixer or converter) is a nonlinear resistance having two sets of
input frequency (FR and LO) and one set of output (IF)a mixer is used to shift the input received
RF signal (Frequency band of 550kHZ to 1.5KHz) to low frequency Intermediate Frequency
(IF) of 455kHz.The block diagram of the mixer is as follows.
Fig:
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RadioReceiverDynamicDemonstrator
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Observations:
A. Conversion gain:
RF (100 KHz) input = 150Mv
(a)If output (at IF T3) = 9.2V = A
(b)If input level (at IF T1) at 455 KHz required to get the same IF output of 9.2 V = 150 mV =
B.
If B A then conversion gain = 20 log (A/B)
If B <A then conversion gain = 20 log (A/B)
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Result:
Characteristics of mixer are studied. Conversion gain, Image suppression and Sensitivity of
mixer are obtained.
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Components Required:
I.CS:4046-(1no).
Resistors:560-(1no),4k7-(1no),100k-(1no),27k-(1no)
Capacitors: 0.1 F-(1no), 0.01F-(1no), 0.001F-(1no), 4.7F-1No.
Theory:
As same as the theory written in voltage Controlled Oscillator using PLL. (I.E., Experiment no:
2)
Circuit Diagram :
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Procedure:
Step 1:Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in figure give the input at pin 14,
i.e. sine wave of 1KHZ and peak to peak of 6 volts . And observe the input sine wave in channel
1 of CRO.
Step 2:Now connect the pin 3 and pin 4 to channel 2 of CRO which is the output of the IC 4046.
And measure the output frequency on CRO (channel 2) which is equal to the input frequency
(i.e. 1KHZ).
Step 3:Now connect the pin -9 to ground of the 4046 with piece of wire, and record the resultant
output frequency of the phase locked loop.
F1 =____________Hz
This output frequency is the lower range of VCO which is determined by the 0.1F capacitor
connected between pins 6 and 7 and 100KW resistor connected between pin 12 and ground.
Step 4:Now with same wire connect the pin 9 to +5 volts supply, record the output which is
higher than the one you measured in step 3.
Fh=_____________Hz
This frequency is the upper range of VCO which is determined by the 0.1F capacitor connected
between pin 6 and 7 and the 560 resistor connected pins 11 and ground.
Step 5:Now remove the connection between pin 9 and the +5 volts supply and measure the
output which is the same as the input.
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OBSERVATIONS:
RESULT:
Lock range=_________________
Capture range=_______________
Phase detection=______________
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Equipment Required:
Analog communication kit , CRO , Connecting wires.
Components Required:
1. ICs:14962No.
2.Resistors:100-(2nos),10-(1no),820-(2nos)47K-(1nos),1K-(2nos),1KPot(2nos),1.2K(3nos),50KPot-(2nos),2.7K-(2nos),7.3296K-(1nos)
3. Capacitors: 0.047F, 0.1mF, 22mF, 100mF.
Block Diagram:
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Receiver
fc=15 KHz
T=2.3msec.
After Filter:
T=2.3msec.
fm = 434.78 Hz.
Designing LPF
fm = 462HZ = 1/2RC
Let c = 0.047F.
R= 1/( 2 0.04710 -6 462)
R = 7.3296K
Result:
Thus the modulating signal obtained from the DSB detector.
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Equipment Required:
Analog communication kit, CRO, Connecting wires.
Components Required:
1. ICs 14961No.
Procedure:
1. Obtain a DSB-SC signal using balanced modulator
2. Design a Band pass filter (BPF) for a given specifications to eliminate one of the side band
from DSB signal.
3. Connect the output of balanced modulator to the input of BPF.
4. Obtain the output from BPF to get SSB signal which is either LSB or USB.
5. Note down its frequency.
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Design of BPF
We consider wide band BPF, Which is a cascade of HPF & LPF
fc=6.3 KHz
fm = 200Hz
Let us consider USB/SSB = fc + fm = 6.5 Hz.
fL=6.3 KHz
fO=6.5KHz
fH=6.7 KHz
HPF
fL= 1/2RC=6.3 kHz
Choose C=.047uf
RL=537 ohms
LPF
Fh= 1/2RC=6.7 KHz
Let C=.01uf
Rh=2.37K ohms
Result:
Thus the SSB signal was generated using balanced modulator
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MATLAB PROGRAMS
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OUTPUT WAVEFORMS
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveform
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveform
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Output Waveform
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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Output Waveforms
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