1.

1 Subglacial Lodgement
Dalam buku karangan Nichols, dituliskan bahwa glasier bergerak akibat adanya deformasi
internal dalam tubuh glasier hal ini karena sifat massa es yang padat yang cenderung
mempertahankan posisinya ketika deformasi akan terjadi. Defomasi ini dipicu oleh gaya
berat (gravitasi) ketika massa es bertambah dan tidak stabil lalu adanya shearing (gaya gesek)
yang terjadi dapat menyebabkan panas dan ada bagian dalam es yang mencair yang
menyebabkan diskontinuitas dalam tubuh glasier dan mengakibatkan akibatnya glasier
dapat bergerak secara perlahan.
Pressure-melting allows material to be released from the dirty basalt ice, particularly on the
eupstream side of bumps. Together with basal shear within the ice/debris mixture, which
facilitates renewal of the debris supply, this process leads to debris being plastered on to the
bedm and progressively built up. This process known a lodgement, occurs both on bedrock
and older till surfaces and leads to the filling of bedrock irregularities, so smoothing out the
glacier bed. Some till may be squeezed into cavities down stream of a bump. Lodgement
occurs beneath both advancing and receding glaciers, and the details are now well established
from studies by Boulton on glaciers in Soutsbergen. A overrides the unconsolidated deposit.
Where preserbed in older deposits, the pattern of such structures is potentially useful as a
palaeo-ice flow indicator. Shear stress also results in the orientation of stone in the till
developing at an angle of 45 to the bed (parallel to the olane of maximum sher stress), but as
the material continues to deform, stones rotate so that they tend to approach parallelism with
the bed thus providing an additional means of establishing the direction of flow in old
lodgement tills. Deposition of lodgement till may be strongly affected by the transfer of
debris-rich basal ice into an englacial or even supraglacial position by movement along shear
or thrust zones within glacier undergoing compressive flow. Strictly speaking, the subsequent
release of such deposits is by the melt-out process.
The rate of subglacial till deposition can be considerable and 6m per century is regarded as
reasonable. Contrary to the belief of glaciologists up to about 20 years ago, it is now known
that much of the Antartic and Greenland ice sheets are at the pressure melting point at their
base. Thus, the deposition of thick tills an dtillites on a continental scale as recorded in
Pleistocene and earlier successions is not difficult to explain.

1.2 Melt-Out & Flowage

Melting out of debris can occur either subglacially or supragacially, a process that is
particularly active at the margins of glaciers and ice sheets, where the ice is practically
stagnant. Geothermal heat is largerly responsible for the deposition of subglacial melt-out
tills. If the water is able to escape without disturbing the sediment, the resulting till may
preserve traces of the original relationsip of debris to the ice structures, Melt-out till is
commonly deposited is unstable situations and is thus prone to flowage.
During the past 50 years, frequent reference has been made to the possibility of
flowage of saturated of saturated till at the base of a glacier. For example, Gripp
suggested that some englacial bands were the result of till being squezzed up into basal
crevasses, a process has observed in action. Hoppe (1957) has identified certain types of
hummocky moraines resulting from same process. More recently, Boulton has noted that
flowage can occur where thick unfrozen subglacial till exist beneath temperature ice.
Basal crevasses are not particularly common beneath glaciers, as it happens unless the ice
is at an advanced stage of decay, but there are other spaces into which till can be
squeezed, in particular hollws down stream of obstacles abandones subglacial stream

channels and moulins. Stones in wet lodgement till may undergo re-orientation if
subsequently affected by flowage and the final fabric may be very different from till that
has not been affected. Features of plastic deformation, particularly folds, may aid the
recognition of such till.
Debris at the surface of a glacier may have a basal derivation, especially near the
margins of cold glaciers and ice sheets or in the case of valley glaciers it may have
accumulated as a result of subaerial weathering of rock faces. This debris melts out in
summer as a result of ablation.A layer of debris generally retards melting of dirty ice in
comparison with clean ice, so the resulting ice surface tends to acquire debris ridges. As
the debris is lowered it tends to undergo sliding and re-orientation, and rarely reflects the
original fabric in the ice after depositions as till. A thick layer of supraglacial debris tends
to be unstable and as with basal melt-out till is often capable of flowage.
Regardless of whether the sediment is deposited supraglacially or subglacially, the
process is particularly common near the snouts of receding or stagnating glaciers. The
process has been particularly common near the snouts of receding or stagnating glaciers.
The process has been particularly well studied by Bolton at the margins of various
Spitsbergen glaciers and by Lawson at the snout of Matanuska Glacier in Alaska. The
principal factors affecting debris flowage are the gradient of the bed on which it rests,
whether it be ice or the glacier bed itself, the bed roughness, the amount of meltwater
available for enabling the debris to become more fluid and the fabric of the debris itself.
Saturated till may flow on the gentlest of slopes. According to Boulton, three types of
flow can be distinguished which in decreasing order of rate of movement are
a. Mobile flow : in which stones may tend to settle towards the bottom producing a
crude sorting pattern
b. Semi-plastic flow : which often begins by slope failure along an arcuate slipface and
is perceptible as a slow-moving lobate tongue-boulders may sink, fold structures may
form and washing by meltwater may produce laminations.
c. Downslope creep : which involves less water and is not perceptible to the eyealthough the till has a fabric that is subject to alteration and may acquire a weak
foliation, it is unlikely to develop fold structure. Such till, in contrast to other types of
flow till is compact and massive.
1.3 Sublimation of debris-rich ice

Sublimation is the process of ablation whereby ice is vaporized directly without passing
through the intervening liquid phase. Some authors have claimed it to be of negligible
importance, but in the cold, arid parts of Antartica, such as the Dry Valleys of Victoria Land
where temperatures rarely exceed 0C, it is a common process. Here debris-rich ice ablates
from te surface downwards, producing a loose sublimation till which inherits the foliated
structure from the ice. Outside Antartica the process is rare, however.