Lesson 19

Radiation I

19.1 Nomenclature
E,b = spectral emission from a blackbody surface [W/m2-]
Eb = emission from a blackbody surface [W/m2]
q = radiative heat flux [W/m2]
F = fraction of blackbody band emission
= wavelength in microns [=m]
= total emissivity, between 0 and 1 (=1 blackbody, < 1 gray body)
=absorptivity, between 0 and 1, = if surface is blackbody or gray body
= Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.6710-8 W/m2-K4

19.2 Fundamental Concepts

Radiation
Radiation is the phenomenon of electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation. EM-waves
transfer heat energy through interactions with solid surfaces or fluids. Unlike conduction and
convention, no medium is required to transfer heat by radiation, and it becomes more
predominant as temperature increases. Figure 19.1 shows the range of EM waves that we
commonly experience in everyday life.

Figure 19.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Differences between Radiation and Convection

(a) Medium
(b) Distance
(c) Speed
(d) Math
(e) q"

Radiation
None needed
Can reach very far
Speed of light
Integral equations
Ts4

Convection
Needed
Local
Relatively low
Differential equations
h(Ts T)

(a) Radiation can travel through the vacuum of space from the sun to the earth, but also
through the air to warm the earths surface.
(b) We can see the light emitting from a candle from afar, but we cannot feel it even from
one foot away.
(c) Generally, conduction is the slowest mode of heat transfer.

Radiation = f(,)
=wavelength, =solid angle. We will not consider .

Definitions Relating to and

Diffuse surface: emits same radiation intensities at different solid angles.

Gray surface: emits same radiation intensities at different wavelengths.
Spectral emissivity: function of wavelength.
Total emissivity: average of spectral emissivity; constant at a given temperature.
Angular emissivity: function of solid angle.
Hemispherical emissivity: average of angular emissivity; constant at a given temperature.

19.3 Blackbody Radiation

Blackbody Surfaces
(a) Will absorb all incidental radiation, regardless of ; nothing is reflected or transmitted.
(b) Emit the maximum amount of radiation for any T (i.e., =1).
(c) black surfaces. Even the sun can be approximated as blackbody.

Planck Blackbody Spectral Emissive Distribution

, =

( ( ) )

(1)

Where
C1=3.742108 and
C2 = 1.439104

Figure 19.2 Blackbody Spectral Emission as a function of , parameterized by T.

(a) maxT = 2898

(Wiens Displacement)

(1a)

(b) Through evolution, we have adapted to capture solar radiation (T=5800 K) around the
vicinity of the peak of the spectral emission.
(c) In order for our eyes to see emitted lighted (not merely reflected), temperatures must be
very high.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

= , =

(2)
Where = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.6710-8 W/m2-K4.
The law governing the relationship between the heat flux and the temperature, called the
Stefan-Boltzmann law, is given as
= =

and

= = =

(2a)

19.4 Fraction of Blackbody Emission

Fraction of Blackbody Emission
Frequently we are interested in finding a portion of the emissive radiation between a range of
wavelengths from 1 to 2 (partial area under E,b- curve). The fraction, F, can be derived as

1 2 =

2
,
1

2
1
0 , 0 ,
=

= 02 01
4
4

(3)

Values of F can be found from Table A-2 in Heat Transfer: Lessons with Examples Solved
by MATLAB, by Dr. Tien-Mo Shih.
T is given in units of -K.
At T=50000, F1.

Example

Over all , a blackbody (=1) will emit a radiative flux = 4 = 4 . Over a range of
, the flux will be 1 2 = 1 2 .

19.5 Summary of Equations

Planck Blackbody Spectral Emissive Distribution (1)
, =
C1=3.742108
C2 = 1.439104

5 (exp ( 2 ) 1)

Wiens Displacement (1a)

maxT = 2898 [-K]

Stefan-Boltzmann Law (2, 2a)

= , = 4
0

= 4 =

and

= = 4 =

= Stefan-Boltzmann Constant = 5.6710-8 W/m2-K4

= total emissivity, between 0 and 1 (=1 blackbody, < 1 gray body)
=absorptivity, between 0 and 1, = if surface is blackbody or gray body

Fraction of Blackbody Emission (3)

1 2 = 02 01

Lesson 20
Radiation II

20.1 Nomenclature
E = radiative flux emitted by a plate
f1 = fraction of solar radiation received by earth = 0.0021%
G = incoming radiative flux arriving at the plate
m = plate mass
= spectral emissivity
= total emissivity, between 0 and 1 (=1 blackbody, < 1 gray body)
=absorptivity, between 0 and 1, = if surface is blackbody or gray body
= reflectivity (not density!)
= transmissivity (not shear stress!)

20.2 Emissivity
Spectral Emissivity
Emissivity is the one radiative property that is unrelated to incoming fluxes; it is a function of
the and T of the emitting source. Let us define the spectral emissivity as
=

(, )
, (, )
(1a)

The total emissivity, , can be derived from this equation with integration over all and
making use of the fraction of blackbody emission, F:

(, ) , (, )
()
=
=
=
()

= + +
(1b)
From Eq. (1b) we can also readily find the total radiative flux emitting from a body:

() =
=

(2)

20.3 Three Other Radiative Properties

Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
As with Eq. (1a) and Eq. (1b), the same can be applied for
1. absorptivity (propensity to absorb radiation),
2. reflectivity (propensity to reflect radiation),
3. transmissivity (propensity to let radiation transmit through).
,
=

() ,
=
=
=
()


(3a,b)

(4)

(5)

Note that these three properties all related to incoming radiation. If there is no mention of a
radiative heat source, then these values cannot be found. Even if incoming fluxes are the
same, the resulting , , and may be different depending on source temperature. See
example 20-5.

20.4 Gray Surfaces

Gray Surfaces
Gray surfaces are defined as surfaces whose radiative properties are independent of
wavelength. Hence, for gray surfaces, all spectral properties are (1) constant and (2) equal
to the total properties.
Therefore, if G is the total incoming radiation, then it follows that
G = amount absorbed + amount reflected + amount transmitted = G + G + G
Dividing by through by G yields
=++

Special Cases

Opaque surface: = 0

(6a)

1=+

20.5 Kirchhoffs Law

Kirchhoffs law states that for most materials in most practical purposes,
=

(7)

We could argue this is not true, but consider the following example:
A material has = 0.1 and = 0.9
The material is placed in a 300K enclosure.
As time elapses, the material receives more energy than it emits.
The material will reach equilibrium when radiation in = radiation out:
4
4 =
0.14 = 0.9 3004 = 519.6 K
nd
This violates the 2 Law of Thermodynamics. At equilibrium, Ts=300 K.
Eq. (7) by no means automatically implies that
=

(8)

Eq. (8) is only valid if

(a) the surface is gray, or
(b) the source is blackbody and Tsource = Tsurface, in which case G = E,b in Eq. (3b).

20.6 Energy Balance over a Typical Plate (Lumped Capacitance)

= ( ) + ( )

(9)

Notice that the term concerning incoming radiation is ( ) = . The amount

of energy absorbed is equal to the total incoming energy less the reflected and transmitted.
Hence, Eq. (9) can be rewritten as

= ( ) +

(10)

20.7 Steady-State Energy Balance with External Energy Supply

(11)

In equilibrium, the total heat flux externally supplied to a control volume is equal to the
difference in the heat flux out (emitted, reflected, transmitted) and the heat flux in
(absorbed).

Lesson 21
Radiation III
Introduction: This lesson focuses on radiation exchanges inside vacuum enclosures composed
by no more than 3 surfaces. These surfaces are considered flat, infinitely deep, and can be either
black or gray.

21.1 Nomenclature
F= View factor, subscript 12 = from area A1 to area A2
J = radiosity: radiation leaving a surface, including emitted and reflected radiation (, )

21.2 View (or Shape/Configuration) Factors

Definition
A view factor FAB is defined as the fraction of all radiation leaving surface A which strikes
surface B. This fraction is related to the geometry and between the surfaces and the
geometry of the surfaces themselves.
Define a view factor between two surfaces of area A1 and A2, respectively:
F12 = (radiation from A1 striking A2) / (total radiation emitted from A1)
Under this definition, F12 > 1.

Reciprocity Rule
=

(1)

Energy Conservation Rule

Because radiation leaving a surface is conserved, for any surface i with are Ai,

+ + + =

(2)
So for a triangular enclosure consisting of three flat surfaces of area A1, A2, and A3,
respectively, the following relations exist between the 3 areas and 6 viewing factors:
(a)
(b)
(c)

12 + 13 = 1
21 + 23 = 1
31 + 32 = 1

1 12 = 2 21
2 23 = 3 32
3 31 = 1 13

(d)
(e)
(f)

View Factor for a Triangle

For a triangular enclosure, as shown in Figure 21.1, we can derive F12 in terms of the areas.
If we know F12, we can find the other 5 viewing factors.

A3

A1
1

2
A2

Figure 21.1 A triangular enclosure consisting of 3 flat surfaces.

Derivation:
We want to find F12, and the only equation with this term is (a):
12 + 13 = 1
We want to get F13 in terms of F12. What other equations contain F13? The only other is (f).
3 31 = 1 13

so

13 =

1 31

Now what other equation has F31? The only other is (c):
31 + 32 = 1

so

31 = 1 32

Now what other equation has F32? The only other is (e):
2 23 = 3 32

so

32 =

3 23

Now what other equation has F23? The only other is (b):
21 + 23 = 1

so

23 = 1 21

Now we have a term related to F12! The equation relating F21 to F12 is (d), so
21 =

2 12

Now we take the long road back to getting F13 in terms of F12:

23 = 1 21 = 1

2 12

31 = 1 32 = 1

2 1

3 3 12

32 =

2
2
1
2 1
23 =
(1 12 ) =

3
3
2
3 3 12

13 =

3
3
2 1
31 =
(1
)
1
1
3 3 12

3 2

12
1 1

Therefore,
12 + 13 = 12 +
=

3 2
3 2

12 = 212 +
=1
1 1
1

(3)

Areas Cannot Be Arbitrary

Because the shape we are dealing with is a triangle, its dimensions cannot be arbitrary given.
In reference to Figure 21.1, we see that
A2 =A1cos(1) + A3cos(2) < A1 + A3
Always check to make sure this inequality holds true.

21.3 Black Triangle Enclosures

Energy Balance
Consider the energy balance over surface 1 (=1). We have
1 = = 1 14 2 21 24 3 31 34
Using the reciprocity rule and dividing both sides by A1, we obtain

(4a)

The energy balances over surfaces 2 and 3 follow suit:

(4b)

(4c)

Assuming we have the view factors, there are 3 equations and 6 unknowns: q1, q2, q3, T1,
T2, and T3. Three of these quantities must be given in order to solve a problem.

21.4 Gray Triangular Enclosures

Radiosity
If an enclosure consists of gray surfaces, then we have to deal with a component of radiation
that is reflected. This is where we introduce radiosity, J. Radiosity is defined as all the
radiation leaving a surface, including emission and reflection. Consider the energy balance
over a control volume surrounding the surface shown in Figure 21.2.
J1

G1

A1
q1
Figure 21.2 Derivation of J1 and q1 relationship.
For gray bodies,
= + = + ( )

(5a,b)

Then the energy balance over A1 is

= = ( )

(6)

Then,

=
( )

(7)

In a triangular enclosure, we have

(8a)

(8b)

(8c)

If T1 is given instead of q1, then Eq. (8a) can be modified into

(, ) + (, ) + (, ) = ( )

(8d)

where
(1,1) =

1
,
1 1

(1,2) = 12 ,

(1,3) = 13

21.5 Two Parallel Gray Plates with A1=A2

Special Case
With two parallel gray plates of same area A1=A2, as shown in Figure 21.3, the situation
presented by Eqs. (8a-c) can be simplified to

(9a)

(9b)

where f is the viewing factor between the plates (because A1=A2, F12=F21=f). Then with Eq.
(7), we acquire two more equations:

= ( )

(9c)

= ( )

(9d)

This gives 4 equations and 6 unknowns. When 2 are given, the problem can be solved.

q2
A2
fJ1

J2

J1

fJ2
q1

A1

Figure 21.3 Energy Balance between two parallel plates.