surface entering the contact region was

covered with a layer of oil of contact height

above the nominal smoothed surface. This
means that if the filled pits are on the moving surface, they transport more oil into the
contact than a moving smooth surface
would. As a pit moves into a high-pressure
zone, its volume is reduced by elastic
deformation, providing additional oil to
build up the film thickness outside the pit.
Such film enhancement, which happens on
the upstream side, i.e., the trailing edge of
the feature, is beneficial, according to the
model (Fig. 4).
The film shape is dependent on the
arrangement and geometry of the pits, the
compressibility and rheology of the oil and
the feed mechanism for the oil into the contact. However, the main influence of these
surface characteristics on the thin oil film
during moving contacts may be understood
simply by the process of oil mass conservation combined with the movement of the
oil meniscus. In essence, the pits act as
additional oil reserves in poor lubricating
conditions.
Conclusion
The importance of these advances in the
understanding of the role surface roughness plays in bearing operation and lubrication cannot be overestimated. Already
SKF is considering the implications for
existing finishing processes used in bearing manufacture, and it is supporting the
evaluation of new finishing techniques.
The advances also give SKF a unique
opportunity to support customers with
advice related to thin film lubrication conditions. The same concepts can be used in
other lubricated machine elements, e. g.
gears, constant velocity joints, where the
SKF support can also result in longer service life.
This advance is leading to new sets
of design rules and the ability to develop
surface roughness characteristics tailored
to particular bearing applications and
could change the shape of bearing design
forever.

24

I EVOLUTION

Fault detection
mineral process
Fault detection is a technique being applied in the mining
commodities industry to lower operating costs and
improve machine reliability and efficiency.
by KEITH E. MEYERS , Program Manager, SKF Copperhead, Kulpsville, Pennsylvania, USA,
and MATT YEKNIK , SKF Mining & Construction, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.

he mining, aggregates and cement

industries are looking to contain
and reduce costs in the face of
long-term market price declines in their
products. Over the past seven years, for
example, the average US price of coal has
dropped by 30 percent, while operating
and environmental costs have increased.
The mining and mineral processing industry has looked to consolidation, improved
machine reliability and efficiency and has
reduced expenses to sustain profitability.
Condition monitoring and fault detection can support these actions by extending
equipment performance, preventing
unplanned downtime and reducing maintenance and repair time. Though well established in process industries such as pulp
and paper, steel making and petrochemicals, such technology is not well applied in
the mineral processing section of the mining, aggregates and cement industries. This
is partly related to the traditionally high
cost of condition monitoring and the harsh
machine environment. Also, high vibration
in vibrating screens, grinding mills and
crushers has been a deterrent to widespread
condition monitoring.
SKF, through the development of its SKF
Copperhead fault detection and bearing

system for vibration screens, has helped

overcome these disadvantages. It detects
process faults that may cause damage and
affect operation of equipment. The first
application was for vibrating screens that
are used widely in the mineral processing
industry. The bearing system extends the
service life and improves the performance
of the vibrating screens.
The SKF Copperhead concept uses a
specially developed vibration and temperature sensor permanently mounted on the
vibrating screen. The sensor is designed to
operate in harsh environments and is linked
to either a periodic or continuous monitoring system.
Acceleration enveloping
The system applies the SKF acceleration
enveloping technology. This technique can
differentiate between normal vibrations
due to the passage of minerals through the
machine and abnormal vibrations due to
machinery process faults such as a loose
mesh or bottoming out in a vibrating
screen. The main focus of the fault detection system is continuous monitoring and
the detection of process faults. Such systems can also detect machinery faults such
as gear, lubrication and bearing faults.
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technology

for mining and

ing equipment
Here, the system alerts the machine operator to abnormal vibrations so that they can
be investigated and eliminated before damage results. The rugged accelerometer and
temperature sensor can withstand the high
vibration in the vibrating screen. The
accelerometer/temperature sensor is also
suitable for mills, crushers and other mining applications.
In addition to these performance benefits,
safety in the mining and quarrying operation can also be improved. Some practical
examples demonstrate the effectiveness of
this technique.

Condition monitoring and fault detection are two approaches to identifying

potential problems early. Generally, condition monitoring is a relatively high-cost,
high-skill approach using sophisticated
instruments that has value in industries
such as paper mills.
Fault detection usually has a lower overall cost than condition monitoring and can
be implemented immediately without much
training. It is not dependent on the development or skill of a specialist and is a valuable tool in price-sensitive applications.
Fault detection can be either periodic or
continuous. It does not generally include the
determination of the root cause of the fault.
Fault detection can be tuned to include the
machinery process and condition faults.
Vibrating screens and feeders
Vibrating screens and feeders are key components in the mining and mineral process,
waste management and construction

Spherical roller bearings for vibrating

applications need special cages; other
features are needed because of high
acceleration forces.

industries. The screen sorts or cleans material for the metals, aggregates, cement and
mineral process. Usually, the screen (and
feeder) is made of a structural frame supported on springs or other elastic material.
Additionally, the screen frame includes a
mesh (cloth) or grating that sorts or sifts the
material. Material (stone, ore, cement) is
dropped into the top of the screen onto the
mesh. The sorting and sifting process is
sped up by the vibration of the screen
frame. To obtain the desired vibration, a
rotating unbalanced mass is employed.
One or two unbalanced shafts supported on
bearings or vibratory gearboxes are used.
Oversized or dirty material is separated for
re-processing or is discarded.
Malfunction or loss of screen and feeder
use can severely interrupt the processing of
material as well as the productivity of the
plant. Costs of a new screen can range
from 25,000 to 150,000 US dollars. Downtime costs for a vibrating screen can vary
from USD 100 to 15,000 per hour, depending on the type of process. Screen repair
can take from one to 48 hours, depending
on the problem and the maintenance setup.
Screens or feeders are normally designed
for vibrations in the range of 2 to 10 g

Required
expertise

Cost

Time for training

& implementation

Effectiveness

Fault
detection

Low

Low

Short

High

Condition
monitoring

High

High

Long

Very high

Fault detection and condition monitoring.

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EVOLUTION

I 25


L+

L
H

Detecting badvibration from

normal vibration.

Bearing damage. This is a result of high

forces due to screen process faults
(bottoming out), fretting corrosion on
the shaft, fatigue, contamination,
lubrication distress and wear.

Additional faults such as the loss of screen

vibration due to the failure of a transmission
belt or coupling are also possible to detect.
Fault detection
The technique for the detection of process
and condition faults includes the permanent mounting of special heavy-duty vibration and temperature sensors on the screen,
which are monitored by a demodulating
filter module. The sensors measure the
overall vibrations in the screen. The
demodulating filters evaluate signals in the
frequency range of 200 to 12000 Hz, with
the observed normal vibrations demodulated from the spectrum.
A fault is detected as repetitive high frequency bad vibration in the screen, and
the overall value of the demodulated signal
increases. This increase in vibration trips
an operator alarm so the cause of the fault

Flexible non-metallic
conduit up to sensor
Position sensor within
45 of direction of
screen motion
0
10

Sensor

m
0m
5
1

of n
n tio
io o
ct m
ire n
D ree
sc

acceleration, which corresponds to the 3 to

20 mm stroke or displacement of the screen.
The vibration is generally sinusoidal, owing
to the rotational unbalance of the eccentric
mass. Additional vibrations occur in the
screen, due to the loading and sorting/screening of the material in the machine. The
high vibration in the screen and the abrasive characteristic of the sorted material
cause high stresses and wear in the screen
frame. The dusty and sometimes wet conditions make it difficult to keep the screen
bearings clean. Bearings with special cages
for vibrating applications and other features are needed because of the high acceleration forces in the screen. The SKF Copperhead bearing system includes the SKF
Explorer-quality bearing for vibrating
applications and the SKF CARB
toroidal bearing. The bearing system virtually eliminates the possibility that parasitic
forces can be applied to the bearings,
resulting in long service lives and cool
operating temperatures. The SKF Explorer
bearings for vibrating applications are
denoted with the VA405 and VA406 suffix.
Typical process and machinery faults for
vibrating screens and feeders include:

Bottoming out. Material accumulates

under the screen and interferes with the
free motion of the frame. The screen
frame strikes the material, causing
uneven motion and possible distortion
of the frame. This in turn causes
structural damage to the frame and
interferes with the sorting process, thus
causing a change in the quality of the
process.
Overload. Too much material is loaded
into the screen, which compresses the
suspension of the frame. This has the
same effects as bottoming out.
Loose frame members. This occurs as
the result of wear, fatigue, corrosion
and overload.
Loose screen mesh. A major cause of
screen downtime, this occurs because of
wear and inadequate tightening of the
mesh.
Gear damage. This results from fatigue,
contamination and wear.
Lubrication distress. This occurs
because of contamination or loss of
lubricant through the bearing housing
sealing.

Heavy-duty
conduit clamp

Sensor positioning and cable protection are important in

vibrating applications.

Sensor
Power connection

300 450 mm
Large radius with flexible conduit

Heavy-duty conduit clamps held

with two self-drilling screws

26

I EVOLUTION

100 150 mm

Typical sensor
cable routing.

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technology
on the test rig. The system was refined
before use in other mines and quarries.

Sensor on screen.

can be investigated. Often, the operator can

determine the cause of the fault without
specialised instruments. The fault can be
rectified, thus reducing the period that the
screen operates with the fault and reducing
the wear and tear on the screen. If the operator cannot locate and eliminate the source
of the fault, a condition-monitoring specialist can be contacted to make further
measurements.
The fault detection system works using
electronic filtering. The filter looks at
vibrations in the frequency range where the
faults occur and ignores frequencies that
are uninteresting. The important frequencies are further processed and compared to
an alarm set point in the system. If the
overall bad-vibration level exceeds the
alarm point, the operator is alerted.
A limiting factor to permanent and continuous monitoring is improper installation
of temporary sensors for example,
because of a poor mounting surface or
debris between the sensor base and the
screen. Protective guards can also hamper
correct placement of the sensor, or the
rotating shafting itself can make the sensing location less than optimum for good
measurements. Mounting the temporary
sensor can expose the worker to hazards
from falling rock and debris. The repeatability of the measurements from one time
to the next may be unreliable. Permanently
mounting the sensors avoids the need for
workers to access screens located in difficult positions.

abrasive-resistant and has a high fatigue

resistance. An integral cable avoids a cable
connector, which can become damaged by
vibration. Performance at the connecting
point can also be affected by dirt and moisture near the screen. The sensitivity of the
sensor should be high enough to detect the
various vibration levels in the screen.
Periodic monitoring can be performed
with a portable data logger/spectrum
analyser. This logger, if fitted with the correct demodulating filter, can evaluate the
screen vibration signal and determine if
faults exist, while the analyser can determine the type of fault.
In operation, a continuous monitoring
system filters and demodulates the vibration signal, has alarm setting capabilities
and can provide an output signal for monitoring. The continuous fault detection system should have a 4 to 20 mA output signal
that can be continuously monitored by the
plants programmable logic controller
(PLC) or distributed control system (DCS).
The PLC or DCS can also monitor the temperature output signal from the sensor.
Continuous monitoring by the PLC or
DCS reduces the need for operators to
make periodic measurements on the
screen. The system can also trip an alarm to
alert the operator to a fault in the screen.
With this information, a decision can be
made to shut down the screen or stop the
feed to the screen.
The fault detection system was first evaluated at a copper mine in Arizona in the
United States. It was able to detect the loose
mesh and bottoming-out on an operating
screen. As the screen was used for production, limited time was available for fieldtesting. To support this, a vibrating screen
test rig was developed in the SKF laboratory. Most screen faults could be reproduced

System specification
The sensors for mining and mineral applications have to be rugged, with high shock
and over-voltage protection. A sensor
should have an integral cable for connection to the monitoring system that is also
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evolution.skf.com

40
30
[gE]

Sensor mounted on exciter at copper mine.

Installation on vibrating screens

The fault detection system must be installed
so that the components are securely attached
to the vibrating screen and protected from
mechanical damage. Sensors should be
located close to the screen bearing housings
and oriented in the direction of the screen
stroke, plus/minus 45. Also, the sensors
must be protected from impact from falling
stone or debris, and the sensor cable should
be protected from mechanical damage and
abrasive wear. The sensor cable must pass
from the moving screen structure to the stationary frame without damage from the
motion of the screen or stress in the cable.
A large radius for the sensor cable must be
provided between the moving and stationary parts of the screen.
Fault detection based on the SKF Copperhead design has been applied to a number of vibrating screens worldwide. As an
example, three cases demonstrating benefits to the screen operator are given. One is
in a copper mine and two others are in
aggregates plants.
A fault detection system was installed
on a vibrating screen at the copper mine in
October 2000. The screen had recently
been rebuilt after a failure on one of the two
exciter mechanisms. The new mechanism
had a normal vibration level, whereas the
original mechanism had had a high vibration level. The fault detection system was
set to alarm if the vibration in the mechanisms exceeded 33 gE vibration. In January 2001, the system alarmed high vibration in the original mechanism. The vibration level was in the range of 49 gE. The

20
10
0
May-99

Jan-00
Calendar date

Jul-00

Vibration time trend.Enveloped

acceleration gE.
EVOLUTION

I 27

customer was advised to remove the screen

from service to avoid an unplanned or catastrophic failure.
In August 2000, a fault detection system
was installed on a vibrating screen at a
major aggregates plant in the United
States. During installation, it was noted
that the drive side bearing had a slightly
higher vibration level than the vibration
level in the opposite bearing. This was
likely due to a slight mechanical looseness.
In December 2000 the vibration had
increased significantly as indicated by the
sharp increase in overall acceleration
value, gE. The screen was taken out of service as part of the plants overall reconstruction. Because of the value found
with this initial detection system, the customer will install another fault detection
system on the two new screens that will be
part of the reconstructed plant.
The third system was a periodic fault
detection system that was installed on a
vibrating screen at an aggregates plant in
Australia. The sensors were mounted on
the screen, and a data logger/analyser
analysed the machine periodically. Using
the technique, a fault was observed in one
of the spherical roller bearings as an
increase in overall vibration level. The
bearing was replaced in a planned way,
with a minimum of costs.

Summary

Conclusion
Fault detection based on SKF Copperhead
is an alternative approach to monitoring
machinery and has a lower cost than condition monitoring. It has been proven to be an
effective way to improve the performance
and reliability of the vibrating screen in the
minerals-processing sector. The ability to
detect process and machinery faults and to
alert the screen operator means that faults
can be eliminated and scheduled maintenance or repair can be planned more efficiently. Thus, the reliability and safety of
the monitoring is improved, providing that
the system is properly installed. The SKF
Copperhead bearing system extends the
service life and performance of the vibrating screen. SKF Copperhead is being
developed for use in other mineral-processing equipment applications.

process and machinery faults.

28

I EVOLUTION

Fault detection techniques have

been developed for use in the
mining,minerals and aggregates
processing industries.This is a
cost-effective solution,under the

Hybrid be

SKF Copperhead system concept,

for the detection and prevention
of potentially costly faults and

Hybrid bearings can

prolong the service life of

unwanted downtime in highly

price-sensitive industries.
The system uses a newly
developed vibration and temper-

electrical motors, machine

tools, fluid machinery, etc.,
where the operating

ature sensor that is permanently

mounted at appropriate points

conditions may include

on vibrating equipment such as

electrical-current passage,

screens and feeders.The detec-

high speed, contamination

tion system processes the vibration signal and differentiates

or poor lubrication.

between normal vibrations and

abnormal vibrations caused by

The resulting output signal

can be continuously monitored
to alert the screen operator of a
fault.This means that the fault
can be eliminated or monitored
until maintenance and repairs
can be organised in a cost-effective way.Though screens are the
initial focus of the development
of the SKF Copperhead system,it
is also being developed for mills,
crushers and other mining and
mineral processing equipment.

by LARS KAHLMAN
and KARIN A. NILSSON
SKF Ceramic Bearings, Gteborg, Sweden,
and GERWIN PREISINGER
SKF Industrial Division, Development Centre Steyr,
Austria

frequency converter is an important addition to an electrical

motor. It simplifies design and
control for variable speeds, reduces power
consumption and enables high-speed
designs. Frequency converters, however,
have caused an increase in electrical damage of bearings. This includes washboard
pattern, micro-cratering and pitting to raceways, greying to rolling elements and blackening to greases. Such damage is caused by
electrical discharges in the raceway-rolling
element contact. Discharges arise because
the common mode voltage differs from
zero and edge spikes are formed, due to
very short switching times. Also, other
causes of electrical damage may occur.
In hybrid bearings, the ceramic rolling
elements of silicon nitride are electrical
insulators. For DC current, the open hybrid
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