FME3 Ch14

Chapter 14: General Gear Theory;
Spur Gears
We are what we repeatedly do.
Excellence, therefore, is not an act,
but a habit.

Aristotle
An assortment of gears. Source: Courtesy of

Quality Transmission Components.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
2014 CRC Press
Spur Gears
Face view
Edge view
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.1: Spur gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing spur gears; (b) a
collection of spur gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Helical Gears
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.2: Helical gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing helical gears; (b) a
collection of helical gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Bevel Gears
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.3: Bevel gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing bevel gears with
straight teeth; (b) a collection of bevel gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

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Worm Gears
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 14.4: Worm gear drive. (a) Cylindrical teeth; (b) double enveloping; (c) a
collection of worm gears. Source: Courtesy of Boston Gear Works, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Spur Gear
Geometry
Pinion
dia Outs
me ide
ter
,d
Line of
action
op
r bp
rp
r op
Pitch circle
Base circle
Pressure
angle, q
Tooth profile
Pitch circle
Whole depth, h t
Center
distance, c d
Addendum, a
Working
depth, hk
Clearance, cr
Base diameter, dbg
Ro
ot
dia
m
et
er
Circular tooth
thickness
Chordal tooth
thickness
Dedendum, b
Root (tooth)
Fillet
Top
land
r bg
rg
rog
Pit
ch
dia
me
ter
,d
Circular pitch, pc
Gear
Figure 14.5: Basic spur gear

geometry.

2014 CRC Press
Outside
circle
Fa
ce
To
la
Fa
nd
ce
w
id
th
Gear Tooth Nomenclature
Addendum
Pitch
circl
e
Clearance
Fillet Dedendum
radius circle
Clearance
circle
Bo
tto
la
n
Width
of space
Tooth
thickness
Fl
an
Dedendum
Circular pitc
h
Figure 14.6: Nomenclature of gear teeth.

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Tooth Size
2 12
10
12
14
16
Figure 14.7: Standard diametral pitches compared with tooth size. Full size is assumed.

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Preferred Pitches
Class
Coarse
Medium coarse
Fine
8OWUDQe
Diametral pitch,
pd , in 1
1/2, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
12, 14, 16, 18
20, 24, 32, 48, 64
72, 80, 96, 120, 128
150, 180, 200
Table 14.1: Preferred diametral pitches for four tooth classes.

2014 CRC Press
Power Capacity
3 pitch; d = 8.00 in.
(m = 8; d = 200 mm)
Power transmitted, kW
150
100
50
6p
30
20
d=
i tc h ;
10.0
5.0
i tc
2p
h; d
0.5
0
600
itc
4p
= 1 0 0 m m)
2; d =
in. (m =
0
0
.
2
=
2.0
1.0
4 . 0 0 in. (m = 4 ; d
h; d
1; d
in. (m =
0
0
.
1
=
1200
1800
2400
Pinion speed, rpm
50 mm)
= 25 mm)
3000
3600
Figure 14.8: TransmiWed power as a function of pinion speed for a number of diametral
pitches. For all cases shown, gr=4, Np=24, Ko=1.0, =20. Source: From MoW [2003].

2014 CRC Press
Pitch and Base Circles; Line of

Action
Base circle
Pitch circle
Base circle (pinion)
rbp
Pinion
rp
tp
tp
Pitch point
A
A
Line of action
Pitch point, pp
tg
Pitch circle
L1
B
B
Base circle
rbg
rg
L2
Base circle (gear)
Gear
(a)
Outside circle
(pinion)
Outside circle
(gear)
Lab
(Length of action)
tg
Line of centers
(b)
Figure 14.9: (a) Pitch and base circles for pinion and gear as well as line of action and
pressure angle. (b) Detail of active prole, showing detail of line of action and length of
action, Lab.

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Addendum, Dedendum &

Clearance
Parameter
Addendum
Dedendum
Clearance
Symbol
a
b
c
Coarse pitch
(pd < 20 in. 1 )
1/p d
1.25/p d
0.25/p d
Fine pitch
( pd 20 in. 1 )
1/p d
1.200/p d + 0 .002
0.200/p d + 0 .002
Metric
module
system
1.00 m
1.25 m
0.25 m
Table 14.2: Formulas for addendum, dedendum and clearance (=20; full-depth
involute).

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Involute Curve
Base circle
A4
Involute
C4
A3
B4
C3
A2
A1
C2
B3
C1 B2
Ao B
1
Figure 14.10: Construction of involute curve.

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Arc of Approach
Arc of approach qa
Line
o
f actio
Arc of recess qr
n a
Out
side
Outside circle
circl
Pitc
hc
ircle
Motion
Lab
Figure 14.11: Illustration of arc of approach, arc of recess and length of action.

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Backlash
Pitc
h
e
Bas
circ
le
0
q
Base
Pitch
Pressure line
Backlash
Backlash
Figure 14.12: Illustration of backlash

in gears.

Diametral
pitch
pd , in. 1
18
12
8
5
3
2
1.25
2
0.005
0.006
0.007
Center distance, cd , in.

4
8
16
0.006
0.007 0.009
0.008 0.010 0.014

0.010 0.012 0.016
0.014 0.016 0.020
0.021 0.025
0.034
32
0.028
0.033
0.042
Table 14.3: Recommended minimum backlash

for coarse-pitched gears.
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Meshing Gears
Gear 2
(N2 teeth)
Gear 1
(N1 teeth)
t2
t1
r1
t1
r2
(+)
()
r2
Gear 1
(N1)
Gear 2
(N2)
r11
t2
Figure 14.13: Externally meshing

spur gears.

Figure 14.14: Internally meshing

spur gears.
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Gear Trains
N2
N1
Shaft 2
Figure 14.15: Simple gear train.
Shaft 3 N
5
N2
N1
Shaft 1
N6
N3
N4
N7
Shaft 4
N8
Shaft 5
Figure 14.16: Compound gear train.

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Example 14.6
Input
Shaft 1
NA = 20
B NB = 70
Shaft 2
NC = 18
C
D
ND = 22
Shaft 3
E N = 54
E
Only pitch
circles of
gears shown
C
D
Shaft 4
Output
Figure 14.17: Gear train used in Example 14.6.

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Planetary Gear Train

R
P
A
Ring
Planet
Arm
R
P
Sun
S
(a)
(b)
Figure 14.18: Illustration of planetary gear train. (a) With three planets; (b) with one
planet (for analysis only).

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Gear Cost vs. Quality

Dimensional tolerance (in.)
10-5
100
10-4
10-3
10-2
Relative cost
Special methods
Production
grinding
10
Shaping &
Hobbing
Shaving
1
0.5
Powder
Metal
16
14
12
10
AGMA quality index
Figure 14.19: Gear cost as a function of gear quality. Note that the powder metallurgy
approaches of pressing and sintering and metal injection molding can produce gears up
to a quality index of 8 without additional machining. Recent research has suggested that
similar quality levels can be achieved from cold forging as well.

2014 CRC Press
Quality Index
Application
Cement mixer drum driver
Cement kiln
Steel mill drives
Corn pickers
Punch press
Mining conveyor
Clothes washing machine
Printing press
Automotive transmission
Marine propulsion drive
Aircraft engine drive
Gyroscope
Quality index, Qv
3-5
5-6
5-6
5-7
5-7
5-7
8-10
9-11
10-11
10-12
10-13
12-14
Pitch velocity
ft/min
m/s
0-800
0-4
800-2000
4-10
2000-4000
10-20
> 4000
> 20
Quality index, Qv
6-8
8-10
10-12
12-14
Table 14.4: Quality index Qv for various applications. Source: Courtesy of the American
Gear Manufacturers Association.

2014 CRC Press
Form CuWing of Gears

Form
cutter
Gear
blank
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 14.20: Form cuWing of gear teeth. (a) A form cuWer. Notice that the tooth prole is
dened by the cuWer prole; (b) schematic illustration of the form cuWing process; (c)
form cuWing of teeth on a bevel gear. Source: (a) and (b) From Kalpakjian and Schmid
[2010]; (c) Courtesy Schafer Gear Works, Inc.

2014 CRC Press
Shaping
Figure 14.21: Production of gear teeth with a pinion-shaped cuWer. (a) Schematic
illustration of the process. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010]; (b) photograph of
the process with gear and cuWer motions indicated. Source: Courtesy Schafer Gear
Works, Inc.

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Hobbing
Top view
Gear
blank
(b)
Helical gear
Hob
Hob rotation
Hob
Gear
blank
(b)
(a)
Figure 14.22: Production of gears through the hobbing process. (a) A hob, along with a
schematic illustration of the process. Source: From Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010]; (b)
production of a worm gear through hobbing. Source: Courtesy Schafer Gear Works, Inc.

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Gear
Finishing
Gear
Grinding
wheel
Worm
gear
Single-ribbed
grinding wheel
Multiribbed
grinding wheel
Two grinding
wheels
(a)
Grinding wheels
Gear
15 or 20 position
0 position
(b)
Figure 14.23: Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped grinding
wheels; (b) grinding by generating, using two wheels. Source: From Kalpakjian and
Schmid [2010].

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Hardness Eects on Bending

Strength
500
2
Grade 3 -
350
Nit
300
250
200
hr
g
ou
Th
h-
g
rou
e
a rd
h-h
rid
ed
50
d
ne
ene
ar d
d
i de
Nitr
40
Grade 1
30
150
ksi
Bending strength, Sb, MPa
Grade 2
400
e2G ra d
300
Grad
Nit
me
.5% Chro
ome
2.5% Chr
Grade 2 ralloy
Grade 1 itralloy
e1-N
m
2.5% Chro
60
50
ksi
60
400
Bending strength, Sb, MPa
70
40
30
200
20
20
100
120 150
200
250
300
350
Brinell hardness, HB
400
10
450
100
250
275
300
325
350
Figure 14.24: Eect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress for steel gears. (a)
Through-hardened steels; (b) Flame or induction hardened nitriding steels. Note that
Brinell hardness refers to case hardness for these gears. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard
2101-D04 [2004].

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Hardness Eects on Contact

Strength
1400
1200
1100
Grade 1:
Sc = 2.41 HB +237 (MPa)
0.349 HB + 34.3 (ksi)
Grade 2:
Sc = 2.22 HB +200 (MPa)
0.322 HB + 29.1 (ksi)
{
{
ad
Gr
1000
175
e2
e
rad
150
ksi
Contact strength, Sc, MPa
1300
900
125
800
100
700
600
150
200
250
300
350
400
75
450
Figure 14.25: Eect of Brinell hardness on allowable contact stress number for two
grades of through-hardened steel. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004]

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Strength of Gear Materials

Material designation
Steel
Through-hardenedb
Carburized & hardened
Nitrided and throughhardenedb
Nitralloy 135M and
Nitralloy N, nitridedb
2.5% Chrome, nitridedb
Cast Iron
ASTM A48 gray cast
iron, as-cast
ASTM A536 ductile
(nodular) iron
Grade
Typical
a
Hardness
lb/in.
Bending strength, S b
MPa
ksi
MPa
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
180-400 HB
180-400 HB
55-64 HRC
58-64 HRC
58-64 HRC
83.5 HR15N
87.5 HR15N
87.5 HR15N
87.5 HR15N
87.5 HR15N
87.5 HR15N
0.0773 HB + 12.8
0.102 HB + 16.4
55.0
65.0c
75.0
0.0823 HB +12.15
0.1086 HB + 15.89
0.0862 HB + 12.73
0.1138 HB + 16.65
0.1052 HB + 9.28
0.1052 HB + 22.28
0.1052 HB + 29.28
0.533 HB + 88.3
0.703 HB + 11.3
380
450c
515
0.568 HB + 83.8
0.749 HB + 110
0.594 HB + 87.76
0.784 HB + 114.81
0.7255 HB + 63.89
0.7255 HB + 153.63
0.7255 HB + 201.81
0.349 HB + 34.3
0.322 HB + 29.1
180.0
225.0
275.0
150,000
163,000
170,000
183,000
155,000
172,000
189,000
2.41 HB + 237
2.22 HB + 200
1240
1550
1895
1035
1125
1170
1260
1070
1185
1305
Class 20
Class 30
Class 40
60-40-18
80-55-06
100-70-03
120-90-02
174 HB
201 HB
140 HB
179 HB
229 HB
269 HB
5.00
8.50
13.0
22.0-33.
22.0-33.0
27.0-40.0
31.0-44.0
34.5
59
90
150-230
150-230
185-275
215-305
50.0-60.0
65.0-75.0
75.0-85.0
77.0-92.0
77.0-92.0
92.0-112.0
103.0-126.0
345-415
450-520
520-585
530-635
530-635
635-770
710-870
30.0
205
65.0
450
282.0
180.0
210.0
180.0
1945
1240
1450
1240
Bronze
5.70
39.5
S ut > 40, 000 psi
(S ut > 275 GPa)
23.6
165
S ut > 90, 000 psi
(S ut > 620 GPa)
Powder Metal
80 HRB
49.0
340
FL-4405, = 7 .30 g/cm3
FLN2-4405, = 7 .35 g/cm3
90 HRB
60.0
410
FLC-4608, = 7 .30 g/cm3
65 HRB
95.72
660
FN-0205, = 7 .10 g/cm3
69 HRB
30.0
210
a Hardness refers to case hardness unless through-hardened.
b See Figs. 14.24 and/or 14.25.
c 70,000 psi (485 MPa) may be used if bainite and microcracks are limited to grade 3 levels.
Contact strength, S c
Table 14.5: Bending and contact strength for selected gear materials. Source: Adapted
from ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 [2004] and MPIF Standard 35 [2009].

2014 CRC Press
Gear Strength Modication Factors

and Reliability Factor
Allowable bending stress:

Sb YN
=
b,all

ns Kt Kr

Allowable contact stress:
c,all =
Sc ZN CH
ns Kt Kr
Probability of
survival, percent
Reliability factora
Kr
50
90
99
99.9
99.99
0.70b
0.85b
1.00
1.25
1.50
Based on surface pitting. If tooth breakage is

considered a greater hazard, a larger value may
be required.
b
At this value, plastic flow may occur rather
than pitting.
Table 14.6: Reliability factor, Kr.

Source: From ANSI/AGMA 2101-
D04 [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Bending Stress Cycle Factor

4.0
400 HB: YN = 9.4518 N -0.148

Case Carb.: YN = 6.1514N -0.1192
Stress cycle factor, Yn
3.0
250 HB: YN = 4.9404 N -0.1045

2.0
Nitrided: YN = 3.517 N -0.0817
1.0 160 HB: YN = 2.3194 N

0.9
0.8
0.7
YN = 1.3558 N -0.0178
-0.0538
YN = 1.6831 N -0.0323
0.6
0.5
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Number of load cycles, N
Figure 14.26: Stress cycle factor. (a) Bending strength stress cycle factor YN; Source:
ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

2014 CRC Press
PiWing Resistance Cycle Factor

2.0
Grade 1 & 2
Nitrided
Stress cycle factor, Zn
1.5
1.1
Zn = 1.47, N < 104
Hydrodynamic: Zn = 2.466 N -0.056
Zn = 1.10, N < 104
Zn = 1.4488 N -0.023
1.0
0.9
Zn = 1.249 N -0.0138
0.8
ixe
d:
0.7
0.6
0.5
102
Boundary: Zn = 7.821 N
103
104
-0.156,
105
N>
3.
83
4
-0
94
,N
105
106
.0
107
108
>
10 5
109
1010
Number of load cycles, N
Figure 14.26: Stress cycle factor. (b) PiWing resistance stress cycle factor ZN. Source:
ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Loads on Gear Tooth

W
Wr
q
Wt
Pitch circle
Figure 14.27: Loads acting on an individual gear

tooth.

Tangential load:
hp
60hp

Wt =
=

u
dNa
If hp is in horsepower:

126, 050hp
Wt =

dNa

Normal load:

Wt
W =

cos
Radial load:

Wr = Wt tan

2014 CRC Press
Bending of Gear
Teeth
Wr
q
Wt
_
l
rf
_
x
t
(a)
Wt
bw
Figure 14.28: A crack that has developed at

the root of a gear tooth due to excessive
bending stresses. Source: Courtesy of the
American Gear Manufacturers Association.

(b)
Figure 14.29: Loads and length dimensions

used in determining tooth bending stress.
(a) Tooth; (b) cantilevered beam.
2014 CRC Press
Lewis Form Factor

Number
of teeth
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
Lewis
form
factor
0.176
0.192
0.210
0.223
0.236
0.245
0.256
0.264
0.270
0.277
0.283
0.292
0.302
0.308
0.314
0.318
0.322
Number
of teeth
34
36
38
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
90
100
150
200
300
Lewis
form
factor
0.325
0.329
0.332
0.336
0.340
0.346
0.352
0.355
0.358
0.360
0.361
0.363
0.366
0.368
0.375
0.378
0.382
Table 14.7: Lewis form factor for various numbers of teeth

(pressure angle, 14.5; full-depth involute).

2014 CRC Press
Spur Gear Geometry Factors

Geometry factor, Yj
0.40
0.50
Geometry factor, Yj
0.50
0.60
Number of
1000
teeth in
170
mating gear.
85
Load considered 50
applied at
35
highest point
25
17
of single-tooth
contact.
0.30
Load applied at
tip of tooth
0.20
Number of
teeth in
1000
mating gear.
85
Load considered 50
applied at
25
17
highest point
of single-tooth
contact.
0.40
0.30
Load applied at
tip of tooth
0.10
0
12
125
15
20
25 30
40
Number of teeth, N
60 80
275
(a)
0.20
12
125
15
20
25 30
40
Number of teeth, N
60 80
275
(b)
Figure 14.30: Spur gear geometry factors for full-depth involute prole. (a) =20; (b)
=25. Source: AGMA Standard 908-B89 [1989].

2014 CRC Press
AGMA Bending Stress Equation

W t pd K o K s K m K v K b
b =
bw Yj
where
Wt = transmiWed load, N
pd = diametral pitch, m-1
Ko = overload factor
Ks = size factor
Km= load distribution factor
Kv = dynamic factor
Kb = rim thickness factor

2014 CRC Press
Overload and Size Factors

Power source
Uniform
Light shock
Moderate shock
Uniform
1.00
1.20
1.30
Driven Machines
Light
Moderate
shock
shock
1.25
1.50
1.40
1.75
1.70
2.00
Heavy
shock
1.75
2.25
2.75
Table 14.9: Recommended values

of size factor, Ks.

Figure 14.8: Overload factor, Ko, as

function of driving power source and
driven machine.
Diametral pitch, pd ,
in. 1
5
4
3
3
1.25
Module, m ,
mm
5
6
8
12
20
Size factor, K s
1.00
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.40
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Load Distribution Factor

Load distribition factor:

Km = 1.0 + Cmc (Cpf Cpm + Cma Ce )

where
Cmc = lead correction factor
Cpf = pinion proportion factor
Cpm = pinion proportion modier
Cma = mesh alignment factor
Ce = mesh alignment correction factor

Lead correction factor:
1.0 for uncrowned teeth

Cmc =
0.8 for crowned teeth

2014 CRC Press
Pinion Proportion Factor

Face width, bw (in.)
0
0.70
10
20
30
40
Pinion proportion factor, Cpf
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
.00
2
=
0
/d p 1.5 0
bw
1.0 50
0.
For bw/dp < 0.5 use
curve for bw/dp = 0.5
0.10
0.00
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Face width, bw (mm)
Figure 14.31: Pinion proportion factor, Cpf.

Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

Pinion proportion factor:

If bw < 25 mm,
bw

C =
0.025
pf
10dp
For 25 mm < bw < 432 mm,
bw
Cpf =
0.0375 + 0.000492bw
10dp
For 432 mm < bw 1020 mm,
b
w
Cpf =
0.1109 + 0.000815bw
10dp

(3.53 107 )b2w

(see text if bw is in inches)
2014 CRC Press
Mesh Alignment Factor

Face width, bw (in)
Mesh alignment factor, Cma
0
0.80
10
20
30
40
C ma = A + Bb w + Cb 2w
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
Op
en
n
ari
ge
l
r cia
e
m
en
cl
d
ose
g ea
ar
d ge
s
u n it
u n it s
se
it s
e ar u n
n clo
g
e
d
e
on
n c lo s
cisi
on e
i
e
s
r
i
c
P
e
a -p r
E xt r
0.30
Co
0.20
0.10
0.00
200
400
600
800
Face width, bw (mm)
If b w is in inches:
Condition
Open gearing
Commercial enclosed gears
Precision enclosed gears
Extraprecision enclosed gears
A
0.247
0.127
0.0675
0.000380
B
0.0167
0.158
0.0128
0.0102
If bw is in mm:
Condition
Open gearing
Commercial enclosed gears
Precision enclosed gears
Extraprecision enclosed gears
A
0.247
0.127
0.0675
0.000380
B
6.57 10 4
6.22 10 4
5.04 10 4
4.02 10 4
C
0.765
1.095
0.926
0.822
10 4
10 4
10 4
10 4
C
1.186 10 7
1.69 10 7
1.44 10 7
1.27 10 7
1000
Figure 14.33: Mesh alignment factor. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04 [2004].

2014 CRC Press
Pinion Proportion and Mesh Alignment

Modiers
Pinion proportion modier:

1.0, (S1 /S) < 0.175

Cpm =
1.1, (S1 /S) 0.175

Mesh alignment correction factor:
S1
S
Figure 14.32: Evaluation of S and S1.

Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard 2101-D04
[2004].
0.80 when gearing is adjusted at assembly
0.80 when compatibility between gear teeth is

Ce =
improved by lapping
1.0 for all other conditions

S/2
2014 CRC Press
Dynamic Factor
Pitch line velocity, ft/min
0
1.8
2500
Qv = 5
5000
Qv = 6
Qv = 7
1.7
1.6
Dynamic factor, Kv
7500
Qv = 8
1.5
Qv = 9
1.4
Qv = 10
1.3
Qv = 11
1.2
1.1
"Very accurate" gearing
1.0
10
20
30
40
50
Pitch line velocity, m/s
Figure 14.34: Dynamic factor as a function of

pitch-line velocity and transmission accuracy
level number. Source: ANSI/AGMA Standard
2101-D04 [2004].

Dynamic factor:

A + C vt B

Kv =
A

Where
A = 50 + 56(1.0 B)

B = 0.25(12 Qv )0.667

C = 1 for vt in ft/min

C = 200 = 14.14 for vt in m/s

Maximum recommended pitch line
velocity:
1
2
vt,max = 2 [A + (Qv 3)]
C
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.2: Methods to

Increase Bending Performance of Gears
If a gear does not produce a satisfactory design based on bending
requirements, a design alteration may be needed. This is not always
straightforward, since such alterations may help in one area and hurt in
another, and may aect associated machine elements such as bearings.
However, some factors that improve bending performance are the following:
1. Reduction in the load, such as by increasing contact ratio, or altering
other aspects of the system.
2. Increase the center distance.
3. Apply gears with a coarser pitch.
4. Use a higher pressure angle.
5. Use a helical gear instead of a spur gear.
6. Use a carburized material.
7. Improve the gear accuracy through manufacturing process selection.
8. Select a beWer (stronger) gear material.
9. Use a wider eective face width.
10. Apply shot peening to the teeth.
2014 CRC Press
PiWing
Figure 14.35: A gear showing extreme piWing or spalling. Source: Courtesy of the
American Gear Manufacturing Association.

2014 CRC Press
AGMA Contact Stress Equation
12
1
W Ko Ks K m Kv
= pH (Ko Ks Km Kv ) 2
2
12
W
Maximum Hern pressure:
pH = E

2
Where

2
E
=
eective
elastic
modulus
=

1 a2
1 b2
+

Ea
Eb

w
W

W = dimensionless load =
=
E Rx
E R x bw

1
1
1
1
1
1
2

=
+
=
+
Rx
rp
rg sin
dp
dg sin

1/2

8W
b
= Rx

Ko, Ks, Km, and Kv are dened as with the AGMA Bending Stress
Equation.
2014 CRC Press
c = E
Design Procedure 14.3: Methods to

Increase PiWing Resistance
If a gear does not produce a satisfactory design based on surface piWing

requirements, a design alteration may be needed. This is not always
straightforward, since such alterations may help in one area and hurt in
another, and may aect associated machine elements such as bearings.
However, some factors that improve piWing performance are the following:
1. Reduction in the load, such as by increasing contact ratio, or altering
other aspects of the system.
2. Increase the center distance.
3. Apply gears with a ner pitch.
4. Use a higher pressure angle.
5. Use a helical gear instead of a spur gear.
6. Use a carburized material.
7. Increase the surface hardness by material selection, or by performing a
surface hardening operation.
8. Improve the gear accuracy through manufacturing process selection.
9. Use a wider eective face width.
10. Increase the lubricant lm thickness.
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.4: Lubricant

Film Thickness
It will be assumed that the power transmiWed, gear and pinion angular velocity, number
of teeth in pinion and gear, gear materials, lubricant properties, and geometry of the
pinion and gear are known or can be determined from design constraints. Of these, the
lubricant properties, especially the pressure exponent of viscosity, are most likely to be
unknown or will have the largest uncertainty. Regardless, these properties should be
aWainable from the lubricant supplier.
The normal force acting on the gear teeth can be obtained from Eq. (14.50) as:
Wt

W =
cos

The lubrication velocity for the pinion and gears is obtained from Eqs. (14.29) and (14.30)
as
up + ug
p rp sin + g rg sin
u
=
=

2
2

The eective radius is obtained from Eq. (14.74) as

1
1
1
1

=
+
Rx
rp
rg sin


2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.4 (concluded)

5. The eective modulus of elasticity is obtained from Eq. (8.16):
2

E =
(1 a2 ) (1 b2 )

+
Ea
Eb

6. For steel-on-steel, E= 227.5$ GPa (32.97 Mpsi).
7. Equations (13.68), (13.69), and (13.72) yield the dimensionless load, speed,
and materials parameters as:
W =
W
;
bw E R z
U=
o u
;
E Rx
G = E
8. The lubricant lm thickness is then obtained from the Hamrock-Dowson

equation for rectangular contacts given by Eq.~(13.71):
Hmin =
hmin
= 1.714(W )0.128 U 0.694 G0.568
Rx

2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5: Gear

Design Synthesis
1. From design requirements, determine the power transfer, total life
required, and pinion and gear speed.
2. The gear ratio, gr, must be known from design requirements. If this value is
near or in excess of 6:1, a second stage is advisable.
3. If the pinion face-to-diameter ratio is not a design requirement, it can be
estimated from the following equation for spur gears:
bw
gr
=
,
dp
gr + 1
Where gr = Ng/Np is the gear ratio.
4. Estimate Ko from Table 14.8.


2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5 (continued)

5. The load distribution factor, Km, cannot be determined until knowledge of
the design, manufacturing approach, and mounting is established. A
rough approximation based on pinion torque can be made according to
0.33
bw
Tp Ko
Km = 1 +
0.2 + 0.0112
dp
bw /dp
However, if the pitch diameter is known (from design requirements or
selected based on experience), then the load distribution factor can be
more accurately estimated from
bw
Km = 1 +
(0.2 + 0.0012dp )
dp
Recall that the torque is related to the power by hp = T.
6. The dynamic factor, Kv, depends on gear speed and quality. For simplicity,
a value of Kv = 1.43 can be assumed, which is conservative for most
applications.

2014 CRC Press

7. The pressure angle, , is generally chosen as 20, since these gears are widely
available. However, the pressure angle can be reduced to obtain higher
contact ratios, or increased when precision and noise are not issues.
Regardless, it is recommended that standard values of 14.5, 17.5, 22.5, or
25 be used.
8. A geometry factor for spur gears is given by:
sin cos gr
I=
2
gr 1
Where gr is the gear ratio. Note that the plus sign in the denominator of Eq.~
(14.79) applies for external gearsets, the negative sign for internal gearsets.
9. Yj can be conservatively estimated as approximately 0.45 (see Fig. 14.30).
10. The life factors Yn and Zn can be estimated from Fig. 14.26.
11. Obtain the bending (b) and contact (c) strengths for the gear material
according to Eqs.~(14.45) or (14.46), respectively.
2014 CRC Press

12. An estimate for the preferred number of pinion teeth is then:
1 Yj b E n2sc
Np =
Kb I c2 2 nsb
For the special case of steel gears (E = 227 GPa) a pressure angle of =20,
Kb=1, nsc=nsb=ns, and Yj=0.45, the preferred number of pinion teeth becomes
gr + 1 b
ns
Np = (101.17 GPa)
gr c2
13. Obtain the piWing resistance constant:
0.3183E hp Ko Km Kv nsc
Kc =
Ip
c
14. The pinion pitch diameter is then estimated as
1/3
Kc
dp =
bw /dp
2014 CRC Press
Design Procedure 14.5 (concluded)

15. The face width can be calculated from the ratio of bw/dp established in
step 3 if a specic value was not specied as a design requirement.
16. When the gear prole is selected from this design procedure, it is
necessary to analyze the design more closely in accordance with the
approaches described in Sections 14.11 and 14.12. This is clearly required
since a number of approximate values were used.
17. It should also be noted that an essential part of the gear design synthesis
is calculating lubricant lm thickness as described in Section 14.13.

2014 CRC Press
PM Spur Gear
Manufacture
Upper punch
Compacted
shape
(green)
Powder
Feed
Shoe
Die
Lower punch
1.
2.
3.
Ejector
4.
(a)
Upper punch
PM spur gear
(green)
Die
Core rod
Lower punch
(b)
Figure 14.36: Production of gears through the powder compaction process. (a) Steps
required to produce a part; (b) illustration of tooling required for a simple spur gear.
Source: After Kalpakjian and Schmid [2010].

2014 CRC Press
Surface Densied PM Gears

Subsurface porosity
100 m
Densified surface
Figure 14.37: Image of a

PM material after roll
densication. Note the
low porosity near the
surface, resulting in high
allowable contact stresses.
Source: Courtesy Capstan
Atlantic Corp.
Figure 14.38: A stepped

gear produced through
the metal injection
molding process. Source:
Courtesy Perry Tool &
Research, Inc.

Figure 14.39: A collection

of PM gears used in
automotive applications.
Source: Courtesy Capstan
Atlantic Corp.
2014 CRC Press

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Chapter 14: General Gear Theory;

An assortment of gears. Source: Courtesy of

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 14.5: Basic spur gear

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Gear Tooth Nomenclature

Figure 14.6: Nomenclature of gear teeth.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Table 14.1: Preferred diametral pitches for four tooth classes.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Pitch and Base Circles; Line of

Base circle (gear)

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Addendum, Dedendum &

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 14.10: Construction of involute curve.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Figure 14.12: Illustration of backlash

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Center distance, cd , in.

0.008 0.010 0.014

Table 14.3: Recommended minimum backlash

2014 CRC Press

Figure 14.13: Externally meshing

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

Figure 14.14: Internally meshing

2014 CRC Press

Figure 14.15: Simple gear train.

Figure 14.16: Compound gear train.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Figure 14.17: Gear train used in Example 14.6.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Planetary Gear Train

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

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Gear Cost vs. Quality

AGMA quality index

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.

2014 CRC Press

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.