AmylosePotassium Oleate Inclusion Complex

in Plain Set-Style Yogurt

Mukti Singh, Jeffrey A. Byars, and James A. Kenar

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

Abstract: Health and wellness aspirations of U.S. consumers continue to drive the demand for lower fat from inherently
beneficial foods such as yogurt. Removing fat from yogurt negatively affects the gel strength, texture, syneresis, and
storage of yogurt. Amylosepotassium oleate inclusion complexes (AIC) were used to replace skim milk solids to improve
the quality of nonfat yogurt. The effect of AIC on fermentation of yogurt mix and strength of yogurt gel was studied and
compared to full-fat samples. Texture, storage modulus, and syneresis of yogurt were observed over 4 weeks of storage at
4 C. Yogurt mixes having the skim milk solids partially replaced by AIC fermented at a similar rate as yogurt samples
with no milk solids replaced and full-fat milk. Initial viscosity was higher for yogurt mixes with AIC. The presence of
3% AIC strengthened the yogurt gel as indicated by texture and rheology measurements. Yogurt samples with 3% AIC
maintained the gel strength during storage and resulted in low syneresis after storage for 4 wk.
Keywords: amylosefatty acid complex, rheology, storage, syneresis, texture, yogurt

Introduction
In the presence of hydrophobic ligands such as fatty acids, amylose undergoes conformational changes to form amylosefatty acid
inclusion complexes. The formation of amylosefatty acids inclusion complexes has been extensively studied and recently reviewed
in depth (Putseys and others 2010; Obiro and others 2012). Studies of these types of amylose complexes have dealt mostly with
their effect on the pasting properties of starch granules, structure
of the complexes, thermodynamic properties (Ghiasi and others
1982; Evans 1986; Biliaderis and Tonogai 1991; Eliasson 1994;
Svensson and others 1998; Gelders and others 2006; Mira and
others 2007a, b), and their ability to retard retrogradation of starch
in baked products (Keetels and others 1996). Amyloselipid complexes have been proposed and examined as a means of delivering
ligands with desired functional properties in food products. One
important use is to deliver unsaturated fatty acids, nutraceuticals
(Cohen and others 2008), and volatile flavor (Heinemann and others 2005; Wulff and others 2005; Conde-Petit and others 2006;
Itthisoponkul and others 2007) or aroma (Jouquand and others
2006; Tietz and others 2008) compounds while protecting them
from oxidation.
Recently, we have been examining the preparation and properties of starch materials containing amylosesodium palmitate inclusion complexes obtained by blending jet-cooked high-amylose
corn starch with aqueous solutions of sodium palmitate (Fanta and
others 2010; Byars and others 2012). At appropriate fatty acid salt
concentrations to effectively complex the amylose, a low-viscosity
dispersion results that displays no evidence of starch retrogradation upon standing for extended periods. These dispersions exhibit polyelectrolytic characteristics, and at high pH, electrostatic
repulsion between the anionic carboxylate head groups of the
MS 20131368 Submitted 9/26/2013, Accepted 12/30/2013. Authors are with
USDA, Agricultural Research Services, Natl. Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, 1815 N. Univ. St., Peoria, IL, 61604, USA. Direct inquiries to author Singh
(E-mail: mukti.singh@ars.usda.gov).

complexed fatty acid salt stabilizes the amylose polymer in solution and inhibits intermolecular interactions between the amylose
molecules. As the pH of the dispersion is lowered, the carboxylate
anion is protonated and converted into its corresponding fatty acid
that reduces the electrostatic repulsion of the amylose complex.
When this occurs, physical associations form between the amylose
molecules generating a stable 3-dimensional gel network (Byars
and others 2012).
Fat plays a significant role in gel strength, texture, and syneresis of yogurt. Stabilizers in low-fat yogurts are used to strengthen
the 3-dimensional network structure formed by casein micelles
at low pH. Various nondairy ingredients such as starch, whey
protein concentrates, gelatin, and hydrocolloids have been added
to yogurt as fat replacers and to modify the rheological properties (Mistry and Hassan 1992; Keogh and OKennedy 1998;
Guzman-Gonzalez and others 1999; Decourcelle and others 2004;
Sodini and others 2004). The addition of whey protein concentrates can lead to powdery taste, excessive acid development, excessive firmness, higher syneresis, and grainy texture (Mistry and
Hassan 1992; Guzman-Gonzalez and others 1999). Addition of
starch increases the viscosity of yogurt, but some starches impart
an undesirable taste and promote phase separation. Addition of
inulin improved the texture of no fat yogurt but increased yogurt
syneresis (Pimentel and others 2011). In our previous studies, we
found that starchlipid composites strengthened low-fat set-style
yogurts (Singh and Byars 2009; Singh and Kim 2009).
The objective of this study was to examine the suitability of
amylosefatty acid salt complexes as stabilizers in nonfat yogurt.
We chose potassium oleate instead of sodium palmitate as used in
our previous studies for nutritional superiority. These complexed
starches can be simply prepared on large scale using commercially
available steam jet cookers and renewable low-cost commodity
amylose-containing starches and fatty acid salts.

Materials and Methods

Preparation of potassium oleate

Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for

High-amylose corn starch (AmyloGel 03003) containing 70%
the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. USDA is an equal apparent amylose and a moisture content of 11.45% was a prodopportunity provider and employer.
uct of Cargill, Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A. Percent moisture was

E822

Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014

R

C 2014 Institute of Food Technologists

doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.12378
Further reproduction without permission is prohibited

Starchpotassium oleate yogurt fermentation . . .

Preparation of amylose corn starchpotassium oleate

inclusion complexes (AIC) by jet cooking
The general procedure described by Fanta and coworkers was
used to prepare the high-amylose corn starchpotassium oleate
complexes (Fanta and others 2010). High-amylose starch (165.0
g) was dispersed in 2700 mL of deionized water, and the slurry was
passed through a Penick & Ford laboratory model steam jet cooker
(Penick and Ford, Ltd., Cedar Rapids, Iowa, U.S.A.) operating
under excess steam conditions. Temperature in the hydroheater
was 140 C, the steam back pressure was 380 kPa, and the steam
line pressure from the boiler was 550 kPa. The flow rate through
the jet cooker was about 1 L/min. The hot, jet-cooked starch
dispersion was collected. The percent starch solids in the cooked
dispersion were determined by freeze-drying accurately weighed
portions of this material. Over 95% of initial weight of starch was
collected in the jet-cooked dispersion.
Potassium oleate (8.66 g, equal to 7.50 wt% of the weight of
amylose in the starch) sample was dissolved in 300 mL of deionized
water at 95 C, and the resulting clear solution was added to the
hot starch dispersion immediately after it was collected from the
cooker. The resulting dispersion was slowly stirred for 2 min, and
then transferred to a 4 L beaker and cooled in an ice-water bath to
25 C. The solids of final cooled dispersion was determined to be
5.40 wt%. The materials were stored at 4 C until use. A portion
of the material was also freeze-dried and stored for later use.
Yogurt mix preparation
Nonfat milk powder containing 34.7% protein, 52.7% carbohydrates, and 0% fat was purchased from local market (Carnation
instant nonfat dry milk; Nestle USA Inc., Solon, Ohio, U.S.A.).
Full-fat milk powder containing 25.7% protein, 36.5% carbohydrates, and 28.2% fat was purchased online (Nido instant full-fat
milk powder, Nestle, Netherlands).
The yogurt mixes were prepared by mixing nonfat milk powder, AIC (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%), and deionized water, to a total
solid content of 17%. Full-fat control yogurt mix was prepared
similarly using full-fat milk powder. Mixes were heated to 80 C
in a water bath, and then cooled to 40 C. Stock culture was
prepared by dissolving of freeze-dried yogurt culture containing
Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subspecies bulgaricus, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Bifidobacterium (Yo-Fast 88; 200 U;

Chr. Hansen, Milwaukee, Wis., U.S.A.) in deionized water to a

concentration of 1 U/mL. Stock culture was added to yogurt mix
at the rate of 1 U/L at 40 C.
The inoculated yogurt mix was poured into 60 mL glass bottles
with lids to a level of 45 mL, and 50 mL centrifuge tubes leaving
15 mm headspace. The set yogurts were refrigerated at 4 C for
further analysis. A part of the mix was saved prior to inoculation
for measurement of viscosity and pH. A part of the inoculated
sample was used for rheological studies. The inoculated yogurt
mixes were incubated at 40 C for 330 min for fermentation.

Rheology of yogurt during fermentation

The rheological properties of yogurt were characterized on a
Rheometrics LS1 controlled stress rheometer (TA Instruments,
New Castle, Del., U.S.A.). Small-amplitude oscillatory shear flow
measurements of the storage modulus, G , the loss modulus, G ,
and the loss tangent, tan = G /G , were obtained using a vane
geometry. A cup (34 mm diameter) was filled with mix to a depth
of 44 mm, and the vane consisted of 6 radially symmetric paddles
34 mm long and 18 mm diameter. The vane geometry allows
measurements to be taken without disrupting the gel formation
and also prevents complications due to slip (Haque and others
2001; Martin and others 2005). The temperature of the sample
was initially at 40 C, and measurements were taken at a frequency
of 1 rad/s and 0.1% strain for 5.5 h. The sample was then cooled
at 1 C/min to 4 C, and the frequency dependence of the moduli
was measured ( = 102 to 102 rad/s). The response at 1 rad/s
was then monitored for 16.5 h, followed by another measurement
of the frequency dependence. The temperature was controlled to
within 0.1 C by a circulating water bath, and humidity covers
were used to prevent drying of the sample. For stored samples,
the centrifuge tubes (27 mm diameter) were centered in the cup,
which was filled with water to maintain the samples at 4 C. The
viscosities of the mixes were measured in steady shear flow using
parallel plate geometry of 50 mm diameter.
Fermentation rate
The pH of yogurt mixes was measured using an Accumet X l50
pH meter equipped with an ATC probe for temperature effect
correction. The pH of the inoculated yogurt mix was recorded
every 2 min during fermentation at 40 C. The rate of lactose
fermentation during yogurt was determined by plotting pH of
yogurt mix compared with fermentation time.
Color
Color of yogurt samples was measured using the LabscanXE
Hunter colorimeter (Hunter Associates Laboratories Inc., Reston,
Va., U.S.A.). The Hunter L (lightness scale 100 = pure white,
0 = black), a (red), and b (yellow) values were used to calculate
the total color E = (L2 + a2 + b2 )0.5 .
Syneresis
Weighed yogurt samples set in 50 mL centrifuge tubes in duplicates were centrifuged at 1000g for 10 min at 8 C (Beckman
CS-6KR). The separated whey was carefully decanted using a
transfer pipette and weighed, and the centrifuge tube was also
weighed to confirm the whey removed. Syneresis index was calculated as the weight of the whey separated per unit weight of
yogurt.
Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014 r Journal of Food Science E823

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

calculated from weight loss after drying at 100 C under vacuum, and all starch weights are given on a dry weight basis.
Oleic acid, 99%, was purchased from Nu-Check Prep (Elysian,
Minn.). Ethanol (95%) was purchased from Decon Laboratories, Inc. (King of Prussia, Pa., U.S.A.). Potassium hydroxide,
>85%, pellets/certified ACS, was purchased from Fisher Chemical
(Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.).
The general procedure of de Mul and coworkers was used for
the preparation of potassium oleate (de Mul and others 2000).
A solution of oleic acid (33.53 g, 0.118 mol) in 95% ethanol
(130 mL) was prepared by stirring and warming to 50 C. To
the solution, 51 mL of 2.53 M KOH in 95% ethanol was slowly
added while stirring. After addition, the solution was stirred an
additional 30 min at 50 C and then removed from the heat and
cooled to room temperature (approximately 22 C). The solution
was further cooled to 4 C and allowed to crystallize undisturbed
overnight. The resulting crystals were vacuum filtered in a Buchner
funnel, washed with cold 95% ethanol, and vacuum-dried in
a desiccator. The yield of potassium oleate obtained was 65.1%
(24.5 g).

Starchpotassium oleate yogurt fermentation . . .

Results and Discussion

Fermentation rate
The rate of fermentation measured as drop in pH due to conversion of lactose to lactic acid by bacteria during incubation at
40 C of skimmed milk yogurt mixes with 0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%
AIC and whole milk yogurt mix is presented in Figure 1. Addition of AIC to yogurt mix did not affect fermentation of lactose
to lactic acid, as all samples reached typical end point pH (4.6)
for fermentation at the end of the incubation period. All samples
displayed characteristic lag phase, logarithmic phase, and the slowdown acidification phase during fermentation. Similar results have
been reported with the addition of starch (Williams and others
2003; Oh and others 2007) and starchlipid composites (Singh
and Byars 2009; Singh and Kim 2009).
Rheology of yogurt during fermentation
The initial viscosity of yogurt mixes with AIC was considerably
higher than skim milk and full-fat milk samples (Table 1). An
increase in initial viscosity was also observed on the addition of
starchlipid composites (Singh and Byars 2009). Singh and Byars

Table 1Summary of yogurt properties. The mix viscosity was

measured at 40 C. G values were measured at 40 C after 5.5
h, and tan values were measured at 4 C after 16.5 h of storage
at 4 C.
G at 1 rad/s
(5.5 h)

tan (Pa)
(16.5 h)

Yogurt mix
viscosity Pas

82
418
232
382
605

0.18
0.21
0.18
0.16
0.15

0.0019
0.0024
0.11
0.41
0.3

Skim control
Full-fat control
1% AIC
2% AIC
3% AIC

(2009) found that mix viscosity in itself did not affect the final gel
structure of yogurt.
Onset time of gelation was defined as the time when the storage
modulus exceeded 3 Pa. Fat content in yogurt mix significantly
affected onset time of gelation (Figure 2). Full-fat milk yogurt
mix had significantly lower onset time of gelation compared to
skim milk yogurt mix. Removal of fat in yogurt mix delayed the
gelation process during fermentation. Xu and others (2008) also
reported low-fat samples needed more incubation time for commencement of gelation in comparison to full-fat milk. Addition
of AIC induced earlier gelation relative to skim milk control yogurt, and at 3% AIC gel began to form almost as early as for
full-fat milk control yogurt. This indicates that AIC can replace
fat without affecting the gelation of yogurt.
Effect of AIC on formation of the yogurt gel at 40 C is shown
in Figure 3. The storage modulus, G , was measured at a frequency
of 1 rad/s to monitor gel strength during fermentation. A long
induction time was observed for each sample, during which the
modulus value was below the measurement threshold. The storage
modulus increased rapidly for each sample as gel began to form,
and then continued to increase throughout the fermentation. The
level of starch complex affected both the time at which gel growth
was first observed and final value of storage modulus. The initial
growth rate of the storage modulus was similar for each sample,
but yogurts containing starch complex continued to increase in gel

7.0
skim control
1%
2%
3%
full fat control

6.5

240

6.0

180

Time [min]

pH

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

Yogurt texture
Texture of yogurts set in 4 oz bottles was measured using
TA XT2i Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corporation,
Scarsdale, N.Y., U.S.A.). Yogurt samples were evaluated in triplicates using stainless steel ball probe (TA 18) set for a 10 cycle
test. The test parameters were 5 mm/s test speed, 2 mm/s pretest
speed, 5 mm/s posttest speed, 10 g trigger force, and a distance of
10 mm. All measurements were recorded as the force (g) of the
peaks. The maximum force for the 1st peak (g) was used to determine firmness, whereas ratio of the maximum force of the tenth
peak to the maximum force of the 1st peak was used to evaluate
gel resiliency. All tests were conducted in duplicates at ambient
temperature with product temperature near 4 C. Samples were
taken directly from refrigerator and placed on instrument stage for
the measurements.

5.5
5.0

skim control
full fat control
AIC

60

4.5
4.0

120

60

120

180

240

300

Time [min]

360

AIC [%]

Figure 1The pH change during fermentation of full-fat milk yogurt mix

and various amylosepotassium oleate complex levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and Figure 2Effect of fat content and amylosepotassium oleate complex
3%) in skim milk yogurt mix.
levels on skim milk yogurt formation at 4 C.

E824 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014

Starchpotassium oleate yogurt fermentation . . .

103

102

skim control
full fat control
1%
2%
3%

creased for samples with starch complexes (Table 1). A lower value
of loss tangent indicates a firmer gel, so a firmer yogurt gel was
formed with starch complexes compared to either skim milk or
full-fat milk yogurts.
Storage modulus, G measured at a frequency of 1 rad/s for all
yogurts samples during storage at 4 C, is presented in Figure 5.
All yogurt samples maintained gel strength during storage of 4 wk.
Yogurt samples with fat (full-fat control) had significantly higher
storage modulus in comparison to skim milk yogurt control. The
storage modulus increased with increasing AIC concentration in
skim milk yogurt stored for 4 wk.

Color of yogurt
Total color of yogurt samples is presented in Figure 6. Full-fat
yogurt samples had higher total color values that were attributed
to higher lightness (L ). Addition of AIC to skim milk resulted
in reduced total color attributed to lower lightness in yogurt.
However, the difference in total color among yogurts was not
obvious to naked eye.

G' [Pa]

Texture of yogurt
Initial firmness of yogurt, as 1st peak force measured by texture analyzer during storage, is shown in Figure 7. As expected,
101
full-fat milk yogurt was significantly firmer than skim milk yogurt during 29 d of storage, suggesting a positive interaction of
fat globules with the casein gel network in yogurt. Martin-Diana
and others (2004), Pereira and others (2006), Aziznia and others
100
(2008), and Yazici and Akgun (2004) also observed that fat significantly increased gel firmness. Addition of 3% AIC to skim milk
yogurt mix significantly increased firmness of the yogurt. This is
in agreement to the observations from rheology data described
10-1
above. This confirms our assumption that AIC plays the role of fat
0
60
120
180
240
300
during yogurt fermentation.
Final firmness at the end of cycle as the 10th peak force of all
Time [min]
yogurt samples followed a similar trend as initial firmness, but was
Figure 3Effect of level of amylosepotassium oleate complexes in skim significantly lower.
milk on the onset time of gelation during yogurt fermentation. Onset time
is defined as G > 3 Pa.

104

6000
skim control
full fat control
1%
2%
3%

5000
4000

[Pa]

G' (rad/s) Pas

103

102
skim control
full fat control
1%
2%
3%

101
10-2

10-1

100

[rad/s]

101

3000
2000
1000
0

102

15

22

29

Time [day]

Figure 4Linear viscoelastic spectra after 16.5 h of storage at 4 C. The Figure 5Effect of storage time at 4 C on linear viscoelastic spectra
storage modulus G is shown with solid symbols and the loss modulus G is (storage modulus G ) for full-fat milk yogurt and yogurt various amylose
potassium oleate complex levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) in skim milk.
shown with open symbols.
Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014 r Journal of Food Science E825

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

strength faster than the full-fat control yogurt. At the end of 330
min fermentation period, 3% AIC yogurt mix formed stronger
gel than full-fat control (Table 1).
Storage and loss (G ) moduli are shown for all samples in
Figure 4 after holding in the rheometer at 4 C for 16.5 h. Results
for each sample are characteristic of a gel, with G > G at all
frequencies, and with both values showing very little frequency
dependence. Values here are higher than those in Figure 3 primarily due to lower measurement temperature, but full-fat control
showed a greater increase upon cooling and had the highest modulus values at 4 C. Frequency dependence of the moduli does
not suggest any qualitative differences in the yogurts formed with
starch complexes. However, the loss tangent (tan = G /G ) de-

Starchpotassium oleate yogurt fermentation . . .

yogurt gels were more rigid in comparison to skim milk yogurts
as is evident by lower serum expulsion by centrifugation. This
is in agreement with Tamime and Robinson (2007) and Aziznia
and others (2008) who attribute low fat as one of the reasons
for syneresis in yogurts, but it is in contrast to Ruiz and others
(2013) who observed lower whey separation in 1% fat yogurts
than those with 3% fat. Addition of AIC to skim milk yogurt
mix lowered syneresis by strengthening the gels. This could be
due to positive interaction of AIC with gel network. Syneresis
for yogurt samples increased storage. Similar observations have
Syneresis of yogurt during storage
Syneresis, a measure of rigidity of yogurt gels for all samples over been reported by Sandoval-Castilla and others (2004), Salvador
4 wk storage, is presented in Figure 9. Fat content significantly and Fiszman (2004), and Singh and Byars (2009).
affected syneresis in control yogurt samples during storage. Full-fat
Resiliency of yogurt, as the ratio of final peak force to initial
peak force, during storage is shown in Figure 8. Fat content in
control samples had an inverse relationship with resiliency of yogurt texture. Skim milk yogurt was more resilient and retained
its resiliency during storage in comparison to full-fat control. Increasing the amount of AIC from 1% to 3% in skim milk yogurt
mix increased resiliency of yogurts during storage. This affirms
our earlier assumption that AIC strengthens yogurt gel.

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

100
100

80

Resiliency [%]

90

80

skim control
full fat control
AIC

70

60
40
20
0

60

skim control
full fat control
1%
2%
3%

15

22

29

Time [day]

AIC [%]

Figure 8Effect of storage on the resiliency of yogurts made full-fat milk

Figure 6Effect of fat content and amylosepotassium oleate complex and various amylosepotassium oleate complex levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and
3%) in skim milk.
level on the total color of skim milk yogurts.

100

30
skim control
full fat control
1%
2%
3%

25
20

60

Syneresis [%]

Firmness [g]

80

40
20
0

skim control
1%
2%
3%
full fat control

15
10
5

15

22

Time [day]

29

15
Time [day]

22

29

Figure 7Effect of storage on the firmness of yogurts made full-fat milk and Figure 9Effect of storage on syneresis of yogurts made full-fat milk and
various amylosepotassium oleate complex levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) various amylosepotassium oleate complex levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%)
in skim milk.
in skim milk.

E826 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014

Full-fat yogurt continued to have lower syneresis than nonfat

yogurt during storage of 29 d. Yogurt samples with 3% AIC had
significantly lower syneresis than full-fat yogurt all throughout the
storage of 29 d. This suggests that AIC interacts with gel network,
thus strengthening the gel structure and reducing the syneresis
during storage.

Conclusion
Yogurt mixes with skim milk solids replaced by amylose
potassium oleate complexes (AIC) or milk fat, fermented lactose to lactic acid at a rate similar to those with no milk solids
replaced. Positive interaction of AIC (3%) with yogurt network
strengthened skim milk yogurt gels, reduced syneresis, and behaved similar to full-fat yogurts. Yogurts with 3% AIC maintained
strong gel structure during 4 wk of storage at 4 C. AIC provides an alternative method to strengthen low-fat yogurts. This
study demonstrates that AIC can be added to replace fat in yogurt
mix, without affecting structural characteristics and storability of
set yogurt. However, further study is needed to understand the
mechanism of interaction by which AIC induces earlier onset of
gelation with increased gel strength, without affecting the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid in yogurts.

Acknowledgment
Technical assistance provided by AJ Thomas and Wilma Rinsch
during the course of this study is gratefully acknowledged.

References
Aziznia S, Khosrowshahi A, Madadlou A, Rahimi J. 2008. Whey protein concentrate and gum
tragacanth as fat replacers in nonfat yogurt: chemical, physical, and microstructural properties.
J Dairy Sci 91:254552.
Biliaderis CG, Tonogai JR. 1991. Influence of lipids on the thermal and mechanical properties
of concentrated starch gels. J Agric Food Chem 39:83340.
Byars JA, Fanta GF, Kenar JA, Felker FC. 2012. Influence of pH and temperature on the rheological properties of aqueous dispersions of starch-sodium palmitate complexes. Carbohydr
Polym 2012 88:915.
Cohen R, Orlova Y, Kovalev M, Ungar Y, Shimoni E. 2008. Structural and functional properties
of amylose complexes with genistein. J Agric Food Chem 56:42128
Conde-Petit B, Escher F, Nuessli J. 2006. Structural features of starch-flavor complexation in
food model systems. Trends Food Sci Technol 17:22735.
de Mul MNG, Davis HT, Evans DF, Bhave AV, Wagner JR. 2000. Solution phase behavior and
solid phase structure of long-chain sodium soap mixtures. Langmuir 16(22):827684.
Decourcelle N, Lubbers SN, Vallet N, Rondeau P, Guichard E. 2004. Effect of thickners and
sweetners on the release of blended aroma compounds in fat-free stirred yoghurt during shear
conditions. Intl Dairy J 14:7839.
Eliasson AC. 1994. Interactions between starch and lipids studied by DSC. Thermochim Acta
246:34356.
Evans ID. 1986. An investigation of starch/surfactant interactions using viscosimetry and differential scanning calorimetry. Starch/Starke 38:22735.
Fanta, GF, Kenar JA, Byars JA, Felker FC, Shogren RL. 2010. Properties of aqueous dispersions
of amylosesodium palmitate complexes prepared by steam jet cooking. Carbohydr Polym
81(3):64551.
Gelders GG, Goesaert H, Delcour JA. 2006. Amylose-lipid complexes as controlled lipid release
agents during starch gelatinization and pasting. J Agric Food Chem 54:14939.
Ghiasi K, Varriano-Marston E, Hoseney RC. 1982. Gelatinization of wheat starch. IV. Amylograph viscosity. Cereal Chem 59:2625.

Guzman-Gonzalez M, Morais F, Ramos M, Amigo L. 1999. Influence of skimmed milk concentrate replacement by dry dairy products in a low fat set-type yoghurt model system. I:
Use of whey protein concentrates, milk protein concentrates and skimmed milk powder. J Sci
Food Agric 79(8):111722.
Haque A, Richardson RK, Morris ER. 2001. Effect of fermentation temperature on the rheology
of set and stirred yogurt. Food Hydrocolloids 15:593602.
Heinemann C, Zinsli M, Renggli A, Escher F, Conde-Petit B. 2005. Influence of amylose-flavor
complexation on build-up and breakdown of starch structures in aqueous food model systems.
Lebensm Wiss Technol 38:88594.
Itthisoponkul T, Mitchell JR, Taylor AJ, Farhat IA. 2007. Inclusion complexes of tapioca starch
with flavor compounds. Carbohydr Polym 69:10615.
Jouquand C, Ducruet V, Le Bail P. 2006. Formation of amylose complexes with C6-aroma
compounds in starch dispersions and its impact on retention. Food Chem 96:46170.
Keetels CJAM, van Vliet T, Jurgens A, Walstra P. 1996. Effects of lipid surfactants on the
structure and mechanics of concentrated starch gels and starch bread. J Cereal Sci 24:3345.
Keogh M, OKennedy BT. 1998. Rheology of stirred yogurt as affected by added milk fat
protein, and hydrocolloids. J Food Sci 63:10812.
Martin FL, Parker A, Hort J, Hollowod TA, Taylor AJ. 2005. Using vane geometry for measuring
the texture of stirred yogurt. J Texture Studies 36:421438.
Martin-Diana AB, Janer C, Palaez C, Requena T. 2004. Effect of milk fat replacement by
polyunsaturated fatty acid on the microbiological and sensorial properties of fermented milks.
J Sci Food Agric 84:1599605.
Mira I, Persson K, Villwock VK. 2007a. On the effect of surface active agents and their structure
on the temperature-induced changes of normal and waxy wheat starch in aqueous suspension.
Part I. Pasting and calorimetric studies. Carbohydr Polym 68:66578.
Mira I, Villwock VK, Persson K. 2007b. On the effect of surface active agents and their structure
on the temperature-induce changes of normal and waxy wheat starch in aqueous suspension.
Part II. A confocal laser scanning microscopy study. Carbohydr Polym 68:63746.
Mistry VV, Hassan HN. 1992. Manufacture of yogurt stabilized with milk powder. J Dairy Sci
75:94757.
Obiro WC, Ray SS, Emmambux MN. 2012. V-amylose structural characteristics, methods of
preparation, significance, and potential applications. Food Rev Intl 28:41238.
Oh HE, Wong M, Pinder DN, Hemar Y, Amena SG. 2007. Effect of pH adjustment at heating
on the rheological properties of acid skim milk with added potato starch. Intl Dairy J 17:
138492.
Pereira R, Matia-Merino L, Jones V, Singh H. 2006. Influence of fat on the perceived texture
of set acid milk gels: a sensory perspective. Food Hydrocolloids 20:30513.
Pimentel TC, Garcia S, Prudencio SH. 2011. Effect of long-chain inulin on the texture profile
and survival of Lactobacillus paracasei spp parcasei in set yoghurts during refrigerated storage.
Dairy Technol 65(1):10410.
Putseys JA, Lamberts L, Delcour JA. 2010. Amylose-inclusion complexes: formation, identity
and physic-chemical properties. J Cereal Sci 51:23847.
Ruiz JF, Hernandez-Carranza H, Sosa-Morales M. 2013. Physiochemical and flow properties
of low-fat yogurt fortified with calcium and fiber. J Food Process Preserv 37:21021.
Salvador A, Fiszman SM. 2004. Textural and sensory characteristics of whole and skimmed
flavored set-type yogurt during long term storage. J Dairy Sci 87:403341.
Sandoval-Castilla O, Lobato-Calleros C, Aguirre-Mandujano E, Vernon-Carter EJ. 2004. Microstructure and texture of yogurt as influenced by fat replacers. Intl Dairy J 14:1519.
Singh M, Byars JA. 2009. Starch-lipid composites in plain set yogurt. Intl J Food Sci Technol
44:10610.
Singh M, Kim S. 2009. Yogurt fermentation in the presence of starch-lipid composite. J Food
Sci 74(2):C859.
Sodini I, Remeuf F, Haddad S, Corrieu G. 2004. The relative effect of milk base, starter, and
process on yogurt texture: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 44:1137.
Svensson E, Autio K, Eliasson AC. 1998. The effect of sodium dodecylsulfate on gelatinization
and gelation properties of wheat and potato starches. Food Hydrocolloids 12:1518.
Tamime AY, Robinson RK. 2007. Tamime and Robinsons yoghurt science and technology,
3rd ed. Cambridge, England: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.
Tietz M, Buettner A, Conde-Petit B. 2008. Changes in structure and aroma release from starcharoma systems upon -amylase addition. Eur Food Res Technol 227:143946.
Williams RPW, Glagovskaia O, Augustin MA. 2003. Properties of stirred yogurts with added
starch: effects of alterations in fermentation conditions. Aust J Dairy Technol 58:22832.
Wulff G, Avgenaki G, Guzmann MSP. 2005. Molecular encapsulation of flavours as helical
inclusion complexes of amylose. J Cereal Sci 41:23949.
Xu ZM, Emmanouelidou DG, Raphaelides SN, Antoniou KD. 2008. Effects of heating temperature and fat content on the structure development of set yogurt. J Food Eng 85:5907.
Yazici F, Akgun A. 2004. Effect of some protein based fat replacers on physical, chemical,
textural, and sensory properties of strained yoghurt. J Food Eng 62:24554.

Vol. 79, Nr. 5, 2014 r Journal of Food Science E827

E: Food Engineering &

Physical Properties

Starchpotassium oleate yogurt fermentation . . .