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L.12-13 Hydraulic Conductivity

CIVE 431
SOIL MECHANICS & LAB
FALL 2014-15

Why the Interest in Water Flow

To recover as a resource (wells)
To evaluate movement of pollutants
To evaluate water loses from
reservoirs
To evaluate water pressures and
their effect on stresses in the soil
To evaluate migration of soil
particles - Piping

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TYPES OF DAMS

CONCRETE ARCH

CONCRETE GRAVITY

CONCRETE BUTTRESS

EARTH EMBANKMENT

S7-6

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Embankment Dam

S7-7

Qaraoun Dam
Rock-fill with Concrete Liner

S7-8

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Bernoullis Equation
The energy of a fluid particle consists of:

1. Kinetic energy

fluid particle

- due to velocity

2. Strain energy
- due to fluid pressure

z
datum

3. Potential energy

- due to elevation (z) with respect to a datum

Bernoullis Equation
Expressing energy in unit of length (head):
Velocity head
+

Total head =

Pressure head
+

fluid particle

z
datum

Elevation head

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Bernoullis Equation
For flow through soils, velocity (and thus velocity
head) is very small. Therefore,
0

Velocity head
+

Total head =

Pressure head
+
Elevation head

fluid particle

z
datum

Total head = Pressure head + Elevation head

Definition of Head at a Point

Total Head
at Point (P)

h (P)

u (P)
w

Elevation
Head at (P)

z (P)
Pressure
Head at (P)

Note
z(P)

z is measured vertically up
from the datum

Datum

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Example - Static Water Table

1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the top of the Rock Layer

Location of Water Table

1m

2m

u( P ) hw w 4 w
z( P ) 1m

X
5m
P

h( P )

u( P )

1m

4 w

h( P ) =

Rock

z( P )
+ 1 = 5m

Example - Static Water Table

2. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the top of the Rock Layer

Location of Water Table

1m

u( X ) hw w 1 w

2m

z( X ) 4m

5m

h( X )

X
P
Rock

1m

h( X )

u( X )

w
1 w
w

z( X )
4 5m

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Example - Static Water Table

Total Head at point X is equal to the Total
Head at P
Same Energy at the two points
No flow between the two points
Location of Water Table

1m

2m

X
5m
P

1m

Rock

Remark
If flow is from A to B,
total head is higher at A
than at B.
water

Energy is dissipated in
overcoming the soil
resistance and hence is
the head loss.

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Example - Change the Datum

1. Calculation of head at P
Choose datum at the Water Table

Location of Water Table

1m

2m

u( P ) hw w 4 w
z ( P ) 4 m

X
5m
P

h( P )

1m

h(P )

Rock

u( P )

w
4 w
w

z( P )
4 0 m

Example - Change the Datum

1. Calculation of head at X
Choose datum at the Water Table

Location of Water Table

1m

u( X ) hw w 1 w

2m

z( X ) 1m

5m

h( X )

X
P
Rock

1m

h( X )

u( X )

w
1 w
w

z( X )
1 0m

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Example - Change the Datum

Again the Total Head at point X is equal to the
Total Head at P, although the position of datum
is different
The location of the datum affects the Value of the
Total Head but not the value of the pressure head.
Location of Water Table

1m

2m

X
5m
P

1m

Rock

Darcys Experiment
Stand Pipe

Head Difference between 2

ends of sample

h
h2
h1
Soil Sample

Porous
Stones

Length of
Soil Sample

A = Cross

sectional area
of soil sample

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Darcys Experiment
Darcy found that the flow
(volume per unit time) was
proportional

to the
head difference h

h2

proportional

to the
cross-sectional area A

h1
Soil Sample

inversely

proportional to
the length of sample L

Darcys Law
Constant of
Proportionality
Hydraulic Conductivity
or Permeability
(Length/time)

Head Difference
between two points

h
q k
A
L
Flow Rate
(Volume/time)

Gross crosssectional area of

flow (Length2)

Length of Soil
Specimen

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Darcys Law
qk

h
A
L

Darcys Law can be written as:

q=kiA
Where i = h/L is the hydraulic gradient
OR

v = q/A = k i
Where v = Darcy Velocity (Length/Time)

Darcy Velocity, v can be related to the actual

seepage velocity, vs by: vs= v/n (where n is porosity)

Hydraulic Gradient
Hydraulic gradient (i) between A and B is
the total head loss per unit length.

hA hB
l AB

water

length AB, along

the stream line

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Measuring k, Constant Head

constant head
device

inlet

device for flow

measurement

sample

Manometers

L
porous disk

Constant Head Permeameter

Constant Head Permeameter

The volume discharge Q during a suitable
time interval T is collected.
The difference in head H over a length L is
measured by means of manometers.
Knowing the cross-sectional area A, Darcys
law gives

Q
H
kA
T
L
k

QL
HAT

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Measuring k, Falling Head

Standpipe
of area a

Analysis
Consider a time interval t
The flow in the standpipe = a

H
t

H1

H
The flow in the sample = k A L

H
L

dH
H
kA
dt
L

Sample
of area
A

H2

Measuring k, Falling Head

Standpipe
of area a

Analysis
Starting from: a

dH
H
kA
dt
L

The equation has the solution:

an( H )

kA
t cons tan t
L

Initially H = H1 at Time = T1
H = H2 at Time = T2
k

H1

Sample
of area
A

H2

aL n( H1 / H 2 )
A
t 2 t1

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Typical Permeability Values

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-1010-1110-12
Gravels

Sands

Silts

Homogeneous Clays

Fissured & Weathered Clay

Typical Permeability Ranges (meters/second)

Soils exhibit a wide range of permeability and while
particle size may vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude
permeability may vary by about 10 orders of magnitude.

Hydraulic Conductivity, k
The hydraulic conductivity depends on several
factors:
Pore Size Distribution
Fluid Viscosity
Grain Size Distribution
Void Ratio
Specific Area of Solids (the higher the specific area,
the lower the value of k)

Structure of Clay Particles

Degree of Saturation (k decreases significantly as
degree of saturation decreases)

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Hydraulic Conductivity, k
Empirical Relationships for k:
Hazens Formula (Fairly Uniform Sand):

k (cm / s ) cD102
Constant varying
from 1 to 1.5

Grain Size in mm

Kozeny-Carmen Formula:

1 1 e3

k (cm / s) 2

k
S
e
o

Specific Surface Area per unit

volume of particles (1/cm)

Viscosity of
Permeant Kozeny-Carman
Coefficient = 5.0

Example 1 - Perpendicular Flow

(1)

(2)

Find the Flow Rate inside the

layered system?
How much head loss occurs in
each layer (h1=? h2=?)
The

flow rate, Q is constant

in all layers

H=4m
Q (flow rate)

2m

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

2m

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

The

total head loss H is

divided into two head
losses, h1 and h2 such
that:

H = h1 + h2

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Example 1 - Perpendicular Flow

Q1= k1i1A1 = k1(h1/L1)A1

H=4m
Q (flow rate)

Q2= k2i2A2 = k2(h2/L2)A2

Q= kequivalantiA = keq(/L)A

But H = h1 + h2

2m

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

2m

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

QL/KeqA = Q1L1/K1A1 + Q2L2/K2A2

L/Keq= L1/K1 + L2/K2

K eq

Given that:
A = A1 = A2
Q = Q1 = Q2

L
L1 L2

K1 K 2

Example 1 - Perpendicular Flow

H=4m
Q (flow rate)

Generalization:

K eq

L
L
K

i
i

For this problem:

K eq

22
2
2
8
2
10
10

2m

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

2m

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

K eq 1.999 10 8 cm / sec

Least permeable layer controls the hydraulic

conductivity of an equivalent layered system if flow
is perpendicular to the soil layers

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Example 1 - Perpendicular Flow

H=4m
Q (flow rate)

Find Q ??

h
Assume 1mx1m

Q k eq iA

2m

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

2m

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

400cm
2
Q 1.999 10 8 cm / s
100 100cm
400cm

Q 1.999 10 4 cm 3 / s

Q 6.307liters / year

Example 1 - Perpendicular Flow

Find Head loss in each layer?
Layer 1:

Q1 k1

h1
A1
L1

Q1 L1 1.999 10 4 200

K1 A1
10 2 100 100
h1 0.000399cm

h1

H=4m
Q (flow rate)

2m

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

2m

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

Layer 2:

Q2 k 2

h2
A2
L2

QL
1.999 10 4 200
h2 2 2
K 2 A2
10 8 100 100
h2 399.999cm

Almost all of the head loss

occurred in the clay layer
(very low permeability layer)

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Example 2 - Parallel Flow

(1)

(2)

Find the Total Flow Rate inside

the layered system?

H=4m

Find Flow rate in each layer?

The

head loss now is the

same in all layers

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

The

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

total flow now is divided
between layer 1 and layer 2
such that:
Q (flow rate)

Lo = 100 cm

QTotal= Q1 + Q2

Example 2 - Parallel Flow

H=4m

Q1= k1i1A1 = k1(h1/Lo)L1

Q2= k2i2A2 = k2(h2/Lo)L2
Q= kequivalantiA = keq(/Lo)L

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

Q (flow rate)
Lo = 100 cm

But Q = Q1 + Q2
keq(/Lo)L = k1(h1/Lo)L1 + k2(h2/Lo)L2

K eq

K1 L1 K 2 L2
L

Given that:
h1 = h2 = h

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Example 2 - Parallel Flow

H=4m

Generalization:

K eq

K L
L
i

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

Q (flow rate)

For this problem:

10 2 10 2 K

K eq

Lo = 100 cm

22

eq

0.500006 10 2 cm / sec

Most permeable layer controls the hydraulic

conductivity of an equivalent layered system if flow
is horizontal through horizontal layers

Example 2 - Parallel Flow

H=4m

Find Q ??

Sand: K1 = 10-2 cm/s

400x100cm
Clay: K2 = 10-8 cm/s

Q k eq iA

Q (flow rate)

Lo = 100 cm

400cm
2
Q 0.500006 10 cm / s
400 100cm
100
cm

Q 800.00004cm 3 / s
Q 25.22 Million liters / year
2

Layer 1 and Layer 2:

400cm
2
3
Q1 k1i1 A1 1 10 2 cm / s
200 100cm 800cm / s
100cm
Q2 0.00004cm 3 / s

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Example 3
(1) Calculate the Flow rate
q in ft3/min through the soil
system if the area is 1 ft2:

810 ft

790 ft

Silt: K1 = 1x10-5 ft/min

K eq

760 ft

770 ft

Ls
L
c
K s Kc

Clay: K2=8x10-7 ft/min

740 ft

K eq

50
1.26 10 6 ft / min
20
30

110 5 8 10 7

50
Q keq iA 1.265 10 6 1 1.265 10 6 ft 3 / min
50

Example 3
(2) Calculate the head loss in the
silt layer and in the clay layer. What
is the fraction of each head loss
compared to the total head loss. Is
it reasonable?

810 ft

790 ft

760 ft

Silt: K1 = 1x10-5 ft/min

Q k silt

Clay: K2=8x10-7 ft/min

740 ft

1.265 10 20 2.53 ft
110 1
K A
QL
1.265 10 30 47.46 ft

8 10 1
K A

hsilt

Q Lsilt
silt

hclay

770 ft

hsilt
A
Lsilt

clay

clay

Fraction hclay =94.92%

and

Fraction hsilt = 5.06%

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