Instructional Scaffolding Article

9/20/2015
InstructionalscaffoldingWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Instructionalscaffolding
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Instructionalscaffoldingisalearningprocessdesignedtopromoteadeeperleveloflearning.Scaffolding
isthesupportgivenduringthelearningprocesswhichistailoredtotheneedsofthestudentwiththe
intentionofhelpingthestudentachievehis/herlearninggoals(Sawyer,2006).
Instructionalscaffoldingistheprovisionofsufficientsupporttopromotelearningwhenconceptsandskills
arebeingfirstintroducedtostudents.Thesesupportsmayincludethefollowing:
resources
acompellingtask
templatesandguides
guidanceonthedevelopmentofcognitiveandsocialskills
Useofinstructionalscaffoldinginvariouscontexts:
modelingatask
givingadvice
providingcoaching
Thesesupportsaregraduallyremovedasstudentsdevelopautonomouslearningstrategies,thuspromoting
theirowncognitive,affectiveandpsychomotorlearningskillsandknowledge.Teachershelpthestudents
masterataskoraconceptbyprovidingsupport.Thesupportcantakemanyformssuchasoutlines,
recommendeddocuments,storyboards,orkeyquestions.
Contents
1Essentialfeaturesofscaffolding
2Effectivescaffolding
3Theoryofscaffolding
4Levelsandtypesofscaffoldingintheeducationalsetting
4.1Directivescaffoldingandsupportivescaffolding
5Scaffoldingandtheroleofguidance
5.1Guidanceandcognitiveload
5.2Amountofguidance
5.3ContextofGuidance
5.4Timingofguidance
5.5Constructivismandguidance
5.6Instructivismandguidance
5.7ApplicationofInstructionalScaffolding
5.8ScaffoldingMediatedbyTechnology
6Seealso
7Notes
8References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_scaffolding
1/17
9/20/2015
Essentialfeaturesofscaffolding
Therearethreeessentialfeaturesofscaffoldingthatfacilitatelearning.[1][2]Thefirstfeaturehastodowith
theinteractionbetweenthelearnerandtheexpert.Thisinteractionshouldbecollaborativeforittobe
effective.Thesecond,learningshouldtakeplaceinthelearnerszoneofproximaldevelopment.Todothat
theexpertneedstobeawareofthelearnerscurrentlevelofknowledgeandthenworktoacertainextent
beyondthatlevel.Thethirdfeatureofscaffoldingisthatthescaffold,thesupportandguidanceprovidedby
theexpert,isgraduallyremovedasthelearnerbecomesmoreproficient.Thesupportandguidance
providedtothelearneriscomparedtothescaffoldsinbuildingconstructionwherethescaffoldsprovide
bothadjustableandtemporalsupporttothebuildingunderconstruction.[3]Thesupportandguidance
providedtolearnersfacilitateinternalizationoftheknowledgeneededtocompletethetask.Thissupportis
weanedgraduallyuntilthelearnerisindependent.[3]
Effectivescaffolding
Forscaffoldingtobeeffectiveteachersneedtopayattentiontothefollowing:
1. Theselectionofthelearningtask:Thetaskshouldensurethatlearnersusethedevelopingskillsthat
needtobemastered.[4]Thetaskshouldalsobeengagingandinterestingtokeeplearnersinvolved.[5]
2. Theanticipationoferrors:Afterchoosingthetask,theteacherneedstoanticipateerrorsthelearners
arelikelytocommitwhenworkingonthetask.Anticipationoferrorsenablesthescaffolderto
properlyguidethelearnersawayfromineffectivedirections.[6]
3. Theapplicationofscaffoldsduringthelearningtask:Scaffoldscouldbeorganizedinsimpleskill
acquisitionortheymaybedynamicandgenerative.[6]
4. Theconsiderationofemotiveoraffectivefactors:Scaffoldingisnotlimitedtoacognitiveskillbutit
alsorelatestoemotiveandaffectfactors.Duringthetaskthescaffolder(expert)mightneedto
manageandcontrolforfrustrationandlossofinterestthatcouldbeexperiencedbythelearner.[4]
Encouragementisalsoanimportantscaffoldingstrategy.[7]
Theoryofscaffolding
Scaffoldingtheorywasfirstintroducedinthelate1950sbyJeromeBruner,acognitivepsychologist.He
usedthetermtodescribeyoungchildren'sorallanguageacquisition.Helpedbytheirparentswhentheyfirst
startlearningtospeak,youngchildrenareprovidedwithinformalinstructionalformatswithinwhichtheir
learningisfacilitated.AscaffoldingformatinvestigatedbyBrunerandhisstudentAnatNiniowhose
scaffoldingprocessesaredescribedindetailisjointpicturebookreading(Ninio&Bruner,1978).Bedtime
storiesandreadaloudsareadditionalexamplesofbookcenteredinteraction(Daniels,1994).Scaffoldingis
inspiredbyLevVygotsky'sconceptofanexpertassistinganovice,oranapprentice.Wood,Bruner,and
Ross's(1976)ideaofscaffoldingparallelstheworkofVygotsky.Theydescribedscaffoldingasthesupport
giventoayoungerlearnerbyanolder,moreexperiencedadult.Thisconcepthasbeenfurtherdevelopedby
JesperHoffmeyeras'semioticscaffolding'.ThoughthetermwasneverusedbyVygotsky,interactional
supportandtheprocessbywhichadultsmediateachild'sattemptstotakeonnewlearninghascometobe
termed"scaffolding."Scaffoldingrepresentsthehelpfulinteractionsbetweenadultandchildthatenablethe
childtodosomethingbeyondhisorherindependentefforts.Ascaffoldisatemporaryframeworkthatis
putupforsupportandaccesstomeaningandtakenawayasneededwhenthechildsecurescontrolof
successwithatask.
2/17
9/20/2015
AconstructthatiscriticalforscaffoldinginstructionisVygotsky'sconceptofthezoneofproximal
development(ZPD).Zoneofproximaldevelopmentisthatfieldbetweenwhatalearnercandobyhimself
(expertstage)andwhatcanbeachievedwiththesupportofaknowledgeablepeerorinstructor
(pedagogicalstage)(Ellis&Worthington,1994).Vygotskywasconvincedthatachildcouldbetaughtany
subjectefficientlyusingscaffoldingpracticesbyimplementingthescaffoldsattheZoneofproximal
development.Studentsareescortedandmonitoredthroughlearningactivitiesthatfunctionasinteractive
conduitstogetthemtothenextstage.Thusthelearnerobtainsorraisesnewunderstandingsbypresenting
ontheirpriorknowledgethroughthesupportdeliveredbymorecapableindividuals(Raymond,2000).
Severalpeerreviewedstudieshaveshownthatwhenthereisadeficiencyinguidedlearningexperiences
andsocialinteraction,learninganddevelopmentareobstructed(Bransford,Brown,andCocking,2000).
Inwritinginstruction,typicallysupportispresentedinverbalform(discourse).Thewritingtutorengages
thelearner'sattention,calibratesthetask,motivatesthestudent,identifiesrelevanttaskfeatures,controls
forfrustration,anddemonstratesasneeded(Rodgers,2004).Throughjointactivities,theteacherscaffolds
conversationtomaximizethedevelopmentofachild'sintrapsychologicalfunctioning.Inthisprocess,the
adultcontrolstheelementsofthetaskthatarebeyondthechild'sabilityallthewhileincreasingthe
expectationsofwhatthechildisabletodo.Speech,acriticaltooltoscaffoldthinkingandresponding,
playsacrucialroleinthedevelopmentofhigherpsychologicalprocesses(Luria,1979)becauseitenables
thinkingtobemoreabstract,flexible,andindependent(Bodrova&Leong,1996).FromaVygotskian
perspective,talkandactionworktogetherwiththesocioculturalfabricofthewritingeventtoshapea
child'sconstructionofawarenessandperformance(Dorn,1996).Dialoguemayrangefromcasualtalkto
deliberateexplanationsaboutfeaturesofwrittenlanguage.Thetalkembeddedintheactionsoftheliteracy
eventshapesthechild'slearningasthetutorregulatesherlanguagetoconformtothechild'sdegreesof
understanding.Clay(2005)showsthatwhatmayseemlikecasualconversationalexchangesbetweentutor
andstudentactuallyoffermanyopportunitiesforfosteringcognitivedevelopment,languagelearning,story
compositionforwriting,andreadingcomprehension.Conversationsfacilitategenerative,constructive,
experimental,anddevelopmentalspeechandwritinginthedevelopmentofnewideas(Smagorinsky,2007).
InVygotsky'swords,"whatthechildisabletodoincollaborationtodayhewillbeabletodoindependently
tomorrow"(Vygotsky,1987,p.211).
Someingredientsofscaffoldingarepredictability,playfulness,focusonmeaning,rolereversal,modeling,
andnomenclature.[8]
Levelsandtypesofscaffoldingintheeducationalsetting
AccordingtoSayeandBrush,therearetwolevelsofscaffolding:softandhard(2002).Anexampleofsoft
scaffoldingintheclassroomwouldbewhenateachercirculatestheroomandconverseswithhisorher
students(SimonandKlein,2007).Theteachermayquestiontheirapproachtoadifficultproblemand
provideconstructivefeedback.AccordingtoVanLier,thistypeofscaffoldingcanalsobereferredtoas
contingentscaffolding.Thetypeandamountofsupportneededisdependentontheneedsofthestudents
duringthetimeofinstruction(VanLier,1996).Unfortunately,applyingscaffoldingcorrectlyand
consistentlycanbedifficultwhentheclassroomislargeandstudentshavevariousneeds(Gallagher,1997).
Scaffoldingcanbeappliedtoamajorityofthestudents,buttheteacherisleftwiththeresponsibilityto
identifyadditionalscaffolding.
3/17
9/20/2015
Incontrastwithcontingentorsoftscaffolding,embeddedorhardscaffoldingisplannedinadvancetohelp
studentswithalearningtaskthatisknowninadvancetobedifficult(SayeandBrush,2002).Forexample,
whenstudentsarediscoveringtheformulaforthePythagoreanTheoreminmathclass,theteachermay
identifyhintsorcuestohelpthestudentreachanevenhigherlevelofthinking.Inbothsituations,theidea
of"expertscaffolding"isbeingimplemented(HoltonandClarke,2006):theteacherintheclassroomis
consideredtheexpertandisresponsibleforprovidingscaffoldingforthestudents.
Reciprocalscaffolding,amethodfirstcoinedbyHoltonandThomas,isamethodthatinvolvesagroupof
twoormorecollaborativelyworkingtogether.Inthissituation,thegroupcanlearnfromeachother's
experiencesandknowledge.Thescaffoldingissharedbyeachmemberandchangesconstantlyasthegroup
worksonatask(HoltonandClarke,2006).AccordingtoVygotsky,studentsdevelophigherlevelthinking
skillswhenscaffoldingoccurswithanadultexpertorwithapeerofhighercapabilities(Stone,1998).
Conversely,Piagetbelievesthatstudentsdiscardtheirideaswhenpairedwithanadultorstudentofmore
expertise(Piaget,1928).Instead,studentsshouldbepairedwithotherswhohavedifferentperspectives.
Conflictswouldthentakeplacebetweenstudentsallowingthemtothinkconstructivelyatahigherlevel.
Technicalscaffoldingisanewerapproachinwhichcomputersreplacetheteachersastheexpertsorguides,
andstudentscanbeguidedwithweblinks,onlinetutorials,orhelppages(YellandandMasters,2007).
Educationalsoftwarecanhelpstudentsfollowaclearstructureandallowsstudentstoplanproperly(Lai
andLaw,2006).
Directivescaffoldingandsupportivescaffolding
SillimanandWilkinson(1994)distinguishtwotypesofscaffolding:supportivescaffoldingthat
characterisestheIRF(InitiationResponseFollowup)patternanddirectivescaffoldingthatreferstoIRE
(InitiationResponseEvaluation).Saxena(2010)[9]developsthesetwonotionstheoreticallyby
incorporatingBhaktins(1981)[10]andvanLiers(1996)[11]works.WithintheIREpattern,teachersprovide
directivescaffoldingontheassumptionthattheirjobistotransmitknowledgeandthenassessits
appropriationbythelearners.Thequestionanswerevaluationsequencecreatesapredeterminedstandard
foracceptableparticipationandinducespassivelearning.Inthistypeofinteraction,theteacherholdsthe
righttoevaluateandasksknowninformationquestionswhichemphasisethereproductionofinformation.
Thenatureandroleofthetriadicdialoguehavebeenoversimplifiedandthepotentialfortherolesof
teachersandstudentsinthemhasbeenundermined(NassajiandWells,2000).[12]
If,inmanagingthetalk,teachersapplyconstructivepower(Saxena,2009)[13]andexploitstudents
responsesasoccasionsforjointexploration,ratherthansimplyevaluatingthem,thentheclassroomtalk
becomesdialogic(Nystrand,1997).[14]Thepedagogicorientationofthistalkbecomesparticipation
orientation,incontrasttodisplay/assessmentorientationofIRE(vanLier,1996).[11]Inthiskindof
patternofinteraction,thethirdpartofthetriadicdialogueoffersfollowupandteachersscaffolding
becomessupportive.RatherthanproducingauthoritativediscourseBakhtins(1981),[10]teachers
constructsinternallypersuasivediscoursethatallowsequalityandsymmetry(vanLier,1996:175),[11]
whereintheissuesofpower,control,institutionalmanagerialpositioning,etc.arediffusedorsuspended.
Thediscourseopensuptherolesforstudentsastheprimaryknowerandthesequenceinitiator(Nassaji
andWells,2000),[12]whichallowsthemtobethenegotiatorandcoconstructorofmeaning.The
suspensionofasymmetryinthetalkrepresentsashiftintheteachersideologicalstanceand,therefore,
demonstratesthatsupportivescaffoldingismorethansimplyamodelofinstruction(Saxena,2010:167).[9]
4/17
9/20/2015
Scaffoldingandtheroleofguidance
Guidanceandcognitiveload
Learnersupportinscaffoldingisknownasguidance.Whileittakesonvariousformsandstyles,thebaseof
guidanceisanytypeofinteractionfromtheinstructorthatisintendedtoaidand/orimprovestudent
learning.[15]Whilethisabroaddefinition,theroleandamountofguidanceisbetterdefinedbythe
instructorsapproach.Instructionistsandconstructionistsapproachgivingguidancewithintheirown
instructionalframeworks.Scaffoldinginvolvespresentinglearnerswithproperguidancethatmovesthem
towardstheirlearninggoals.Providingguidanceisamethodofmoderatingthecognitiveloadofalearner.
Inscaffolding,learnerscanonlybemovedtowardtheirlearninggoalsifcognitiveloadisheldincheckby
properlyadministeredsupport.
Instructioniststendtogiveahigherlevelofguidanceinlightoftheinquirydrivenstyleoflearning.With
eachpieceofacomplextaskbeingbrokendown,instructorsgiveguidanceforeachoftheseparatedparts
ofthelearning.Inthisway,higherguidanceisafunctionofreducingcognitiveloadwhenstudentsare
workinginamoreindividualmanner.
Constructivistsapproachguidancedifferentlyasaresultoftheirfocusontransfer.Theconceptoftransfer
focusesonalearnersabilitytoapplylearnedtasksinacontextotherthanthemodalityinwhichitwas
learned.[15]Thisresultsinconstructivistsgivingalowerlevelofguidance,aslearnersworkthrougha
completetask,onlybeinggivenguidanceintransfer.Theroleofguidanceistoensurethatcognitiveloadis
moderatedwhilethelearnerworksatmorecompleteandcomplextaskguidanceisgivenduringaspectsof
thetaskthatwillhelpenabletransfer.
Amountofguidance
Researchhasdemonstratedthathigherlevelofguidancehasagreatereffectonscaffoldedlearning,butis
notaguaranteeofmorelearning.[16]Theefficacyofhigheramountofguidanceisdependentonthelevelof
detailandguidanceapplicability.[15]Havingmultipletypesofguidance(i.e.workedexamples,feedback)
cancausethemtointeractandreinforceeachother.Multipleconditionsdonotguaranteegreaterlearning,
ascertaintypesofguidancecanbeextraneoustothelearninggoalsorthemodalityoflearning.Withthis,
moreguidance(ifnotappropriatetothelearning)cannegativelyimpactperformance,asitgivesthelearner
overwhelminglevelsofinformation.[15]However,appropriatelydesignedhighlevelsofguidance,which
properlyinteractwiththelearning,ismorebeneficialtolearningthanlowlevelsofguidance.
ContextofGuidance
Constructivistspaycloseattentiontothecontextofguidance,becausetheybelieveinstructionplaysa
majorroleinknowledgeretentionandtransfer.[15]Researchstudies[17][18]demonstratehowthecontextof
isolatedexplanationscanhaveanaffectonstudentlearningoutcomes.Forexample,Hakes(1998)large
scalestudy[19]demonstratedhowpostsecondaryphysicsstudentsrecalledlessthan30%ofmaterial
coveredinatraditionallecturestyleclass.Similarly,otherstudies[20][21][22]illustratehowstudents
constructdifferentunderstandingsfromexplanationinisolationversushavingafirstexperiencewiththe
material.Afirstexperiencewiththematerialprovidesstudentswitha"needtoknow."[15]A"needtoknow"
5/17
9/20/2015
allowslearnerstoreflectonpriorexperienceswiththecontent,whichcanhelplearnersconstructmeaning
frominstruction.[15]Workedexamples[23]areguidingtoolsthatcanactasa"needtoknow"forstudents.
Workedexamplesprovidestudentswithstraightforwardgoals,stepbystepinstructionsaswellasreadyto
solveproblemsthatcanhelpstudentsdevelopastrongerunderstandingfrominstruction.[24][25]
Timingofguidance
Guidinghasakeyrolebothinconstructivismand'instructivism'.Forinstructiviststhetimingofguidanceis
immediate,eitheratthebeginningorwhenthelearnermakesamistake,whereasinconstructivismitcanbe
delayed.[15]Ithasbeenfoundthatimmediatefeedbackcanleadtoworkingmemoryloadasitdoesnottake
inconsiderationtheprocessofgradualacquisitionofaskill,[26]whichalsorelatestotheamountof
guidancebeinggiven.Researchonintelligenttutoringsystemssuggeststhatimmediatefeedbackonerrors
isagreatstrategytopromotelearning,asthelearnerisabletointegratethefeedbackfromshortterm
memoryintotheoveralllearningandproblemsolvingtaskthelongerthewaitonfeedback,theharderitis
forthelearnertomakethisintegration.[26]Yet,inanotherstudyitwasfoundthatprovidingfeedbackright
aftertheerrorcandeprivethelearneroftheopportunitytodevelopevaluativeskills.[27]WiseandO'Neill
bringthesetwo,seeminglycontradictoryfindings,andarguethatitdoesnotonlyprovetheimportanceof
theroleoffeedback,butthatpointsoutatimingfeatureoffeedback:immediatefeedbackintheshortterm
promotesmorerapidproblemsolvingbutdelayingfeedbackcanresultinbetterretentionandtransferinthe
longterm.[15]
Constructivismandguidance
Constructivismviewsknowledgeasafunctionofhowtheindividualcreatesmeaningfromhisorherown
experiences.[28]Constructivistsadvocatethatlearningisbetterfacilitatedinaminimallyguided
environmentwherelearnersconstructimportantinformationforthemselves.[29]Accordingto
constructivism,minimalguidanceintheformofprocessortaskrelatedinformationshouldbeprovidedto
learnersuponrequestanddirectinstructionoflearningstrategiesshouldnotbeusedbecauseitimpedesthe
naturalprocesseslearnersusetorecallpriorexperiences.Inthisview,forlearnerstoconstructknowledge
theyshouldbeprovidedwiththegoalsandminimalinformationandsupport.Applicationsthatpromote
constructivistlearningrequirelearnerstosolveauthenticproblemsoracquireknowledgeininformation
richsettings.[30]Anexampleofanapplicationofconstructivistlearningisscienceinstruction,where
studentsareaskedtodiscovertheprinciplesofsciencebyimitatingthestepsandactionsofresearchers.[31]
Instructivismandguidance
Instructionismareeducationalpracticescharacterizedforbeinginstructorcentered.Someauthorssee
instructionismasahighlyprescriptivepracticethatmostlyfocusesontheformationofskills,thatisvery
productorientedandisnotinteractive[32]orthatisahighlystructured,systematicandexplicitwayof
teachingthatgivesemphasistotheroleoftheteacherasatransmitterofknowledgeandthestudentsas
passivereceptacles.[33]The'transmission'ofknowledgeandskillsfromtheteachertothestudentinthis
contextisoftenmanifestedintheformofdrill,practiceandrotememorization.[33]Aninstructionist,then,
focusesonthepreparation,organizationandmanagementofthelessonmakingsuretheplanisdetailedand
thecommunicationiseffective.[34][35]Theemphasisisontheupfrontexplicitdeliveryofinstruction.[15]
6/17
9/20/2015
Instructionismisoftencontrastedwithconstructivism.Bothofthemusethetermguidanceasmeansto
supportlearning,andhowitcanbeusedmoreeffectively.Thedifferenceintheuseofguidanceiffoundin
thephilosophicalassumptionsregardingthenatureofthelearner,[33]buttheyalsodifferintheirviews
aroundthequantity,thecontextandthetimingofguidance.[15]Anexampleofapplicationofinstructionism
intheclassroomisdirectinstruction.
ApplicationofInstructionalScaffolding
Instructionalscaffoldingcanbethoughtofasthestrategiesthatateacherusestohelplearnersbridgea
cognitivegaporprogressintheirlearningtoaleveltheywerepreviouslyunabletoaccomplish.[36]These
strategiesevolveastheteachersevaluatethelearnersinitiallevelofabilityandthenthroughcontinued
feedbackthroughouttheprogressionofthetask.Intheearlystudies,scaffoldingwasprimarilydoneinoral,
facetofacelearningenvironments.Inclassrooms,scaffoldingmayincludemodellingbehaviours,
coachingandprompting,thinkingoutloud,dialoguewithquestionsandanswers,plannedandspontaneous
discussions,aswellasotherinteractiveplanningorstructuralassistancetohelpthelearnerbridgea
cognitivegap.Thiscanalsoincludepeermentoringfrommoreexperiencedstudents.
Thereareawidevarietyofscaffoldingstrategiesthatteachersemploy.Oneapproachtolookingatthe
applicationofscaffoldingistolookataframeworkforevaluatingthesestrategies.Thismodelwas
developedbasedonthetheoreticalprinciplesofscaffoldingtohighlighttheuseofscaffoldingfor
educationalpurposes.[36]Ithighlightstwocomponentsofaninstructorsuseofscaffolding.Thefirstisthe
instructorsintentionsandthesecondreferstothemeansbywhichthescaffoldingiscarriedout.
ScaffoldingIntentions:Thesegroupshighlighttheinstructorsintentionsforscaffolding[36]
ScaffoldingMeans:
Thesegroupshighlight
thewaysinwhichthe
instructorscaffolds[36]
Anycombinationof
scaffoldingmeanswith
scaffoldingintentioncan
beconstruedasa
scaffoldingstrategy,
however,whethera
teachingstrategy
qualifiesasgood
scaffoldinggenerally
dependsuponits
enactmentinactual
practiceandmore
specificallyupon
whetherthestrategyis
appliedcontingentlyand
whetheritisalsopartof
7/17
9/20/2015
aprocessoffadingand
transferof
responsibility.[37]
Examplesof
scaffolding:[38]
Instructorscanusea
varietyofscaffoldsto
accommodatedifferent
levelsofknowledge.
Thecontextoflearning
(i.e.noviceexperience,
complexityofthetask)
mayrequiremorethan
onescaffoldstrategyin
orderforthestudentto
masternewcontent.[38]
Thefollowingtable[39]
outlinesafewcommon
scaffoldingstrategies:
8/17
9/20/2015
Instructional
Scaffolds
DescriptionofTool
Toolsthatpresentnewinformationorconceptstolearners.
Thesetoolsorganizeinformationinawaythathelpslearnersunderstandnewandcomplex
content.Examplesofadvancedorganizersare:
Advanced
Organizers[40]
VennDiagrams[41]
Flowcharts[42]
Outlines
Rubrics[43]
Instructorsdemonstratedesiredbehaviour,knowledgeortasktostudents.
Instructorsusemodellingto:
Modelling[44]
Demonstratethetaskstudentsareexpectedtocompleteontheirown[45](i.e.science
experiment)
Providestepbystepinstructions(i.e.illustratestepstosolvingamathematical
problem)
Encouragestudentstointeractwithanewproblemortask(i.e.handsontaskthat
allowsstudentstointeractwithmaterialsanddevelopa"needtoknow"[15])
Aworkedexampleisastepbystepdemonstrationofacomplexproblemortask..[46]
Thesetypesofinstructionalmaterialsarecommonlyimplementedinmathematicsand
Worked
scienceclassesandincludethreekeyfeatures:[46]1.ProblemFormation:Aprincipleor
[23]
Examples
theoryisintroduced.2.StepbyStepExample:Aworkedexample,thatdemonstrates
howthestudentcansolvetheproblem,isprovided.3.SolutiontotheProblem:Oneor
morereadtobesolvedproblemsaregivenforthestudenttopracticetheskill.
Graphicaltoolsfororganizing,representinganddisplayingtherelationshipsbetween
knowledgeandconcepts.[48]
Concept
Maps[47]
Typesofconceptmapsare:[49]
Spidermap
Hierarchal/chronologicalmap
Systemsmap
Variation:mindmap[50]
Waysinwhichinstructorspresentandexplainnewcontenttolearners.
Hownewinformationispresentedtothelearnerisacriticalcomponentforeffective
Explanations instruction.Theuseofmaterialssuchasvisualimages,graphicorganizers,animated
videos,audiofilesandothertechnologicalfeaturescanmakeexplanationsmoreengaging,
motivatingandmeaningfulforstudentlearning.
9/17
9/20/2015
Asupplementaryresourceusedtosupportteachingandlearning.
Handouts[51]
Thesetoolscanprovidestudentswiththenecessaryinformation(i.e.conceptortheory,
taskinstructions,learninggoals,learningobjectives)andpractice(i.e.readytobesolved
problems)theyneedtomasternewcontentandskills.Handoutsarehelpfultoolsfor
explanationsandworkedexamples.
Aphysicalorverbalcuetoaidrecallofpriororassumedknowledge.
Therearedifferenttypesofprompts,suchas:[53]
Prompts[52]
Physical:bodymovementssuchaspointing,nodding,fingerorfoottapping.
Verbal:words,statementsandquestionsthathelpthelearnerrespondcorrectly.
Positional:placingmaterialsinaspecificlocationthatpromptspositivestudent
reaction.
ScaffoldingMediatedbyTechnology
Whenweteachstudentswhoarenotphysicallypresentintheclassroom,instructorsneedtoadapttothe
environmentandtheirscaffoldingneedstobeadjustedtofitthisnewlearningmedium.Itcanbe
challengingtofindawaytoadjusttheverbalandvisualelementsofscaffoldingtoconstructasuccessful
interactiveandcollaborativelearningenvironmentfordistancelearning.
Therecentspreadoftechnologyusedineducationhasopenedupthelearningenvironmenttoinclude
hypermedia,hypertext,collaborativelearningenvironments,andwebbasedlearningenvironments.This
challengestraditionallearningdesignconceptionsofscaffoldingforeducators(see[54][55][56][57][58][59][60]).
Arecentreview[61]ofthetypesofscaffoldingusedinonlinelearningidentifiedfourmaintypesof
scaffolding:
conceptualscaffolding:helpsstudentsdecidewhattoconsiderinlearningandguidethemtokey
concepts
proceduralscaffolding:helpsstudentsuseappropriatetoolsandresourceseffectively
strategicscaffolding:helpsstudentsfindalternativestrategiesandmethodstosolvecomplex
problems
metacognitivescaffolding:promptsstudentstothinkaboutwhattheyarelearningthroughoutthe
processandassistsstudentsreflectingonwhattheyhavelearnt(selfassessment).Thisisthemost
commonresearchareaandisthoughttonotonlypromotehigherorderthinkingbutalsostudents
abilitytoplanahead.Reingold,RimorandKalay[62]havelistedsevenmechanismsofmetacognitive
scaffoldingthatencouragestudentsmetacognitioninlearning.
Thesefourtypesarestructuresthatappropriatelysupportstudentslearninginonlineenvironments
(accordingtoHannafin,LandandOliver[63]).Otherscaffoldingapproachesthatwereaddressedbythe
researchersincluded:technicalsupport,contentsupport,argumentationtemplate,questioningand
modelling.Thesetermswererarelyused,anditwasaguedthattheseareashadunclearstructuretoguide
students,especiallyinonlinelearning,andwereinadequatelyjustified.
10/17
9/20/2015
Astechnologychanges,sodoestheformofsupportprovidedtoonlinelearners.Instructorshavethe
challengeofadaptingscaffoldingtechniquestothisnewmedium,butalsotheadvantageofusingnewweb
basedtoolssuchaswikisandblogsasplatformstosupportanddiscusswithstudents.
BenefitsofScaffoldinginOnlineLearningEnvironments
Astheresearchinthisareaprogresses,studiesareshowingthatwhenstudentslearnaboutcomplextopics
withcomputerbasedlearningenvironments(CBLEs)withoutscaffoldingtheydemonstratedpoorabilityto
regulatetheirlearning,andfailuretogainaconceptualunderstandingofthetopic([64][65][66][67]).Asa
result,researchershaverecentlybeguntoemphasizetheimportanceofembeddedconceptual,procedural,
strategic,andmetacognitivescaffoldinginCBLEs(e.g.[56][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76]).
Inadditiontothefourscaffoldingguidelinesoutlined,recentresearchhasshown:
scaffoldingcanhelpingroupdiscussions.Inarecentstudy,[77]asignificantincreaseinactive
participationandmeaningfulnegotiationswasfoundwithinthescaffoldedgroupsasopposedtothe
nonscaffoldedgroup.
metacognitivescaffoldingcanbeusedtoencouragestudentsinreflectingandhelpbuildasenseofa
communityamonglearners.[78]Specifically,Reingold,RimorandKalay[78]recommendusing
metacognitivescaffoldingtosupportstudentsworkingonacommontask.Theybelievethiscan
supportlearnerstoexperiencetheirworkaspartofacommunityoflearners.
Seealso
Educationalpsychology
JeromeBruner
JimCummins
LevVygotsky
StephenKrashen
Collaborativelearning
Notes
1. Beed,P.,Hawkins,M.,&Roller,C.(1991).Movinglearnerstowardsindependence:thepowerofscaVolded
instruction.TheReadingTeacher,44(9),648655.
2. Wood,D.,&Wood,H.(1996).Vygotsky,tutoringandlearning.OxfordReviewofEducation,22(1),516.
3. Palincsar,A.S.(1986).TheroleofdialogueinprovidingscaVoldedinstruction.EducationalPsychologist,21(1
&2),7398.
4. Wood,D.,Bruner,J.,&Ross,G.(1978).Theroleoftutoringinproblemsolving.JournalofChildPsychology
andPsychiatry,17,89100.
5. Graves,M.,Graves,M.,&Braaten,S.(1996).Scaffoldingreadingexperiencesforinclusiveclasses.Educational
Leadership,53(5),1416.
6. Rosenshine,B.,&Meister,C.(1992).TheuseofscaVoldsforteachinghigherlevelcognitivestrategies.
EducationalLeadership,49(7),2633.
7. Schetz,K.,&Stremmel,A.(1994).Teacherassistedcomputerimplementation:aVygotskianperspective.Early
EducationandDevelopment,5(1),1826.
8. Daniels,H.(1994).LiteratureCircles:Voiceandchoiceinthestudentcenteredclassroom.Markham:Pembroke
PublishersLtd.
9. Saxena,M.(2010)Reconceptualisingteachersdirectiveandsupportivescaffoldinginbilingualclassrooms
11/17
9/20/2015
withintheneoVygotskyanapproach.JournalofAppliedLinguistics&ProfessionalPractice,7(2),pp.163184
10. Bakhtin,M.M.(1981)TheDialogicImagination:FourEssaysbyM.M.Bakhtin.EditedbyM.Holquistand
translatedbyC.EmersonandM.Holquist.Austin:UniversityofTexasPress.
11. VanLier,L.(1996)InteractionintheLanguageCurriculum:Awareness,Autonomy,andAuthenticity.London:
Longman.
12. Nassaji,H.andWells,G.(2000)Whatstheuseoftriadicdialogue?Aninvestigationofteacherstudent
interaction.AppliedLinguistics21(3):376406.
13. Saxena,M.(2009)Negotiatingconflictingideologiesandlinguisticotherness:codeswitchinginEnglish
classrooms.EnglishTeaching:PracticeandCritique8(2):167187.
14. Nystrand,M.(1997)OpeningDialogue:UnderstandingtheDynamicsofLanguageandLearningintheEnglish
Classroom.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.
15. Wise,A.F.,&ONeill,K.(2009).Beyondmoreversusless:Areframingofthedebateoninstructional
guidance.Retrievedfromhttp://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/200909809005
16. Sweller,J.,Kirschner,P.A.,andClark,R.E.(2007).WhyMinimallyGuidedTeachingTechniquesDoNot
Work:AReplytoCommentaries.EducationalPsychologist,42(2),115121.
17. Wieman,C.,&Perkins,K.(2005).Transformingphysicseducation.PhysicsToday,59(11),3641.
18. Hrepic,Z.,Zollman,D.A.,&Rebello,N.S.(2007).Comparingstudents'andexperts'understandingofthe
contentofalecture.JournalofScienceEducationandTechnology,16(3),213224.
19. Hake,R.R.(1998).Interactiveengagementversustraditionalmethods:Asixthousandstudentsurveyof
mechanicstestdataforintroductoryphysicscourse.AmericanJournalofPhysics,66(1),6474.
20. Capon,N.,&Kuhn,D.(2004).What'ssogoodaboutproblembasedlearning?CognitionandInstruction,22,61
79.
21. Miller,C.,Lehman,J.,&Koedinger,K.(1999).Goalsandlearninginmicroworlds.CognitiveScience,23,305
336.
22. Swartz,D.L.,&Martin,T.(2004).Inventingtoprepareforlearning:Thehiddenefficiencyoforiginalstudent
productioninstatisticsinstruction.CognitionandInstruction,22,129184.
23. Workedexampleeffect
24. Carroll,W.(1994).Usingworkedexamplesasinstructionalsupportinthealgebraclassroom.Journalof
EducationalPsychology,86,360367.
25. Trafton,J.G.,&Reiser,B.J.,(1993).Thecontributionofstudyingexamplesandsolvingproblemstoskill
acquisition.Paperpresentedatthe15thAnnualConferenceoftheCognitiveScienceSociety.
26. JohnR.AndersonAlbertT.CorbettKennethR.KoedingerRayPelletierTheJournaloftheLearningSciences,
Vol.4,No.2.(1995),pp.167207.
27. Mathan,S.,&Koedinger,K.R.(2003).Recastingthefeedbackdebate:Benefitsoftutoringerrordetectionand
correctionskills.InU.Hoppe,F.Verdejo,&J.Kay(Eds.),Artificialintelligenceineducation:Shapingthe
futureoflearningthroughintelligenttechnologies(pp.1320).Amsterdam:IOSPress.
28. Jonassen,D.H.(1991).Objectivismversusconstructivism:doweneedanewphilosophicalparadigm?
EducationalTechnologyResearchandDevelopment,39(3),514.
29. Steffe,L.&Gale,J.(Eds.)(1995).Constructivismineducation.NewJersey:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.
30. Kirschner,P.A.(1992).Epistemology,practicalworkandacademicskillsinscienceeducation.Scienceand
Education,1,273299.
31. vanJoolingen,W.R.,deJong,T.,Lazonder,A.W.,Savelsbergh,E.,&Manlove,S.(2005).CoLab:Research
anddevelopmentofanonlinelearningenvironmentforcollaborativescientificdiscoverylearning.Computersin
HumanBehavior,21,671688.
32. Jonassen,D.H.(Ed.).(1996).Handbookofresearchforeducationalcommunicationsandtechnology.New
York:Simon&Schuster.
33. Johnson,G.(2009).InstructionismandConstructivism:ReconcilingTwoVeryGoodIdeas.International
JournalOfSpecialEducation,24(3),9098.
34. Adams,G.L.,&Engelmann,S.(1996).ResearchonDirectInstruction:25yearsbeyondDISTAR.Seattle,WA:
EducationalAchievementSystems.
35. Kameenui,E.J.,&Carnine,D.W.(1998).Effectiveteachingstrategiesthataccommodatediverselearners.
UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill
36. vandePol,Janneke,Volman,Monique,&Beishuizen,Jos.(2010).ScaffoldinginTeacherStudentInteraction:
12/17
9/20/2015
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
ADecadeofResearch.EducationalPsychologyReview,22:271296DOI10.1007/s1064801091276
Jumaat,Nurul,Farhana&ZaidatunTasir(2014).InstructionalScaffoldinginOnlineLearningEnvironment:A
MetaAnalysis.Presentedatthe2014InternationalConferenceonTeachingandLearninginComputingand
Engineering.doi:10.1109/LaTiCE.2014.22
Alibali,M(2006).Doesvisualscaffoldingfacilitatestudentsmathematicslearning?Evidencefromearly
algebra.http://ies.ed.gov/funding/grantsearch/details.asp?ID=54
NorthernIllinoisUniversity,FacultyDevelopmentandInstructionalDesignCenter.Foundat:
http://www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/instructional_scaffolding_to_improve_learning.pdf
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Advance_Organizer
Venndiagram
Flowchart
Rubric(academic)
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/4697
Tharp,R.G.,&Gallimore,R.(1988).Rousingmindstolife:Teaching,learning,andschoolinginsocialcontext.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Renkl,A.(2005).Theworkedoutexamplesprinicipleinmultimedialearning.InMayer,R.E.(Ed.),The
CambridgeHandbookofMultimediaLearning.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Viewinanewwindow
Nesbit,J.C.,&Adesope,O.O.(2013).Conceptmapsforlearning:Theory,researchanddesign.InSchraw.G.
(Ed.)LearningThroughVisualDisplays,pp.303328.Greenwich,CT:InformationAgePublishing.Viewina
newwindow
Caas,A.J.,&Novak,J.D.,(2009).Whatisaconceptmap?Foundon
http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/conceptmap.html
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/aljarf/Research%20Library/Mindmapping/Kinds%20of%20Concept%20Maps.htm
Mindmap
http://www2.wmin.ac.uk/mcshand/TEACHING/handouts.htm#WHY
http://specialed.about.com/od/glossary/g/promptinggossary.htm
http://www.tcse.us/wpcontent/uploads/2011/02/prompting_and_fadingtguide.pdf
Hogan,K.&Pressley,M.(1997).ScaffoldingStudentLearning:InstructionalApproachesandIssues.
CambridgeMA:BrooklineBooks.
Azevedo,R.Computersasmetacognitivetoolsforenhancinglearning.EducationalPsychologist40(4),199209
Hannafin,M.,Hill,J.&Land,S.(1999).Studentcenteredlearningandinteractivemultimedia:Status,issues,
andimplication.ContemporaryEducation68(2):9499.
Hannafin,M.J.&Land,S.M.(1997).Thefoundationsandassumptionsoftechnologyenhancedstudent
centeredlearningenvironments.InstructionalScience25:167202.
Pea,R.D.(2004).Thesocialandtechnologicaldimensionsofscaffoldingandrelatedtheoreticalconceptsfor
learning,education,andhumanactivity.JournaloftheLearningSciences13:423451.
Reiser,B.(2004).Scaffoldingcomplexlearning:Themechanismsofstructuringandproblematizingstudent
work.JournaloftheLearningSciences13930:273304.
Puntambekar,S.&Stylianou,A.(2005).Designingnavigationsupportinhypertextsystemsbasedonnavigation
patterns.InstructionalScience33(56):451481
Jumaat,Nurul,Farhana&Zaidatun,Tasir(2014).InstructionalScaffoldinginOnlineLearningEnvironment:A
MetaAnalysis.Presentedatthe2014InternationalConferenceonTeachingandLearninginComputingand
Engineering.doi:10.1109/LaTiCE.2014.22
R.Reingold,R.Rimor,andA.Kalay,Instructorsscaffoldinginsupportofstudentsmetacognitionthrougha
teachereducationonlinecourse:acasestudy,JournalofIntercativeOnlineLearning,vol.7,no.2,pp.139151,
2008
M.J.Hannafin,S.LandandK.Oliver,Openlearningenvironments:Foundations,methodsandmodels,in
C.M.Reigeluth(Ed.),Instructionaldesigntheoriesandmodels:Anewparadigmofinstructionaltheory,
Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1999,pp.115140.
Hill,J.&Hannafin,M.(1997).CognitivestrategiesandlearningfromtheWorldWideWeb.Educational
TechnologyResearch&Development45(4):3764.
Greene,B.&Land,S.(2000).Aqualitativeanalysisofscaffoldinguseinaresourcebasedlearningenvironment
involvingtheworldwideweb.JournalofEducationalComputingResearch23(2):151179.
13/17
9/20/2015
66. Land,S.&Greene,B.(2000).ProjectbasedlearningwiththeWorldWideWeb:Aqualitativestudyofresource
integration.EducationalTechnologyResearchDevelopment48(3):6178.
67. Azevedo,R.,Cromley,J.G.&Seibert,D.(2004).Doesadaptivescaffoldingfacilitatestudentsabilitytoregulate
theirlearningwithhypermedia.ContemporaryEducationalPsychology29:344370
68. Vye,N.,Schwartz,D.,Bransford,J.,Barron,B.,Zech,L.&CTGV.(1998).SMARTenvironmentsthatsupport
monitoring,reflection,andrevision.InD.Hacker,J.Dunlosky&A.Graesser,eds.,Metacognitionin
EducationalTheoryandPractice(pp.305346).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
69. Lajoie,S.P.&Azevedo,R.Teachingandlearningintechnologyrichenvironments.InP.Alexander&P.Winne
eds.,Handbookofeducationalpsychology(2ndedn.).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum(2006).
70. Lajoie,S.P.&Azevedo,R.(2000).Cognitivetoolsformedicalinformatics.InS.P.Lajoie,eds,Computersas
CognitiveToolsII:NoMoreWalls:TheoryChange,ParadigmShiftsandTheirInfluenceontheUseof
ComputersforInstructionalPurposes,pp.247271.Erlbaum:Mahwah,NJ.
71. White,B.,Shimoda,T.&Frederiksen,J.(2000).Facilitatingstudentsinquirylearningandmetacognitive
developmentthroughmodifiablesoftwareadvisors.InS.Lajoie,eds,ComputersasCognitiveToolsVolume
Two:NoMoreWalls,pp.97132.Erlbaum:Mahwah,NJ.
72. Brush,T.&Saye,J.(2001).Theuseofembeddedscaffoldswithhypermediasupportedstudentcentered
learning.JournalofEducationalMultimediaandHypermedia10(4):333356.
73. Hadwin,A.F.,Wozney,L.&Pantin,O.(2005).ScaffoldingtheappropriationofselfregulatoryactivityA
socioculturalanalysisofchangesinteacherstudentdiscourseaboutagraduateresearchportfolio.Instructional
Science33(56):413450
74. Azevedo,R.(2002).Beyondintelligenttutoringsystems:ComputersasMetaCognitivetoolstoenhancelearning?
InstructionalScience30(1):3145.
75. Baylor,A.L.(2002).Agentbasedlearningenvironmentsforinvestigatingteachingandlearning.Journalof
EducationalComputingResearch26(3):249270.
76. Puntambekar,S.&Hubscher,R.(2005).Toolsforscaffoldingstudentsinacomplexlearningenvironment:What
havewegainedandwhathavewemissed?EducationalPsychologist40(1):112.
77. H.Huang,C.WuandN.Chen,Theeffectivenessofusingproceduralscaffoldinginapaperplussmartphone
collaborativelearningcontext,Computers&Education,vol.59,no.2,pp.250259,2012.
78. R.Reingold,R.Rimor,andA.Kalay,Instructorsscaffoldinginsupportofstudentsmetacognitionthrougha
teachereducationonlinecourse:acasestudy,JournalofIntercativeOnlineLearning,vol.7,no.2,pp.139151,
2008.
scaffolding
References
Belland,Brian.,Glazewski,KristaD.,andRichardson,JenniferC.(2008).Ascaffoldingframework
tosupporttheconstructionofevidencebasedargumentsamongmiddleschoolstudents.Education
TechResearchDev.,56,401422.
Beed,P.,Hawkins,M.,&Roller,C.(1991).Movinglearnerstowardsindependence:thepowerof
scaVoldedinstruction.TheReadingTeacher,44(9),648655
Bodrova,E.,&Leong,D.J.(1998).Scaffoldingemergentwritinginthezoneofproximal
development.LiteracyTeachingandLearning,3(2),118.
Bransford,J.,Brown,A.,&Cocking,R.(2000).HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,andExperience&
School.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.
Cazden,C.B.(1983).Adultassistancetolanguagedevelopment:Scaffolds,models,anddirect
instruction.InR.P.Parker&F.A.Davis(Eds.),Developingliteracy:Youngchildren'suseof
language(pp.317).Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
14/17
9/20/2015
Clay,M.M.(2005).Literacylessonsdesignedforindividuals:Teachingprocedures.Portsmouth,
NH:Heinemann.
Cox,B.E.(1994).Youngchildrensregulatorytalk:Evidenceofemergingmetacognitivecontrol
overliteraryproductsandprocesses.InR.B.Ruddell,M.R.Ruddell,&H.Singer(Eds.),Theoretical
modelsandprocessofreading(pp.733756).Newark,DE:IRA.
Dorn,L.(1996).AVygotskianperspectiveonliteracyacquisition:Talkandactioninthechild's
constructionofliterateawareness.LiteracyTeachingandLearning:AnInternationalJournalofEarly
ReadingandWriting,2(2),1540.
Dyson,A.H.(1983).Theroleoforallanguageinearlywritingprocess.ResearchintheTeachingof
English,17(1),130.
Dyson,A.H.(1991).Viewpoints:Thewordandtheworldreconceptualizingwrittenlanguage
developmentordorainbowsmeanalottolittlegirls?ResearchintheTeachingofEnglish,25,97
123.
Ellis,E.,&Worthington,L.(1994).ResearchSynthesisonEffectiveTeachingPrinciplesandthe
DesignofQualityToolsforEducators.UniversityofOregon.RetrievedOctober25,2013,from
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/ellisressynth.pdf
Hoffman,B.,&Ritchie,D.(1997).Theproblemswithproblembasedlearning.InstructionalScience
25(2)97115.
Holton,Derek,andClark,David(2006).Scaffoldingandmetacognition.InternationalJournalof
MathematicalEducationinScienceandTechnology,37,127143.
Johnson,G.(2009).InstructionismandConstructivism:ReconcilingTwoVeryGoodIdeas.
InternationalJournalOfSpecialEducation,24(3),9098.
Jonassen,D.H.(1991).Objectivismversusconstructivism:doweneedanewphilosophical
paradigm?EducationalTechnologyResearchandDevelopment,39(3),514.
Jonassen,D.H.(Ed.).(1996).Handbookofresearchforeducationalcommunicationsandtechnology.
NewYork:Simon&Schuster.
Lai,MingandLaw,Nancy(2006).Peerscaffoldingofknowledgebuildingthroughcollaborative
groupswithdifferentiallearningexperiences.J.EducationalComputingResearch,35,123144.
Lajoie,Sussane(2005).Extendingthescaffoldingmetaphor.InstructionalScience,33,541557.
Luria,A.R.(1983).Thedevelopmentofwritinginthechild.InM.Martlew(Ed.),Thepsychologyof
writtenlanguage:Developmentalandeducationalperspectives(pp.237277).NewYork:Wiley.
Ninio,A.andBruner,J.(1978).Theachievementandantecedentsoflabelling.JournalofChild
Language,5,115.
Palincsar,A.S.(1986).TheroleofdialogueinprovidingscaVoldedinstruction.Educational
Psychologist,21(1&2),7398.
Raymond,E.(2000).CognitiveCharacteristics.LearnerswithMildDisabilities(pp.169201).
15/17
9/20/2015
NeedhamHeights,MA:Allyn&Bacon,APearsonEducationCompany.
Rodgers,E.M.(2004).Interactionsthatscaffoldreadingperformance.JournalofLiteracyResearch,
36(4),501532.
Rosenshine,B.,&Meister,C.(1992).Theuseofscaffoldsforteachinghigherlevelcognitive
strategies.EducationalLeadership,49(7),2633.
Sawyer,R.Keith.(2006).TheCambridgeHandbookoftheLearningSciences.NewYork:
CambridgeUniversityPress.
Simons,KristaD.,andKlein,JamesD.(2007).Theimpactofscaffoldingandstudentachievement
levelsinaproblembasedlearningenvironment.InstructionalScience,35,4172.
Smagorinsky,P.(2007).Vygotskyandthesocialdynamicofclassrooms.EnglishJournal,97(2),61
66.
Teale,W.H.&Sulzby,E.(Eds.).(1986).Emergentliteracy:Writingandreading.Norwood,NJ:
AblexPublishingCorporation.
Vygotsky,L.S.(1987).Thinkingandspeech.InL.S.Vygotsky,Collectedworks(vol.1,pp.39
285)(R.Rieber&A.Carton,EdsN.Minick,Trans.).NewYork:Plenum.(Originalworkspublished
in1934,1960).
Wertsch,J.V.(1985).Vygotskyandthesocialformationofmind.Cambridge,MA:Harvard
UniversityPress.
Wertsch,J.V.&Stone,C.(1984).Asocialinteractionalanalysisoflearningdisabilitiesremediation.
JournalofLearningDisabilities,17(4),194199.
Wise,A.F.,&O'Neill,D.K.(2009).BeyondMoreVersusLess:AReframingoftheDebateon
InstructionalGuidance.InS.Tobias&T.M.Duffy(Eds.),ConstructivistInstruction:Successor
Failure?(pp.82105).NewYork:Routledge.
Wood,D.,&Wood,H.(1996).Vygotsky,tutoringandlearning.OxfordReviewofEducation,22(1),
516.
Wood,D.,Bruner,J.,&Ross,G.(1978).Theroleoftutoringinproblemsolving.JournalofChild
PsychologyandPsychiatry,17,89100.
Wood,D.J.,Bruner,J.S.,&Ross,G.(1976).Theroleoftutoringinproblemsolving.Journalof
ChildPsychiatryandPsychology,17(2),89100.
Yelland,Nicola,andMasters,Jennifer(2007).Rethinkingscaffoldingintheinformationage.
ComputersandEducation,48,362382.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Instructional_scaffolding&oldid=679917916"
Categories: Educationalpsychology
16/17
9/20/2015
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon7September2015,at16:05.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
17/17

Instructional Scaffolding Article

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Instructional Scaffolding Article

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

9/20/2015

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen