Module 3

Constitutive Equations
Learning Objectives
Understand basic stress-strain response of engineering materials.
Quantify the linear elastic stress-strain response in terms of tensorial quantities and in
particular the fourth-order elasticity or stiffness tensor describing Hookes Law.
Understand the relation between internal material symmetries and macroscopic anisotropy,
as well as the implications on the structure of the stiffness tensor.
Quantify the response of anisotropic materials to loadings aligned as well as rotated
with respect to the material principal axes with emphasis on orthotropic and transverselyisotropic materials.
Understand the nature of temperature effects as a source of thermal expansion strains.
Quantify the linear elastic stress and strain tensors from experimental strain-gauge
measurements.
Quantify the linear elastic stress and strain tensors resulting from special material
loading conditions.

3.1

Linear elasticity and Hookes Law

Readings: Reddy 3.4.1 3.4.2
BC 2.6

Consider the stress strain curve = f () of a linear elastic material subjected to uni-axial
stress loading conditions (Figure 3.1).
45

46

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

= 12 E2
E
1

Figure 3.1: Stress-strain curve for a linear elastic material subject to uni-axial stress (Note
that this is not uni-axial strain due to Poisson effect)
In this expression, E is Youngs modulus.
Strain Energy Density

For a given value of the strain , the strain energy density (per unit volume) = (),
is
defined as the area under the curve. In this case,
1
() = E2
2

We note, that according to this definition,

=

= E


In general, for (possibly non-linear) elastic materials:

ij = ij () =

ij

(3.1)

Generalized Hookes Law

Defines the most general linear relation among all the components of the stress and strain
tensor
ij = Cijkl kl

(3.2)

In this expression: Cijkl are the components of the fourth-order stiffness tensor of material
properties or Elastic moduli. The fourth-order stiffness tensor has 81 and 16 components for
three-dimensional and two-dimensional problems, respectively. The strain energy density in

3.2. TRANSFORMATION OF BASIS FOR THE ELASTICITY TENSOR COMPONENTS47

this case is a quadratic function of the strain:
= 1 Cijkl ij kl
()
2

(3.3)

Concept Question 3.1.1. Derivation of Hookes law.

Derive the Hookes law from quadratic strain energy function Starting from the quadratic
strain energy function and the definition for the stress components given in the notes,
1. derive the Generalized Hookes law ij = Cijkl kl .
Solution: We start by
computing:
ij
= ik jl
kl
However, we have lost the symmetry, i.e. the lhs is symmetric with respect to ij and
with respect to kl, but the rhs is only symmetric with respect to ik and jl. But we
can easily recover the same symmetries as follows:
1
ij
= (ik jl + il jk )
kl
2
Now we use this to compute ij as follows:

ij



1
Cklmn kl mn
=
ij 2


1
kl
mn
= Cklmn
mn + kl
2
ij
ij
using the first equation:
1
= Cklmn (ki lj kl + kl mi nj )
2
1
= (Cijmn mn + Cklij kl )
2

ij () =

if Cklij = Cijkl , we obtain:

ij = Cijkl kl

3.2

Transformation of basis for the elasticity tensor

components
Readings: BC 2.6.2, Reddy 3.4.2

48

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

The stiffness tensor can be written in two different orthonormal basis as:
C = Cijkl ei ej ek el
p e
q e
r e
s
= Cpqrs e

(3.4)

As weve done for first and second order tensors, in order to transform the components from
j basis, we take dot products with the basis vectors e
j using repeatedly the
the ei to the e
k = (en e
k )em and obtain:
fact that (em en ) e

i )(eq e
j )(er e
k )(es e
l )
Cijkl = Cpqrs (ep e

3.3

(3.5)

Symmetries of the stiffness tensor

Readings: BC 2.1.1

The stiffness tensor has the following minor symmetries which result from the symmetry
of the stress and strain tensors:
ij = ji Cjikl = Cijkl

(3.6)

Proof by (generalizable) example:

From Hookes law we have 21 = C21kl kl , 12 = C12kl kl
and from the symmetry of the stress tensor we have 21 = 12
Hence C21kl kl = C12kl kl


Also, we have C21kl C12kl kl = 0 Hence C21kl = C12kl
This reduces the number of material constants from 81 = 3 3 3 3 54 = 6 3 3.
In a similar fashion we can make use of the symmetry of the strain tensor
ij = ji Cijlk = Cijkl

(3.7)

This further reduces the number of material constants to 36 = 6 6. To further reduce the
number of material constants consider equation (3.1), (3.1):
ij =

= Cijkl kl
ij

2

=
Cijkl kl
mn ij
mn
2
Cijkl km ln =
mn ij
2
Cijmn =
mn ij

(3.8)
(3.9)
(3.10)
(3.11)

3.4. ENGINEERING OR VOIGT NOTATION

49

Assuming equivalence of the mixed partials:

Cijkl =

2
2
=
= Cklij
kl ij
ij kl

(3.12)

This further reduces the number of material constants to 21. The most general anisotropic
linear elastic material therefore has 21 material constants. We can write the stress-strain
relations for a linear elastic material exploiting these symmetries as follows:

11
C1111 C1122 C1133
22
C2222 C2233

33
C3333
=
23

13
symm
12

3.4

C1123
C2223
C3323
C2323

C1113
C2213
C3313
C2313
C1313

C1112
11

C2212
22

C3312
33

C2312 223

C1312 213
C1212
212

(3.13)

Engineering or Voigt notation

Since the tensor notation is already lost in the matrix notation, we might as well give indices
to all the components that make more sense for matrix operation:


1
C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16
1
2

C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 2

3

C33 C34 C35 C36
=
3
(3.14)
4

C44 C45 C46

4
5
symm
C55 C56 5
6
C66
6
We have: 1) combined pairs of indices as follows: ()11 ()1 , ()22 ()2 , ()33 ()3 , ()23
()4 , ()13 ()5 , ()12 ()6 , and, 2) defined the engineering shear strains as the sum of
symmetric components, e.g. 4 = 223 = 23 + 32 , etc.
When the material has symmetries within its structure the number of material constants
is reduced even further. We now turn to a brief discussion of material symmetries and
anisotropy.

3.5

Material Symmetries and anisotropy

Anisotropy refers to the directional dependence of material properties (mechanical or otherwise). It plays an important role in Aerospace Materials due to the wide use of engineered
composites.
The different types of material anisotropy are determined by the existence of symmetries
in the internal structure of the material. The more the internal symmetries, the simpler
the structure of the stiffness tensor. Each type of symmetry results in the invariance of the
stiffness tensor to a specific symmetry transformations (rotations about specific axes and

50

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

reflections about specific planes). These symmetry transformations can be represented by

an orthogonal second order tensor, i.e. Q = Qij ei ej , such thatQ1 = QT and:
(
+1 rotation
det(Qij ) =
1 reflection
The invariance of the stiffness tensor under these transformations is expressed as follows:
Cijkl = Qip Qjq Qkr Qls Cpqrs

(3.15)

Lets take a brief look at various classes of material symmetry, corresponding symmetry transformations, implications on the anisotropy of the material, and the structure of the stiffness tensor:
y

Triclinic: no symmetry planes, fully anisotropic.

, , < 90
Number of independent coefficients: 21
Symmetry transformation: None

b
b

b
b

c
b
b

C1111 C1122 C1133

C2222 C2233

C3333
C=

symm

C1123
C2223
C3323
C2323

C1113
C2213
C3313
C2313
C1313

C1112
C2212

C3312

C2312

C1312
C1212

z
y
b
b

b
b

x
b

c
b
b

Monoclinic:
one symmetry plane (xy).
a 6= b 6= c, = = 90, < 90
Number of independent coefficients: 13
Symmetry transformation: reflection about z-axis

1 0 0
Q = 0 1 0
0 0 1

C1111 C1122 C1133

0
0
C1112

C2222 C2233
0
0
C2212

C3333
0
0
C3312

C=

C
C
0
2323
2313

symm
C1313
0
C1212

Concept Question 3.5.1. Monoclinic symmetry.

Lets consider a monoclinic material.

3.5. MATERIAL SYMMETRIES AND ANISOTROPY

51

1. Derive the structure of the stiffness tensor for such a material and show that the tensor
has 13 independent components.
Solution: The symmetry transformations can be represented by an orthogonal second
order tensor, i.e. Q = Qij ei ej , such thatQ1 = QT and:
(
+1 rotation
det(Qij ) =
1 reflection
The invariance of the stiffness tensor under these transformations is expressed as follows:
Cijkl = Qip Qjq Qkr Qls Cpqrs

(3.16)

Herein, in the case of a monoclinic material, there is one symmetry plane (xy). Hence the
second order tensor Q is written as follows:

1 0 0
Q = 0 1 0 .
(3.17)
0 0 1
Applying the corresponding symmetry transformation to the stiffness tensor:

C11 = C1111 = Q1p Q1q Q1r Q1s Cpqrs

= 1p 1q 1r 1s Cpqrs
the term 1p 1q 1r 1s is ' 0 if only p = 1 and q = 1 and r = 1 and s = 1:
C1111 = C1111
In the similar manner we obtain:
C12 = C1122 = Q1p Q1q Q2r Q2s Cpqrs
= 1p 1q 2r 2s Cpqrs
= C1122
C13 = C1133 = Q1p Q1q Q3r Q3s Cpqrs
= 1p 1q (3r )(3s )Cpqrs
= C1133
C14 = C1123 = Q1p Q1q Q2r Q3s Cpqrs
= 1p 1q 2r (3s )Cpqrs
= C1123 = 0

52

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

C15 = C1113 = Q1p Q1q Q1r Q3s Cpqrs
= 1p 1q 1r (3s )Cpqrs
= C1113 = 0
C16 = C1112 = Q1p Q1q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= 1p 1q 1r 2s Cpqrs
= C1112
C22 = C2222 = Q2p Q2q Q2r Q2s Cpqrs
= 2p 2q 2r 2s Cpqrs
= C2222
C23 = C2233 = Q2p Q2q Q3r Q3s Cpqrs
= 2p 2q (3r )(3s )Cpqrs
= C2233
C24 = C2223 = Q2p Q2q Q2r Q3s Cpqrs
= 2p 2q 2r (3s )Cpqrs
= C2223 = 0
C25 = C2213 = Q2p Q2q Q1r Q3s Cpqrs
= 2p 2q 1r (3s )Cpqrs
= C2213 = 0
C26 = C2212 = Q2p Q2q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= 2p 2q 1r 2s Cpqrs
= C2212
C33 = C3333 = Q3p Q3q Q3r Q3s Cpqrs
= (3p )(3q )(3r )(3s )Cpqrs
= C3333
C34 = C3323 = Q3p Q3q Q2r Q3s Cpqrs
= (3p )(3q )2r (3s )Cpqrs
= C3323 = 0

3.5. MATERIAL SYMMETRIES AND ANISOTROPY

C35 = C3313 = Q3p Q3q Q1r Q3s Cpqrs
= (3p )(3q )1r (3s )Cpqrs
= C3313 = 0
C36 = C3312 = Q3p Q3q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= (3p )(3q )1r 2s Cpqrs
= C3312
C44 = C2323 = Q2p Q3q Q2r Q3s Cpqrs
= 2p (3q )2r (3s )Cpqrs
= C2323
C45 = C2313 = Q2p Q3q Q1r Q3s Cpqrs
= 2p (3q )1r (3s )Cpqrs
= C2313
C46 = C2312 = Q2p Q3q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= 2p (3q )1r 2s Cpqrs
= C2312 = 0
C55 = C1313 = Q1p Q3q Q1r Q3s Cpqrs
= 1p (3q )1r (3s )Cpqrs
= C1313
C56 = C1312 = Q1p Q3q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= 1p (3q )1r 2s Cpqrs
= C1312 = 0
C66 = C1212 = Q1p Q2q Q1r Q2s Cpqrs
= 1p 2q 1r 2s Cpqrs
= C1212
Hence, the elastic tensor has 13 independant components:

C1111 C1122 C1133

0
0
C1112

C2222 C2233
0
0
C2212

C
0
0
C
3333
3312

C=

C
C
0
2323
2313

symm
C1313
0
C1212

53

54

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

Orthotropic: three mutually orthogonal planes of

reflection symmetry. a 6= b 6= c, = = = 90
Number of independent coefficients: 9
Symmetry transformations: reflections about all
three orthogonal planes

1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1

b
b

x
b

C1111 C1122 C1133

0
0

C2222 C2233
0
0

C3333
0
0
C=

C
0
2323

symm
C1313

c
b
b

0
0
0
0
0

C1212
Concept Question 3.5.2. Orthotropic elastic tensor.
Consider an orthotropic linear elastic material where 1, 2 and 3 are the orthotropic axes.
1. Use the symmetry transformations corresponding to this material shown in the notes
to derive the structure of the elastic tensor.
2. In particular, show that the elastic tensor has 9 independent components.
Solution: For the reflection about the plane (1,2), the stress
after reflection is expressed as a function of the stress before the reflection and the
reflection transformation R:
= RT R
(3.18)
with (1,2)

1 0 0
R = RT = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1

11
12 13
22 23 .
= 12
13 23 33
and

(3.19)

(3.20)

11
12 13
22 23 .
= 12
13 23 33

(3.21)

ij = Qip Qjp pq

(3.22)

or you can write:

3.5. MATERIAL SYMMETRIES AND ANISOTROPY

55

and
ij = Qip Qjp pq

(3.23)

with Q = R, which leads to:

11 = 1p 1q pq
= 11
22 = 2p 2q pq
= 22
33 = (3p )(3q )pq
= 33
12 = 1p 2q pq
= 12
23 = 2p (3q )pq
= 23
13 = 1p (3q )pq
= 13
and in the similar manner:

11

22

33

12

23

13

=
=
=
=
=
=

Lets write the consitutive equation = C

11
C11 C12 C13

22

C22 C23

33
C33
=
12

23

31
sym

11
22
33
12
23
13

:
C14
C24
C34
C44

C15
C25
C35
C45
C55

C16
C26
C36
C46
C56
C66

11
22
33
212
223
231

(3.24)

56

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 + 2C14 12 + 2C15 23 + 2C16 31

C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 + 2C24 12 + 2C25 23 + 2C26 31
C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 + 2C34 12 + 2C35 23 + 2C36 31
C14 11 + C24 22 + C34 33 + 2C44 12 + 2C45 23 + 2C46 31
C15 11 + C25 22 + C35 33 + 2C45 12 + 2C55 23 + 2C56 31
C16 11 + C26 22 + C36 33 + 2C46 12 + 2C56 23 + 2C66 31

(3.25)

11
22
33
12
23
31

=
=
=
=
=
=

C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 + 2C14 12 + 2C15 23 + 2C16 31

C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 + 2C24 12 + 2C25 23 + 2C26 31
C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 + 2C34 12 + 2C35 23 + 2C36 31
C14 11 + C24 22 + C34 33 + 2C44 12 + 2C45 23 + 2C46 31
C15 11 + C25 22 + C35 33 + 2C45 12 + 2C55 23 + 2C56 31
C16 11 + C26 22 + C36 33 + 2C46 12 + 2C56 23 + 2C66 31

(3.26)

and

Expressing the components of the stress as a function of the components of the

strain :

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 + 2C14 12 2C15 23 2C16 31

C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 + 2C24 12 2C25 23 2C26 31
C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 + 2C34 12 2C35 23 2C36 31
C14 11 + C24 22 + C34 33 + 2C44 12 2C45 23 2C46 31
C15 11 + C25 22 + C35 33 + 2C45 12 2C55 23 2C56 31
C16 11 + C26 22 + C36 33 + 2C46 12 2C56 23 2C66 31

and expressing the components of the stress as a function of the components of the
stress (equation 3.30):

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

11
22
33
12
23
31

to reach such an equality we need to have: C15 = C16 = C25 = C26 = C35 = C36 =
C45 = C46 = 0 hence the elastic tensor reads:

3.5. MATERIAL SYMMETRIES AND ANISOTROPY

C11

C12 C13 C14

C22 C23 C24
C33 C34
C44

0
0
0
0
C55

sym

57

0
0
0
0
0
C66

(3.27)

Now, lets consider the reflection about the plane (2,3), the stress after reflection is
expressed as a function of the stress before the reflection and the reflection matrix R:
= RT R

(3.28)

with (2,3)

1 0 0
R = RT = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1

11 12 13
23 .
= 12 22
13 23
33
and

(3.29)

(3.30)

11 12 13
23 .
= 12 22
13 23
33

(3.31)

ij = Qip Qjp pq

(3.32)

ij = Qip Qjp pq

(3.33)

or you can write:

and
with Q = R, which leads to:
11 = (1p )(1q )pq
= 11
22 = 2p 2q pq
= 22
33 = 3p 3q pq
= 33
12 = (1p )2q pq
= 12

58

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

23 = 2p 3q pq
= 23
13 = (1p )3q pq
= 13
and in the similar manner:

11

22

33

12

23

13

=
=
=
=
=
=

11
22
33
12
23
13

From the constitutive equation (equations 3.24, 3.25 and 3.26) Expressing the components of the stress as a function of the components of the strain :

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 2C14 12 + 2C15 23 2C16 31

C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 2C24 12 + 2C25 23 2C26 31
C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 2C34 12 + 2C35 23 2C36 31
C14 11 + C24 22 + C34 33 2C44 12 + 2C45 23 2C46 31
C15 11 + C25 22 + C35 33 2C45 12 + 2C55 23 2C56 31
C16 11 + C26 22 + C36 33 2C46 12 + 2C56 23 2C66 31

using the previous results on the elastic tensor we have:

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 2C14 12

C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 2C24 12
C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 2C34 12
C14 11 + C24 22 + C34 33 2C44 12
2C55 23
2C66 31

and expressing the components of the stress as a function of the components of the
stress (equation 3.30):

11

22

33

12

23

31

=
=
=
=
=
=

11
22
33
12
23
31

3.5. MATERIAL SYMMETRIES AND ANISOTROPY

59

to reach such an equality we need to have: C14 = C24 = C34 = 0 hence the elastic
tensor reads:

C11

C12 C13
C22 C23
C33

sym

0
0
0
C44

0
0
0
0
C55

0
0
0
0
0
C66

(3.34)

Considering the reflection about the plane (1,3) would be redundant. To conclude we
have 9 independent components in the elastic tensor.

Concept Question 3.5.3. Orthotropic elasticity in plane stress.

Lets consider a two-dimensional orthotropic material based on the solution of the previous exercise.
1. Determine (in tensor notation) the constitutive relation = f () for two-dimensional
orthotropic material in plane stress as a function of the engineering constants (i.e.,
Youngs modulus, shear modulus and Poisson ratio).
2. Deduce the fourth-rank elastic tensor within the constitutive relation = f (). Express the components of the stress tensor as a function of the components of both, the
elastic tensor and the strain tensor.
Solution:

11
1/E1 21 /E2
0
11
22 =

1/E2
0
. 22 .
212
1/G12
12
Using the matrix rule (with A and B are both square matrix):

1  1

A 0
A
0
=
0 B
0 B 1
Hence, herein:


1/E1
21 /E2
12 /E1
1/E2

1



E1 E2
1/E2 21 /E2
=
1/E1
(1 12 21 ) 12 /E1


1
E1 21 E1
=
(1 12 21 ) 12 E2 E2

Therefore:

11
E1 /(1 12 21 ) 21 E1 /(1 12 21 ) 0
11
22 = 12 E2 /(1 12 21 ) E2 /(1 12 21 )
0 22
12
0
0
G12
212

(3.35)

(3.36)

(3.37)
(3.38)

(3.39)

60

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

So:

(3.40)

22

(3.41)

12

E1
(11 + 21 22 )
(1 12 21 )
E2
=
(12 11 + 22 )
(1 12 21 )
= G12 (212 )

11 =

(3.42)

Transversely isotropic: The physical properties

are symmetric about an axis that is normal to a
plane of isotropy (xy-plane in the figure). Three
mutually orthogonal planes of reflection symmetry
and axial symmetry with respect to z-axis.
Number of independent coefficients: 5
Symmetry transformations: reflections about all
three orthogonal planes plus all rotations about zaxis.

1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1

cos sin 0
Q = sin cos 0 , 0 2
0
0
1

C1111 C1122 C1133

0
0
0

C1111 C1133
0
0
0

C3333
0
0
0

C=

C
0
0
2323

symm
C2323
0
1
(C1111 C1122 )
2

3.6. ISOTROPIC LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIALS

y
b
b

a
b

x
b

a
b
b

3.6

61

Cubic: three mutually orthogonal planes of reflection symmetry plus 90 rotation symmetry with respect to those planes. a = b = c, = = = 90
Number of independent coefficients: 3
Symmetry transformations: reflections and 90 rotations about all three orthogonal planes

1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1
0 0 1

0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
Q = 1 0 0 Q = 0 1 0 Q = 0 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0

C1111 C1122 C1122

0
0
0

C1111 C1122
0
0
0

C
0
0
0
1111

C=

C
0
0
1212

symm
C1212
0
C1212

Isotropic linear elastic materials

Most general isotropic 4th order isotropic tensor:

Cijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il jk

(3.43)

Replacing in:
ij = Cijkl kl

(3.44)

gives:
ij = ij kk + ij + ji

ij = ij kk + ij + ji

(3.45)

(3.46)

Examples






11 = 11 11 + 22 + 33 + 11 + 11 = + 2 11 + 22 + 33
12 = 212

(3.47)
(3.48)

62

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

Concept Question 3.6.1. Isotropic linear elastic tensor.

Consider an isotropic linear elastic material.
1. Write the three-dimensional elastic/stiffness matrix in Voigt notation.
Solution:
Exploiting the material symmetries and the Voigt notation, the 21 constants of an
anisotropic linear elastic material can be written in matrix form as

C1111 C1122 C1133 C1123 C1113 C1112

C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

C2222 C2233 C2223 C2213 C2212

C22 C23 C24 C25 C26

C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
3333
3323
3313
3312
33
34
35
36

=
.

C2323 C2313 C2312

C44 C45 C46

symm
C1313 C1312
symm
C55 C56
C1212
C66
Considering that the most general 4th order isotropic tensor can be expressed as


Cijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il jk ,
it is straightforward to write the corresponding stiffness matrix

+ 2

0 0 0

+ 2

0 0 0

+
2
0
0
0

0
0

symm
0

Compliance matrix for an isotropic elastic material

From experiments one finds:
1h
11
E
1h
22 =
22
E
1h
33 =
33
E
23
13
=
, 213 =
,
G
G
11 =

223

22 + 33

i

11 + 33

i
(3.49)

i

11 + 22
12
212 =
G

In these expressions, E is the Youngs Modulus, the Poissons ratio and G the shear
modulus. They are referred to as the engineering constants, since they are obtained from
experiments. The shear modulus G is related to the Youngs modulus E and Poisson ratio
E
by the expression G = 2(1+)
. Equations (3.49) can be written in the following matrix form:

3.6. ISOTROPIC LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIALS

63

11
1

0
0
0
11
22

0
0
0

22
33

1
0
0
0

= 1
33
223 E
23
2(1 + )
0
0

13
213
symm
2(1 + )
0
212
2(1 + ) 12
Invert and compare with:

11
+ 2

22
+ 2

33

+
2
=
23

13
symm
12

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
11

0
22

0
33

0 223

0 213

212

(3.50)

(3.51)

and conclude that:

=

E
E
, =G=
(1 + )(1 2)
2(1 + )

(3.52)

Concept Question 3.6.2. Inverted Hookes law.

Lets consider a linear elastic material.
1. Verify that the compliance form of Hookes law, Equation (3.50) can be written in
index notation as:
i
1h
(1 + )ij kk ij
ij =
E
2. Invert Equation (3.50) (e.g. using Mathematica or by hand) and verify Equation (3.51)
using and given by (3.52).
3. Verify the expression:
ij =

i
E h

ij +
kk ij
(1 + )
(1 2)
Solution:

Bulk Modulus
Establishes a relation between the hydrostatic stress or pressure: p = 31 kk and the volumetric strain = kk .

p = K ; K =

E
3(1 2)

(3.53)

64

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

Concept Question 3.6.3. Bulk modulus derivation. Lets consider a linear elastic material.
1. Derive the expression for the bulk modulus in Equation (3.53)
Solution: Add up the first three isotropic Hookes constitutive equations in
compliance form:
1
 + 22 + 33 = [(11 + 22 + 33 ) ((22 + 33 ) + (11 + 33 ) + (11 + 22 ))]
|11 {z
} E
kk =

1
[(11 + 22 + 33 ) 2 (11 + 22 + 33 )]
E
1
= (11 + 22 + 33 )(1 2)
{z
}
E|
=

kk =3p

3(1 2)
p
E }
| {z
1/K

Concept Question 3.6.4. Independent coefficients for linear elastic isotropic materials.
For a linearly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material, the constitutive laws involve three
parameters: Youngs modulus, E, Poissons ratio, , and the shear modulus, G.
1. Write and explain the relation between stress and strain for this kind of material.
2. What is the physical meaning of the coefficients E, and G?
3. Are these three coefficients independent of each other? If not, derive the expressions
that relate them. Indicate also the relationship with the Lames constants.
4. Explain why the Poissons ratio is constrained to the range (1, 1/2). Hint: use
the concept of bulk modulus.
Solution: In a homogeneous material the properties
are the same at each point. Isotropic means that the physical properties are identical
in all directions. Linear elastic makes reference to the relationship between strain and
stress (the linear behaviour is exhibited in small deformations), which is represented

3.6. ISOTROPIC LINEAR ELASTIC MATERIALS

65

by the generalized Hookes law (extensional and shear strains)

11 =
22 =
33 =
12 =
13 =
23 =

1
[11 (22 + 33 )] ,
E
1
[22 (11 + 33 )] ,
E
1
[33 (11 + 22 )] ,
E


1
1
12
12 =
12 ,
2G
G


1
1
13
13 =
13 ,
2G
G


1
1
23
23 =
23 ,
2G
G

where ij = 2ij is the engineering notation for the shearing strain.

The Youngs modulus E is a measure of the stiffness of the material, i.e., the resistance
of the material to be deformed when a stress (uniaxial stretching or compression) is
applied. The concept of Youngs modulus is considered only for the linear strain-stress
behaviour, the value is positive (E > 0), and a larger value of E indicates a stiffer
material.
The Poissons ratio gives us information about the ratio between lateral and longitudinal strain in uniaxial tensile stress. Consider that we have a bar and we apply a stress
in the axial direction: the Poissons ratio measures the lateral contraction produced
by the applied stress. When = 1/2 the material is incompressible, which means that
the volume remains constant. If = 0, a stretching causes no lateral contraction.
The shear modulus G indicates the material response to shearing strains. It is positive
and smaller than E.
The constitutive law for an isotropic, linear elastic and homogeneous material is given
by the following equation
cijkl = ij kl + (ik jl + il jk ),
where ij is the Kronecker-delta, and and are the Lame constants.
Note that the constitutive equation is defined through two parameters. It means that
the three coefficients E, and G are not independent to each other. The relationship
between these coefficients and the Lame constants is given by
G = ,

E=

(3 + 2)
,
+

,
2( + )

E
,
(1 + )(1 2)

which allows us to find the expression that relates the coefficients

G=

E
.
2(1 + )

66

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

When the material is subject to hydrostatic pressure, the relationship between the
pressure p and the volumetric strain e = 11 + 22 + 33 is linear
p = e,
where
=

E
3(1 2)

is the bulk modulus. This parameter describes the response of the material to an
uniform pressure. Note that the value of the bulk modulus tends to infinity when
1/2, which means that the volumetric strain vanishes under an applied pressure. This
limit is known as limit of incompressibility, and the material is called incompressible
when = 1/2, as we have mentioned previously.
The coefficients E, , G and are related through the following expression
E = 2G(1 + ) = 3(1 2).

3.7

Thermoelastic effects

We are going to consider the strains produced by changes of temperature ( ). These strains
have inherently a dilatational nature (thermal expansion or contraction) and do not cause
any shear. Thermal strains are proportional to temperature changes. For isotropic materials:
ij = ij

(3.54)

The total strains (ij ) are then due to the (additive) contribution of the mechanical strains
(M
ij ), i.e., those produced by the stresses and the thermal strains:

ij = M
ij + ij

ij = Cijkl M
kl = Cijkl (kl kl ) or:

ij = Cijkl (kl kl )

(3.55)

Concept Question 3.7.1. Thermoelastic constitutive equation.

Lets consider an isotropic elastic material.
1. Write the relationship between stresses and strains for an isotropic elastic material
whose Lame constants are and and whose coefficient of thermal expansion is .

3.7. THERMOELASTIC EFFECTS

67

Solution: When the thermal effects are considered, the relationship between stress
and strain is given by
ij = Cijkl (kl kl ) ,
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion and the change in temperature.
By using the constitutive equation for linear elastic isotropic materials


Cijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il jk ,
and the fact that
Cijkl kl = kk ij + 2ij ,
we can write
ij = Cijkl kl Cijkl kl



= kk ij + 2ij ij kl + ik jl + il jk kl
= kk ij + 2ij ij kl kl ik jl kl il jk kl
| {z }
| {z }
| {z }
kk =ll =3

ij

ij

= kk ij + 2ij 3ij 2ij

= (kk 3)ij + 2(ij ij ).

Concept Question 3.7.2. Thermoelasticity in a fully constrained specimen. Lets consider

a specimen which deformations are fully constrained (see Figure 3.2). The material behavior
is considered isotropic linear elastic with E and the elastic constants, the Youngs modulus
and Poissons ratio, respectively. A temperature gradient is prescribed on the specimen.

(E, )

Figure 3.2: Specimen fully constrained.

1. Determine the internal stress state within the specimen.

68

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

Solution:
Herein, there is no mechanical strain components. Hence, using the following relation:
ij = (kk 3)ij + 2(ij ij )

with kk = 0 and ij=0 we obtain:

ij = (0 3)ij + 2(0 ij )
= (3 + 2) ij
with ij the thermal strain, a diagonal matrix:
ij = ij
hence, the stress matrix is also diagonal and the pressure describing the state of stress within
the specimen is defined as follows:
1
ii
3
1
= (3 + 2) ii
3
3 + 2
=
ii
3
= Kii

p =

with K the bulk modulus.

3.8
3.8.1

Particular states of stress and strain of interest

Uniaxial stress
11 = , all stress components vanish

From (3.50):
11 =

3.8.2

, 22 = , 33 = , all shear strain components vanish

E
E
E

Uniaxial strain

3.8. PARTICULAR STATES OF STRESS AND STRAIN OF INTEREST

Material

Mass density
[M g m3 ]

Tungsten
13.4
CFRP
1.5-1.6
Low alloy 7.8
steels
Stainless
7.5-7.7
steel
Mild steel
7.8
Copper
8.9
Titanium
4.5
Silicon
2.5-3.2
Silica glass 2.6
Aluminum 2.6-2.9
alloys
GFRP
1.4-2.2
Wood, par- 0.4-0.8
allel grain
PMMA
1.2
Polycarbonate1.2 1.3
Natural
0.83-0.91
Rubbers
PVC
1.3-1.6

Youngs Mod- Poisson

ulus [GP a]
Ratio

410
70 200
200 - 210

0.30
0.20
0.30

Thermal
Expansion
Coefficient
[106 K 1
5
2
15

190 - 200

0.30

11

196
124
116
107
94
69-79

0.30
0.34
0.30
0.22
0.16
0.35

15
16
9
5
0.5
22

7-45
9-16

0.2

10
40

3.4
2.6
0.01-0.1

0.35-0.4
0.36
0.49

50
65
200

0.003-0.01

0.41

70

Table 3.1: Representative isotropic properties of some materials

69

70

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

11 = , all other strain components vanish

From (3.51):
11 = ( + 2)11 =

3.8.3

(1 )
E11
(1 + )(1 2)

Plane stress

Consider situations in which:

i3 = 0

(3.56)

x2

x1
x3

Then:


1
11 22
E


1
22 11
22 =
E

33 =
11 + 22 6= 0 !!!
E
23 = 13 = 0
(1 + )12
12
12 =
=
2G
E
11 =

(3.57)
(3.58)
(3.59)
(3.60)
(3.61)

In matrix form:

11
1
0
11
22 = 1 1

0
22
E
0
0 2(1 + ) 12
212

(3.62)

3.8. PARTICULAR STATES OF STRESS AND STRAIN OF INTEREST

71

Inverting gives the:

Relations among stresses and strains for plane stress:

1
0
11
11
1
0 
22 = E
22

2
(1 )
1
12
212
0 0
2

(3.63)

Concept Question 3.8.1. Plane stress

Lets consider an isotropic elastic material for a plate in plane stress state.
1. Determine the out-of-plane 33 strain component from the measurement of the in-plane
normal strains 11 , 22 .
Solution: Solve for 11 and 22 in the plane stress stress-strain law in compliance
form:
1
(11 22 )
E
1
= (22 11 )
E

11 =
22
One obtains:

E
(11 + 22 )
1 2
E
(22 + 11 )
=
1 2

11 =
22
Insert in the third:

(11 + 22 )
E 


E
E
=
(11 + 22 ) +
(22 + 11 )
E 1 2
1 2

(1 + )
(11 + 22 ) =
=
(11 + 22 )
2
1
1

33 =

3.8.4

Plane strain

In this case we consider situations in which:

i3 = 0

(3.64)

72

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

Then:

i
1h
33 11 + 22 , or:
E


33 = 11 + 22

33 = 0 =



o
1n
11 22 + 11 + 22
E



i
1h
=
1 2 11 1 + 22
E



i
1h
22 =
1 2 22 1 + 11
E

(3.65)
(3.66)

11 =

(3.67)

(3.68)

In matrix form:

11
1 2
(1 + )
0
11
2

22 = 1 (1 + )
1
0
22
E
212
0
0
2(1 + ) 12

(3.69)

Inverting gives the

Relations among stresses and strains for plane strain:

0
11
11
E

1
0
22 =
22

(1 2)
(1 + )(1 2)
212
12
0
0
2

(3.70)

Concept Question 3.8.2. Plane strain.

Using Mathematica:
1. Verify equations (3.63) and (3.70)
Solution:

Concept Question 3.8.3. Comparison of plane-stress and plane-strain linear isotropic

elasticity.
Lets consider two linear elastic isotropic materials with the same Youngs modulus E but
different Poissons ratio, = 0 and = 1/3. We are interested in comparing the behavior
of these two materials for both, plane stress and plane strain models.
1. Express the relation between the stress components and the strain components in the
case of both, plane stress and plane strain models.
Solution: In the

3.8. PARTICULAR STATES OF STRESS AND STRAIN OF INTEREST

73

case of a linear elastic isotropic behavior, the fourth-order compliance tensor denoted
S, relating the strain tensor to the stress tensor is given as follows:

0
0
0

0
0
0

1
1
0
0
0

S=

2(1 + )
0
0
E

symm

2(1 + )
0
2(1 + )
In the plane stress approach, the stress components out of the plane (e1 ,e2 ) are equal
to 0:
33 = 13 = 23 = 0
Hence, the strain components read:
11 =
22 =
33 =
12 =
13 =
23 =

1
(11 22 ) ,
E
1
(22 11 ) ,
E

(11 + 22 ) =
E
1+
12 ,
E
0
0,

(11 + 22 ) ,
1

where E, and G are the Youngs modulus, the Poissons ratio, and the shear modulus,
respectively.
In the case of a linear elastic isotropic behavior, the fourth-order elastic tensor denoted
C, relating the stress tensor to the strain tensor is given as follows:
Cijkl =

E
E
ij kl +
ik jl + il jk
(1 + )(1 2)
2(1 + )

or

+ 2

+ 2

+
2
C=

symm
with:
=

E
(1 + )(1 2)

and

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0

E
2(1 + )

74

MODULE 3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

In the plane strain approach, the strain components out of the plane (e1 ,e2 ) are equal
to 0:
33 = 13 = 23 = 0
Hence, the stress components read:
E
E(1 )
11 +
22
(1 + )(1 2)
(1 + )(1 2)
E
E(1 )
11 + ( + 2)22 =
11 +
22
(1 + )(1 2)
(1 + )(1 2)

(11 + 22 ) =
(11 + 22 ) = (11 + 22 )
2( + )
E
212 =
12
1+
0
0

11 = ( + 2)11 + 22 =
22 =
33 =
12 =
23 =
13 =

2. Under which conditions these two materials manifest the same elastic response for each
Solution: When
hypothesis, plane strain and plane stress?
the Poissons ratios of both materials are equal to 0, the plane stress and plane strain
approaches are equivalent; thus leading to the following stress-strain relations:
11
22
33
12

=
=
=
=

E11
E22
0
E12

3. Derive the equation that relates 11 and 22 when 22 = 0 for both, plane strain and
plane stress models. For the material having a Poissons ratio equals to = 1/3, for
which model (plane stress or plane strain) the deformation 22 reaches the greatest
value?
Solution: When 22 = 0, the relation between 11 and 22 for the plane
stress approach is given by
1
22 = 11 = 11 ,
3
while for the plane strain approach is
22 =

11 = 11 .
1
2

Herein, the strain component 22 is larger for plane strain condition.
4. Lets consider a square specimen of each material, with a length equals to 1 m and the
origin of the coordinate system is located at the left bottom corner of the specimen.

3.8. PARTICULAR STATES OF STRESS AND STRAIN OF INTEREST

75

When a deformation of 11 = 0.01 is applied, calculate the displacement u2 of the point
Solution: We know that the strain 22 and the
with coordinates (0.5, 1).
displacement u2 are related through the equation
22 =

yf inal yinitial
u2
= ,
yinitial
L

where L = 1 m is the length of the edge of the square. Thus, we can write
(
11
plane stress

u2 = 22 =

11 plane strain

1
This last equation allows us to calculate the displacement u2 at the point (1/2, 1) for
the different approaches and materials, as shown in the next table.
Approach / Material
Plane strain
Plane stress

=0
= 1/3
u2 = 0 u2 = 1/200 = 5.5 mm
u2 = 0 u2 = 1/300 3.3 mm