AOS1 & AOS2!

AOS1: The Periodic Table

Atomic Theory Revision
Mass number: Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a give isotope
Isotope: Atoms of a given element that have different numbers of neutrons

History

Aristotle:
no atoms:
matter is
continuous

Dalton:
atoms

Thomson:
electrons

Rutherford:
nuclear atom

1804

1897

1911

Bohr:
shell model

1913

Schrdinger:
quantum
mechanics
1926

Chadwick:
neutrons

1932

Dalton
Figure 2.22
Model: A billiard shape ball
Our model of an atom underwent substantial
change during
the 20th century. Will it change
Experiment: After observing different chemical reactions and looking
elements
as much during the 21st century?

Thomson
Model: A plum pudding
2.4 i.e. Positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in surface
summary
Experiment: Cathode ray experiment i.e. Different metals and gases in a tube creating a
ray. When an electric field was applied, ray would move meaning that there were
negatively
electrons
In the currentcharged
model of theparticles:
atom:
the number of subshells in a shell is the same as the shell
electrons are thought to occupy regions of space or orbitals
number, and the lowest energy subshell is always an s-subshell
around
the
nucleus
electrons
generally fill shells and subshells of lowest energy
Rutherford
the
maximum
number
of
electrons
in
an
orbital
is
two
fi
rst,
the
order
of filling being 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s <
Model: Electrons revolve around nucleus
orbitals of similar energy are grouped in subshells that are
3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < This is called the ground state
Experiment:
atguration.
gold Iffoil;
some
passed
labelled s, p,Alpha
d and f particle experiment i.e. alpha particles
electronic confi
one or
more electrons
are present in
through
andaresome
didnt
therefore
most of the volume
must
besubshell
empty
space
subshells
energy levels
within
the major shells
a higher
energy
when
one of lower energy is not filled,
then the atom is in an excited state.

Bohr
key questions
Model:
Electrons is shells surrounding nucleus
Experiment: Emission spectra i.e. Coloured lines emitted by electrons as they move
14 Copy and complete the following table by using the examples given to write the electronic configuration of each the atoms in its
energy
states indicated that there were shells
electronic ground state.

Element
Electronic configuration
Electronic configuration
Schrodinger
(atomic number)
(using the shell model)
(using the subshell model)
Model: Electrons as waves i.e. electrons move in regions of space: orbitals 2 2 1
Boron (5)
2,3
Experiment: Quantum
mechanics, further exploring
emission spectra 1s 2s 2p
Lithium (3)

Chlorine (17)
Chadwick
Model: Discovery
of (11)
nucleus
Sodium
Experiment: Observing
Neon (10) that atoms were heavier than expected i.e. alpha particle
experiment with
beryllium: scattered particles had a neutral charge
Potassium (19)
Scandium (21)

Mendeleev arranged elements by

Iron (26)
Increasing atomic mass
Bromine (35)
Similar properties
15 In terms of energy levels, what is the essential difference between the shell model and the subshell model of the atom?

01
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AOS1 & AOS2!

Electron Configuration
Electrons are grouped in shells
Shell

Electrons

Ist

2nd

3rd

18

4th

2n^2

Shells
Within an atom there are energy levels called shells
Orbitals:
s = 1 orbital
Spherical shape
p = 3 orbitals
Dumbbell shaped
d = 5 orbitals
Complex
f = 7 orbitals
Lots of balloons
*Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
Electrons in the same orbital have opposing spin

Groups
Group 1 - Alkali Metals
One electron in s subshell
Group 2 - Alkali Earth Metals
Full s subshell
Group 17 - Halogens
Group 18 - Noble gases

Trends
Atomic Size
Decreases across periods
Greater pull makes it smaller
Increase down groups
Due to more shells
Ionisation Energy
The energy required to lose an electron
Decreases down a group
Further away means that there is less pull
Increases across a period
More electrons
Electronegativity
Ability to attract electrons
Decreases down a group
Further away from pull

AOS1 & AOS2!

Increases across periods

More electrons

Core Charge
Number of protons - Number of non-valence electrons

Relative Isotopic Mass

Mass Spectrometer determines relative isotopic mass number:
1. Ionisation i.e. to make a positive ion
2. Acceleration i.e. same kinetic energy
3. Deflection i.e. lighter ions deflected more than heavier ones
4. Detection i.e. relative abundance vs. relative atomic mass

Relative Atomic Mass

The average relative isotopic mass of one atom
AR = isotope 1 (relative mass x abundance) + isotope 2 (relative mass x abundance)
100

Relative Molecular Mass

The sum of the Relative Atomic Masses of each atoms within the molecule

Relative Formula Mass

Sum of the relative atomic masses of atoms given in the chemical formula

Avogadros Number
6.02 x 1023 = 1 mol

Molar Mass
Mass of one mol of any substance
Measured in grams/mol

Relationships
M = m/n#

n=m/M

Percentage Composition
Percentage by mass of each element within a compound
M(element1)/M(total compound) x 100/1

AOS1 & AOS2!

Empirical Formula
Simplest whole number ratio of atoms
Calculating Empirical Formula
1. Write down symbols
2. Write down mass
3. Convert masses to moles i.e. put over molar
mass
5.1
summarywhole number ratio
4. Find the simplest
of all atoms by dividing them by the smallest
number of moles
Although there are exceptions, compared with non-metals, metals:
5. If necessaryhave
convert
to temperatures
whole numbers
high melting

have high density

are malleable and ductile
are often hard.

conduct electricity and heat well in the solid state

have a lustre

Molecular Formula

of each atom present in compound

Actual number
key questions
Calculating Molecular
1 Where wouldFormula
you draw a line in Table 5.1 to divide the metals
3
fromcompound
the non-metals? by empirical formula to get n
1. Divide actual
2 a Potassium
is classedby
as a n
metal. In what properties is
2. Multiply empirical
formula
potassium similar to the metal gold? In what ways is it
different?
b Identify another element in Table 5.1 that has similar
properties to potassium.
c Identify another metal in Table 5.1 that has similar
Types of Bonding
properties
to gold.
Metal + Non-metal
= Ionic
Bonding
d Where are these four metals in the periodic table?

AOS2: Materials

a Which metals would you select if you wanted a good

electrical conductor?
b What other factors not listed here might influence your
choice?
4 Suggest some properties not included in Table 5.1 that you
would need to consider before choosing between aluminium
and iron for building a bridge.

Gives away electrons

Non-metal + Non-metal = Covalent Bonding
Shares electrons
Metal + Metal = Metallic
5.2
Shares
i.e.
Lattice
with
SODE

Properties of Metals
All metals are:
Lustrous
reflect light
Opaque

do not allow light to pass through

Good
conductors of heat and electricity

Malleable
Can be beaten into a sheet
Ductile
Can be drawn into wire
Most metals are:
Hard
Dont snap
High melting and boiling points
High density
!
An electric current is a flow of charged
particles. In solids, the charged particles are
electrons. In liquids or solutions, the charged
particles are ions.

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Properties and structure

A satisfactory model for the structure of metals will explain the properties
we have discussed. It will also help chemists and materials engineers to
understand why metals behave as they do and how their behaviour can be
modified. Each one of the properties in Table 5.2 gives some information
about a metals structure.

TABLE 5.2 The physical properties and inferred structural features of metals
Property

What this tells us about structure

Metals conduct electricity in the solid

state.
Metals are malleable and ductile.
Metals generally have high densities.

Metals have charged particles that are free

to move.
The forces between the particles must be
able to adjust when the particles are moved.
The particles are closely packed in a metal.

Metals tend to have high boiling

temperatures.
Metals are lustrous or reflective.

The forces between the particles must be

strong.
Metals can reflect light.

Using information such as that in Table 5.2, chemists have developed a

model to explain the properties of metals. Such a model needs to describe
the particles in a metal and how they are arranged. We can deduce from the
properties and inferences in Table 5.2, that the model must be one in which:
some of the particles are charged and free to move
there are strong forces of attraction between particles throughout the
metal structure.

the lattice. These electrons are called delocalised electrons because they
belong to the lattice as a whole. The delocalised electrons come from the
outer or valence shell. Electrons that are not free to move throughout the
lattice are said to be localised. Electrons in the inner shells are localised.
AOS1 & AOS2!
The ions are held in the lattice by the electrostatic force of attraction
between these positive ions and the delocalised electrons. This attraction
Structure
of Metals
extends
throughout
the lattice and is called metallic bonding.

Small number of electrons in their valence shell

can be released
Low electronegativity;
Explaining
the propertieselectrons
of metals
Metal cations arrange into a closely packed lattice
Figure 5.6 shows how the metallic bonding model is consistent with
Attraction between SODE and cations

the relatively high boiling temperature, the electrical conductivity and

malleability and ductility of metals.

Qualities of Metals

High
Propertymelting and boiling points
Explanation
Due to strong electrostatic attraction

Strong electrostatic

+ + + + +
Electrical conductivity
forces of attraction

Metals have
between positive
electrons
Free

relatively
high

metal ions and sea

+ + + + +
boiling
Good conductors
of heat
of delocalised
temperatures.

electrons holds the

into
each other and
SODE bump
transfer energy
metallic
lattice
+ + + + +

ductile
Malleable andtogether.

Layers held together by SODE

Lustrous

reflect light

Free electrons
Free-moving
+ + + + +
delocalised

Dense
Metals
are
electrons will move

good

towards
a
positive
Closely packed cations
+ + + + +
conductors
of electrcity.

Alloys

electrode and away

from a negative
electrode in an
electric circuit.

delocalised
sea of
electrons

+
+

positively
charged
metal ions

Figure 5.4
The metallic bonding model. A chemists view of
how the particles are arranged in a solid sample
of a metal. This diagram shows just one layer
of metal ions.

Positive sodium ions

occupy fixed positions
in the lattice.

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+
Na+

Na+

A lattice is a regular arrangement of particles,

similar to the way that oranges are stacked
together in a greengrocers shop.

Na+

Na+
Na+

Na+

Na+
Na+

sea of
Involves adding small amounts of other substances to metals to change the properties
delocalised electrons
Substitutional Alloys
Figure
of5.5similar size
Some of the host metals atoms are replaced by other metal atoms
A
sodium
metal lattice. Each sodium atom
When
a
force
causes
Interstitial Alloysmetal ions to move
provides
its
one valence electron to form a sea
+ + + +
+ + + +
proportion
a significantly
smaller
atom
is+ added of delocalised electrons.
past eachof
other,
layers
Metals
are
A small
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
of ions are still held
malleable
layers
Makes thetogether
+ + past
+ + each
+ +other
+ +
by harder to slide
and ductile.
delocalised electrons
between them.

Work Harding and Heat Treatment

Metal solids are compsed of many small crystals
Figure
5.6
individual crystal is a regular lattice of ions
Each
How the metallic bonding model can be used to explain some of the properties of metals.

!
Energy must be provided to remove the valence
electron from each sodium atom. However,
energy is released again as the delocalised
byelectrons
SODE
are then attracted to all the positive
ions in their region.

surrounded
Work Hardening
Hammering or working cold metals causes crystals to re-arrange
Becomes more brittle due to the smaller crystals
Heat Treatment
Annealing
Heating a metal to high temp then cooling slowly
RESULT: larger crystals = softer, but less brittle
Quenching
Heating to a moderate temp then cooling quickly
RESULT: smaller crystals = harder, but more brittle
Tempering
Heating the quenched metal again, but to a lower temperature
RESULT: reduces brittleness

Limitations
Does not explain
Range of melting points and densities
Magnetic nature of some metals

05
05

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AOS1 & AOS2!

Ionic Compounds
Metals donate electrons
Non-metals accept electrons
Lattice is held together by electrostatic force of attraction forms a strong bond
Bond between oppositely charged cations and anions
SOLID STATE: ions in fixed positions
LIQUID STATE: ions are free to move

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Solid under normal conditions
Strong electrostatic forces
High melting and boiling points
Electrostatic forces
Brittleness
Forces are directional; ions of same charge are aligned = repulsion
Non-conduction of electricity in solid state
Fixed positions
Electrical conduction when molten or dissolved in water
Free to move as a liquid
Regularly shaped crystals
Regular arrangement of particles

Other
Metal + Water = Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas
Electrical
Conductivity

Melting Point

Type of Bond

Ionic Compounds

Only when molten or

dissolved in water

HIGH

Strong electrostatic force. Free

electrons in molten or dissolved state

Metals

In solid state and

molten

HIGH

Metallic bond and electrostatic

attraction holds lattice together

Covalent Molecular
Compounds

No

LOW

Covalent bonds and weak

intermolecular forces make very weak

Covalent Lattices

Only covalent layer

lattices

VERY HIGH

Strong covalent bonds hold together

Free electrons to conduct

Glossary
Isomer: Compounds with the same formula but different arrangements of atoms in the
molecule
Isotope: Elements that have equal number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
and hence different relative atomic mass
HDPE: Has little branching, giving it stronger intermolecular forces. Also harder and
more opaque
LDPE: More branching, giving it weaker intermolecular forces. Also softer and less
dense
Allotropes: Different physical forms of the same element
Compound: A pure substance composed of atoms of two or more elements which have
chemically combined
Cross-links: Covalent links between polymer chains
Hydracarbon: An organic compound consisting of Hydrogen and Carbon