Dionisio, Charisse Elaine V.

August 13, 2015

CE-3/2011150701

Homework No. 2

Groundwater and Surface Water Contamination

Groundwater and surface water contamination occurs when man-made products
such as gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals get into the groundwater and
cause it to become unsafe and unfit for human use.
Materials from the land's surface can move through the soil and end up in the
groundwater. For example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into
groundwater supplies over time. Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites,
and used motor oil also may seep into groundwater. In addition, it is possible for
untreated waste from septic tanks and toxic chemicals from underground
storage tanks and leaky landfills to contaminate groundwater.
Potential Sources of Groundwater and Surface Water Contamination

Storage Tanks
May contain gasoline, oil, chemicals, or other types of liquids and they can
either be above or below ground. There are estimated to be over 10 million
storage tanks buried in the United States and over time the tanks can corrode,
crack and develop leaks. If the contaminants leak out and get into the
groundwater, serious contamination can occur.

Septic Systems
Onsite wastewater disposal systems used by homes, offices or other buildings
that are not connected to a city sewer system. Septic systems are designed to
slowly drain away human waste underground at a slow, harmless rate. An
improperly designed, located, constructed, or maintained septic system can leak
bacteria, viruses, household chemicals, and other contaminants into the
groundwater causing serious problems.

Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste sites can lead to groundwater contamination if there are
barrels or other containers laying around that are full of hazardous materials. If
there is a leak, these contaminants can eventually make their way down
through the soil and into the groundwater.

Landfills

Landfills are the places that our garbage is taken to be buried. Landfills are
supposed to have a protective bottom layer to prevent contaminants from
getting into the water. However, if there is no layer or it is cracked,
contaminants from the landfill (car battery acid, paint, household cleaners, etc.)
can make their way down into the groundwater.

Chemicals and Road Salts

The widespread use of chemicals and road salts is another source of potential
groundwater contamination. Chemicals include products used on lawns and
farm fields to kill weeds and insects and to fertilize plants, and other products
used in homes and businesses. When it rains, these chemicals can seep into the
ground and eventually into the water. Road salts are used in the wintertime to
put melt ice on roads to keep cars from sliding around. When the ice melts, the
salt gets washed off the roads and eventually ends up in the water.

Atmospheric Contaminants
Since groundwater is part of the hydrologic cycle, contaminants in other parts of
the cycle, such as the atmosphere or bodies of surface water, can eventually be
transferred into our groundwater supplies.
Effects of Contaminated Groundwater and Surface Water
Drinking contaminated groundwater can have serious health effects. Diseases
such as hepatitis and dysentery may be caused by contamination from septic
tank waste. Poisoning may be caused by toxins that have leached into well
water supplies. Wildlife can also be harmed by contaminated groundwater.
Other long term effects such as certain types of cancer may also result from
exposure to polluted water.
Water-borne diseases are infectious diseases spread primarily through
contaminated water. Though these diseases are spread either directly or
through flies or filth, water is the chief medium for spread of these diseases and
hence they are termed as water-borne diseases.
Most intestinal (enteric) diseases are infectious and are transmitted through
faecal waste. Pathogens which include virus, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic
worms are disease-producing agents found in the faeces of infected persons.
These diseases are more prevalent in areas with poor sanitary conditions. These
pathogens travel through water sources and interfuses directly through persons
handling food and water. Since these diseases are highly infectious, extreme
care and hygiene should be maintained by people looking after an infected

patient. Hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and typhoid are the more common waterborne diseases that affect large populations in the tropical regions.
A large number of chemicals that either exist naturally in the land or are added
due to human activity dissolve in the water, thereby contaminating it and
leading to various diseases.
Renovation
The most effective approach for cleaning up contaminated surface water is to
prevent further discharges from contaminated sources and enable natural
biological, chemical, and physical processes to break down the existing
contamination. In some surface water bodies where natural processes are not
enough to break down the contaminants, other cleanup approaches such as
mixing and aeration may be required to further promote natural cleanup. A
significant source of surface water contamination may be contaminated
sediments. Contaminated sediments generally contain persistent contaminants
and are difficult to clean up. Three main approaches to cleaning up
contaminated sediments are: 1) remove them by dredging; 2) place a cover
over them to prevent contact with the surface water; or 3) allow natural
processes to cover them or break them down over time. For contamination that
does not mix with surface water and floats on the surface, such as that
encountered during an oil spill, contamination can be removed by skimming it
from the surface using a "boom."
Water-borne epidemics and health hazards in the aquatic environment are
mainly due to improper management of water resources. Proper management
of water resources has become the need of the hour as this would ultimately
lead to a cleaner and healthier environment.
In order to prevent the spread of water-borne infectious diseases, people should
take adequate precautions. The city water supply should be properly checked
and necessary steps taken to disinfect it. Water pipes should be regularly
checked for leaks and cracks. At home, the water should be boiled, filtered, or
other methods and necessary steps taken to ensure that it is free from
infection.
Cases
Local
In 2007, a broad study was carried out by Greenpeace to investigate the quality
of various surface and ground water systems in four countries, including the
Philippines. Water from the systems investigated is known to be abstracted for

distribution as drinking water, generally following purification treatments that

include chlorination. Treated waters are supplied either via piped distribution
networks or as bottled water. However, many of these river and canal systems
also receive inputs of potentially contaminated wastewaters either from point
sources and/or diffuse run-off from agricultural land. These and other sources
may also be contributing to contamination of groundwater aquifers in their
vicinity, some of which are used untreated as drinking water.
For most of the areas examined, the primary identified point sources to the
surface waters were wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) that receive and
treat wastewaters from numerous industrial facilities located on adjacent
industrial estates (IE). The facilities on each industrial estate are involved in a
wide range of activities, though for all estates investigated in this study, a large
proportion of enterprises are electronic/electrical industries.
In two areas in the Philippines (Metro Manila and Bulacan) there are no major
wastewater point sources, though there are likely to be some inputs from
domestic and agricultural sources. A summary of the water systems in the
Philippines included in the study is given in the table below.

Area

River/can
al system

Major
wastewater
point source

Water
abstracted
for
distribution
to

Other
drinking
waters
analyzed

Metro
Manila

Angat-La
Domestic and Manila,
Groundwater
Mesa River agricultural
Caloocan City, (direct
system
sources
Quezon City
/treated
&
bottled)

LagunaPasig
River
Basin

San
River

LagunaPasig
River
Basin

Diezmo
and
San
Cristobel
Rivers

Bulacan

Angat River Domestic and Angat

/
Bustos agricultural
district,
Dam
sources
Tibagan
district

Juan Carmelray
Industrial Park
WWTP

Groundwater
Spring water

Light
Industrys
Science Park
WWTP

Groundwater
(direct
/treated)
water Groundwater
water

Table i: Water systems in the Philippines included in the study, with significant
point sources of wastewaters from industrial/municipal wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs), as well as surface and groundwater sources abstracted for
drinking water purposes
Samples of various types of waters were collected and analyzed for a range of
metals and organic chemical contaminants. These included surface waters at or
near locations where water is abstracted for use by water supply utilities, as
well as at locations of major wastewater inputs. Drinking water sourced from
certain surface water systems and supplied via piped networks was also
collected, as well as local groundwater that is used for drinking, either directly
or following treatment and supply as bottled water.
Two of the surface water systems investigated in the Philippines receive inputs
of treated industrial wastewater, though in neither case is water abstracted from
the rivers for use as drinking water. However, some groundwater is abstracted
in the vicinity of each site.
At one of these sites, the Light Industrys Science Park (LISP) 1 in Laguna, river
water collected immediately downstream from wastewater discharges contained
a range of chemical contaminants, particularly organic chemicals. These
included a range of chlorinated solvents, as well as potentially toxic and
irritating acrylate esters, the oestrogenic chemical nonylphenol and the
phthalate esters DEHP and DnDP, both of which are classified in the European
Union as toxic to the human reproduction system. Some of these same
chlorinated solvents (di-, tri- and tetrachloroethene) were also found in water
drawn from a groundwater source nearby, despite the fact that this water was
sampled after it had already been treated and distributed through a piped
network. One of two other groundwater samples collected in the vicinity of LISP
1 contained copper at a level slightly elevated above background, though far
below national drinking water limits. The source of elevated copper is not clear.
For the other industrial estate in the Laguna area, the Carmelray Industrial Park
II, very few industrial chemicals were found in wastewater discharged from the
WWTP. No organic chemicals were found in the two groundwater samples from
this area. However, one sample from a well within the Industrial Park contained
zinc at a level far higher than typical background levels, though significantly
below the national maximum drinking water level. The exact source of zinc to
this groundwater is not clear, though once again the possibility that activities
within the estate may be causing localized contamination of the groundwater
needs further investigation.

For the other two water systems that do not receive wastewater discharges
from large WWTPs, namely Metro Manila and Bulacan, no significant chemical
contamination was identified at locations where water is known to be abstracted
for use as raw water for drinking water supply. Nevertheless, volatile organic
chemicals and high levels of metals were found in some samples of tap water
sourced from these systems, and also in samples of groundwater from the two
areas. In Metro Manila, for example, one of three tap water samples contained
not only trihalomethanes derived as byproducts of chlorine disinfection, but also
traces of the chlorinated solvents trichloroethene and dichloropropene which are
likely to have arisen from industrial sources. None of these samples contained
high levels of metals. In the Bulacan area, one of two tap water samples
contained trihalomethanes as well as a relatively high level of zinc
(approximately half the national maximum drinking water level).
These
chemicals were not found in the surface waters used to supply raw water for
treatment for drinking water supplies.
A groundwater sample from close to the Metro Manila surface water system also
contained trihalomethanes and an elevated zinc level, which might possibly be
related to the nearby Payatas landfill. Bottled water purchased in Metro Manila
contained higher than usual levels of zinc and, once again, traces of the more
unusual contaminant bis(chlorophenyl)sulphone.
However, no chemical
contamination was found in the groundwater sample from the Bulacan area.
In short, in many of the cases in which contaminants have been found in
treated tap or bottled water, the river systems from which the raw water is
drawn for these supplies do not appear to be the source of these contaminants.
Instead, these may arise from materials used in the piping network (e.g. zinc,
and possibly bis(chlorophenyl)sulphone) and water treatment processes
employed (trihalomenthanes). At some locations, however, the results do
indicate localized contamination of groundwater aquifers, especially where
sources are located within or close to industrial estates. Further and more
detailed investigations would be necessary if the sources of this contamination
are to be determined.
Abroad

A bucket of water drawn from a

polluted well. India. Photo by
Blacksmith Institute.

Discolored polluted water. India.

Photo by Blacksmith Institute.

Polluted ground water especially

affects poor communities without
the resources to use other
sources. Bhiwadi, India. Photo by
Blacksmith Institute.

Global Warming / Climate Change

Our
Earth
is
warming. Earth's
average temperature has risen by
1.4F over the past century, and is
projected to rise another 2 to 11.5F
over the next hundred years. Small
changes in the average temperature of
the planet can translate to large and
potentially dangerous shifts in climate
and weather.
The evidence is clear. Rising global
temperatures have been accompanied
by changes in weather and climate. Many places have seen changes in rainfall,
resulting in more floods, droughts, or intense rain, as well as more frequent and
severe heat waves. The planet's oceans and glaciers have also experienced
some big changes - oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, ice caps are
melting, and sea levels are rising. As these and other changes become more
pronounced in the coming decades, they will likely present challenges to our
society and our environment.

Causes
Over the past century, human activities have released large amounts of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The majority of
greenhouse gases come from burning fossil fuels to produce energy, although
deforestation, industrial processes, and some agricultural practices also emit
gases into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases act like a blanket

around Earth, trapping energy in the
atmosphere and causing it to warm.
This
phenomenon
is
called
the
greenhouse effect and is natural and
necessary to support life on Earth.
However, the buildup of greenhouse
gases can change Earth's climate and
result in dangerous effects to human
health and welfare and to ecosystems.
The choices we make today will affect
the amount of greenhouse gases we put in the atmosphere in the near future
and for years to come.

Effects
Our lives are connected to the climate. Human societies have adapted to
the relatively stable climate we have enjoyed since the last ice age which ended
several thousand years ago. A warming climate will bring changes that can
affect our water supplies, agriculture, power and transportation systems, the
natural environment, and even our own health and safety.
Some changes to the climate are unavoidable. Carbon dioxide can stay in
the atmosphere for nearly a century, so Earth will continue to warm in the
coming decades. The warmer it gets, the greater the risk for more severe
changes to the climate and Earth's system. Although it's difficult to predict the
exact impacts of climate change, what's clear is that the climate we are
accustomed to is no longer a reliable guide for what to expect in the future.
We can reduce the risks we will face from climate change. By making
choices that reduce greenhouse gas pollution, and preparing for the changes
that are already underway, we can reduce risks from climate change. Our
decisions today will shape the world our children and grandchildren will live in.

We can make a difference

You can take action. You can take steps at

home, on the road, and in your office to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the
risks associated with climate change. Many of
these steps can save you money; some, such
as walking or biking to work can even improve
your health! You can also get involved on a
local or state level to support energy
efficiency, clean energy programs, or other
climate programs.

La Nina and El Nino

Sea surface temperatures play a major role in global weather and nowhere is
that more evident then in El Nino and La Nina patterns. These type of patterns
often lead to weather extremes, some of which can be seen in our own
backyards. Sea surface temperatures indicate that we'll have a La Nina this
winter, which could mean a season of weather extremes across parts of the
United States.
What is La Nina and El Nino?
La Nina is described as cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures in the
central and eastern Pacific Ocean, near the equator off the west coast of South
America. El Nino is like La Nina's brother, the totally opposite and attention
grabbing brother. This is described as warmer-than-normal sea surface
temperatures in the same area of the Pacific Ocean.

What Causes La Nina and El Nino?

Simply put, easterly trade winds over the equatorial Pacific Ocean are partly to
blame for both phenomenon. For La Nina, the easterly trade winds strengthen.
This blows more warm water west, and allows cold water below the ocean's
surface to push towards the top near the South American coast to replace the
warm water.
In an El Nino, the opposite occurs. The easterly trade winds become weaker,
and can even reverse direction. The warm Pacific Ocean becomes nearly
stationary or pushes eastward and gains heat. Besides affecting weather, El
Nino has also been known to hurt fishing off the coast of Peru.
What Does All of This Mean for the Weather?
We're already seeing affects of the building La Nina. A typical La Nina winter will
feature drier and milder conditions across the South, much like what we're
seeing in the current Southeast drought and elevated fire conditions. The Pacific
Northwest will become wetter than normal, while the Northeast will have cold
periods, but these are usually short lived.

In an El Nino winter, we see what we had last season. The southern branch of
the jet stream gets displaced across the Deep south, leading to wetter
conditions from Los Angeles to the Southeast. The Northeast typically has
stormy winters, which in the case of last season led to "Snowmageddon." Finally
the Northwest is typically milder.

In other parts of world, La Nina and El Nino can affect Asia's Monsoon's and
rainfall from Australia to Peru.
How Long Will This All Last?
Typically a La Nina lasts 9 to 12 months, while an El Nino will last roughly a
year. As for this year's La Nina, forecast models are indicating slight
strengthening through October and then a steady period in November and
December. All of the models have the La Nina weakening throughout the spring
and early summer.

Advanced Water Treatment

The purification processes

Currently, recycled water is used in the county for irrigation and industrial
purposes. The new purification center will purify water to such levels that it will
be suitable for a variety of future uses, including the potential future expansion
of drinking water supplies.

1. Microfiltration
The recycled water first goes through microfiltration, an initial filtration process
where water is pumped through tubes filled with tiny membranes. Each
membrane is made up of hollow fibers, perforated with holes 1/300th the width
of a human hair! Solids, bacteria, protozoa, and some viruses are removed from
the water as it is drawn through the tubes.
2. Reverse Osmosis
The water then goes through reverse osmosis where it is forced under high
pressure through membranes with holes so small that a water molecule is
almost the only substance that can pass through. As a result, constituents such
as salts, viruses, and most contaminants of emerging concern (e.g.
pharmaceuticals, personal care products and pesticides) cannot pass through
the membranes and are left behind. This is the same process that is used by
some bottled water companies, baby food manufacturers and for kidney
dialysis.
3. Ultraviolet Light
Now the water is very clean but as a further safety back-up, the water is sent
through ultraviolet light to break down any remaining trace organic compounds.
Ultraviolet light is a powerful disinfection process that creates water of a neardistilled quality.